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FROM    I'HK    LIBRARY   <  >F 

{jf    DR.     FRANCIS     L1EBER, 
Profep?or  of  History  nnd  Law  in  Columbia  Collcgo,  New  York. 

THJ-:  GIFT  OK 

MICHAEL    REESE, 

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"  Mr.  rumum  is  Buuweu  ..,  6... 
the  works  of  our  most  popular  writers.    Miss  Sedgwick  has  long  been   kdowu  «u  ^.pre- 
dated at  home  and  abroad,  and  her  numerous  admirers  will  rejoice  to  meet  with  this  edition 
of  her  earlier  works."—  Observer. 

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essential  service  to  the  cause  of  American  letters."—  Washington  Union. 

Fenimore  Cooper's  Works. 

Volumes  already  published.    $1  25  each. 
The  Spy.— The  Ways  of  the  Hour.— The  Pilot.— The  Red  Rover. 
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has  given  her '  the  privileges  of  a  native  author.'— Independent. 


§ 


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GEORGE  P.  PUTNAM'S  NEW  PUBLICATIONS, 


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><: 


Vs 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/europepastpresenOOungerich 


EUROPE 


PAST    AND    PRESENT: 

A  COMPREHENSIVE  MANUAL 


EUROPEAN    GEOGRAPHY   AND    HISTORY; 


SEPARATE    DESCRIPTIONS    AND    STATISTICS    OF    EACH    STATE, 


A   COPIOUS   INDEX, 

FACILITATING    REFERENCE   TO   EVERY    ESSENTIAL    FACT   IN   THE    HISTORY 
v  AND   PRESENT   STATE   OF    EUROPE. 


BY  FRANCIS  H.  UNGEWITTER,  LL.D, 


NEW    YORK: 
GEO.   P.   PUTNAM,    155    BROADWAY, 

AND  49  BOW  LANE,  CHEAPSIDE,  LONDON. 

1850. 


-  m 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1850, 

BY    G.    P.    PUTNAM, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


THOMAS    B.   SMITH,    8TEREOTYPER, 
216  WILLIAM  STREET,  N.  Y. 


PREFACE 


As  author  of/ several  extensive  geographical  works, 
which  have  been  successfully  published  in  Germany, 
my  native  country,  I  have  ventured  to  prepare  this  vol- 
ume with  the  view  of  offering  to  the  American  public  a 
guide  in  European  Geography  and  History. 

It  is  superfluous  to  say  that  the  value  of  such  a  work 
depends  entirely  upon  its  authenticity  and  accuracy : 
and  that  these  qualities  are,  especially  in  Germany,  es- 
sential to  success.  In  endeavoring  to  avoid  all  superficial 
and  unfounded  statements,  I  have  hoped  also  to  steer 
clear  of  pedantry  and  prolixity.  For  such  a  volume,  in 
the  present  state  of  popular  information,  I  should  not 
have  felt  justified  in  using  any  other  than  original  and 
authentic  materials. 

Fortunately,  materials  of  this  kind  are  not  at  all  lack- 
ing in  Europe.  First,  in  most  European  countries  an 
official  almanac  is  published  every  year,  which  contains 
more  or  less  copious  statistical    particulars  to  be   relied 


PREFACE. 


* 
• 


on.  Secondly,  a  census  is  taken  in  certain  periods, -not 
restricted  to  the  population  only,  but  extended  to  a  great 
variety  of  other  statistical  matters.  Thirdly,  there  is 
scarcely  a  European  state  without  its  special  geographi- 
cal and  historical  description,  written  by  a  native  scholar. 
Beside  these  abundant  materials,  the  official  parliamen- 
tary reports  and  documents  in  many  states  furnish  au- 
thentic statements  with  regard  to  the  public  finances, 
the  army,  the  navy,  etc.  Moreover,  I  have  visited  most 
of  the  European  countries,  and  have  thus  been  enabled 
to  fill  up  deficiencies  almost  inevitable  with  him  who 
knows  a  people  or  a  country  merely  by  books. 

The  index,  annexed  to  this  volume,  and  containing 
nearly  ten  thousand  names,  will  enable  the  reader  to  find 
readily  any  essential  fact  connected  with  European  geog- 
raphy or  history.  The  table  of  contents,  prefixed  to  the 
volume,  gives  at  once  a  clear  view  of  all  those  fifty-six 
states,  which  constitute  Europe  in  a  political  sense. 

The  arrangement  with  reference  to  the  mountain 
ranges,  rivers,  lakes,  etc.,  of  all  Europe,  by  compressing 
them  within  the  compass  of  one  common  description,  will 
perhaps  meet  with  the  approbation  of  the  reader  ;  tedi- 
ous repetitions  being  avoided  in  this  way.  Beside  this, 
the  introduction  contains  a  general,  yet  condensed  history 
of  Europe. 

Concerning  the  description  of  each  of  these  fifty-six 
European  states,  the  order  observed  is  thus:  first,  the 
statements    about    area    and    population,   surfaoe,    soil, 


PREFACE. 


natural  products,  manufactures,  commerce  and  trade, 
public  finances,  form  of  government,  strength  of  the 
army  and  (with  maritime  states)  of  the  navy,  and  the 
orders  of  honor;  secondly,  the  history;  and  thirdly,  the 
topography  of  the  state. 

Trusting  that  the  public  will  kindly  make  allowance 
for  my  want  of  an  elegant  English  style,  the  more  so 
as  until  the  last  year  I  never  had  any  suitable  oppor- 
tunity to  improve  in  it  practically,  I  sincerely  wish,  that 
for  the  rest  this  volume  may  answer  every  reasonable 
expectation  on  the  part  of  the  reader. 

F.  H.  UNGEWITTER. 

Nkw  York,  June  26th,  1850. 


+ 


CONTENTS. 


PAdl 

INTRODUCTION,  OR  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  EUROPE, 1 

The  Mountain  Ranges  of  Europe, 4 

Inland  Seas,  Bays,  Sounds,  Straits, 9 

Lakes  of  Europe, 10 

Rivers  of  Europe 12 

Independent  States  of  Europe, 21 

SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE, 23 

PORTUGAL, 62 

History  of  Portugal, 67 

SPAIN, 76 

History  of  Spain, 84 

ITALY, 99 

1.  The  Kingdom  of  Sardinia, 103 

2.  The  Kingdom  of  Lombardy  and  Venice, 115 

8.  The  Duchy  of  Parma, 115 

4.  The  Duchy  of  Modena, 117 

5.  The  Grand-Duchy  of  Tuscany,  (including  Lucca) 1 20 

6.  The  States  of  the  Church, 127 

7.  The  Republic  of  San  Marino, 136 

8.  The  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 137 

9.  Malta, 149 

SWITZERLAND, 151 

History  of  Switzerland, 154 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

FRANCE, 170 

History  of  France, 179 

The  Provinces  of  Isle  de  France,  Normandy,  Picardy, 182 

The  Provinces  of  Artois,  French  Flanders,  Champagne, 189 

The  Provinces  of  Lorraine  and  Alsace, 193 

The  Provinces  of  Burgundy  and  Franche  Comte, 199 

The  Provinces  of  Bourbonnais,  Nivernais  and  Berry, 203 

The  Provinces  of  Orleanais,  Touraine  and  Anjou, 205 

The  Provinces  of  Maine,  Perche  and  Brittany, 207 

The  Provinces  of  Poitou,  Aunis,  Angoumais,  La  Marche, 210 

The  Provinces  of  Limousin,  Auvergne  and  Lyonnais 213 

The  Provinces  of  Guyenne  and  Gascony 214 

The  Provinces  of  Navarre,  Beam,  Foix  and  Roussillon, 218 

The  Provinces  of  Languedoc  and  Dauphiny, 219 

The  Provinces  of  Provence,  Avignon  and  Corsica, 223 

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND, 227 

British  History, 232 

A.  The  Kingdom  of  England, 234 

B.  The  Kingdom  of  Scotland, 248 

C.  The  Kingdom  of  Ireland, 256 

THE  NETHERLANDS, 261 

1.  The  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands, .„ 265 

2.  The  Kingdom  of  Belgium, 275 

GERMANY, 284 

1.  German  Provinces  of  Austria, 309 

2.  German  Provinces  of  Prussia, 310 

3.  The  Kingdom  of  Bavaria, 311 

4.  The  Kingdom  of  Wirtemberg, 329 

5.  The  Grand-Duchy  of  Baden, 337 

6-7.  The  Principalities  of  Hohenzollern. 347 

8.  The  Principality  of  Liechtenstein, 350 

9.  The  Grand-Duchy  of  Hesse, 35I 

10.  The  Landgraviate  of  Hesse, 358 

11.  The  Duchy  of  Nassau, 360 

12.  The  Grand-Duchy  of  Luxemburg,  and  Duchy  of  Limburg 365 

13.  The  Electorate  of  Hesse, 368 

14.  The  Principality  of  Waldeck 375 

16.  The  Kingdom  of  Saxony, 3^6 

16.  The  Grand-Duchy  of  Saxe- Weimar, 386 

17.  The  Duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen, 38y 


CONTENTS.  ix 

PAGE 

1 8.  The  Duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 892 

19.  The  Duchy  of  Saxe-Altenburg 395 

20-21.  The  Principalities  of  Reuss, 397 

22-23.  The  Principalities  of  Schwarzburg > 399 

24-25.  The  Duchies  of  Anhalt, > 402 

26.  The  Grand-Duchy  of  Mecklenburg  Schwerin, 406 

27.  The  Grand-Duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 410 

28.  The  Duchies  of  Holstein  and  Lauenburg, 412 

29.  The  Grand-Duchy  of  Oldenburg, 420 

30.  The  Principality  of  Lippe-Detmold 427 

31.  The  Principality  of  Schaumburg-Lippe, 428 

32.  The  Kingdom  of  Hanover, 430 

33.  The  Duchy  of  Brunswick, 444 

34.  The  Free  City  of  Hamburg. . . . . 448 

35.  The  Free  City  of  Lubec, 451 

36.  The  Free  City  of  Bremen, 453 

37.  The  Free  City  of  Frankfort, 454 

THE  KINGDOM  OF  PRUSSIA, 457 

History  of  Prussia, 462 

• 

THE  AUSTRIAN  EMPIRE, 601 

1.  The  German  Provinces  of  Austria 508 

2.  The  Kingdom  of  Galicia 518 

3.  The  Kingdom  of  Hungary, 520 

4.  The  Grand-Duchy  of  Transylvania, 630 

6.  The  Military  Frontier, 533 

6.  The  Kingdom  of  Dalmatia, 534 

7.  The  Kingdom  of  Lombardy  and  Venice, 536 

DENMARK, 543 

1.  The  Danish  Islands, 549 

2.  Jutland, 552 

3.  The  Duchy  of  Sleswick, 554 

4.  The  Faroe  Isles, 557 

5.  Iceland, 559 

SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY, 562 

A.  The  Kingdom  of  Sweden, 567 

B.  The  Kingdom  of  Norway, 576 

RUSSIA  IN   EUROPE, & 579 

1.  Great  Russia, 590 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

2.  Little  Russia, 594 

8.  The  Baltic  Provinces 595 

4.  The  Grand-Duchy  of  Finland, 598 

5.  West,  or  Polish  Russia, 600 

6.  The  Kingdom  of  Poland, 603 

7.  The  Kingdom  of  Kasan, 607 

8.  The  Kingdom  of  Astrachan, 608 

9.  South  Russia, 610 

THE  IONIAN  ISLANDS, 614 

History  of  the  Ionian  Islands, 615 

GREECE, 617 

History  of  Greece, 619 

EUROPEAN   TURKEY 624 

1.  Roumelia, 628 

2.  Bulgaria, 629 

8.  Macedonia, 630 

4.  Thessalia, 631 

5.  The  Islands, 631 

6.  Albania, 632 

7.  Bosnia, 633 

8.  Tributary  Provinces, 634 

Se*™> 634 

Wallachia, 635 

Moldavia, 636 


EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT 


INTRODUCTION:  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  EUROPE. 

Area  of  Europe:  3,816,936  square  miles. 
Population  of  Europe  :  262,300,000  inhabitants. 

1.  Before  entering  upon  the  subject,  it  may  be  remarked  that 
most  of  the  statistical  statements  in  this  work,  especially  those 
concerning  the  population  of  states,  cities,  towns,  etc.,  correspond 
with  the  official  and  other  authentic  reports  from  the  beginning 
of  the  year  1848.  The  political  revolutions  which  since  have 
occurred  in  most  of  the  European  countries,  have  in  many  in- 
stances changed  the  state  of  things,  caused  numerous  emigrations, 
and,  at  all  events,  prevented  a  careful  investigation  in  statistical 
matters.  Moreover,  a  census  is  in  Europe  nowhere  taken  annu- 
ally, but,  for  instance,  in  France  every  fifth,  in  Germany  every 
third  year,  and  so  on.  However,  the  statements  in  this  work 
being  thoroughly  authentic,  they  will  afford  a  sure  stand-point 
with  regard  to  all  future  events,  until  matters  and  things  are 
completely  settled  again  in  Europe. 

2.  The  above-stated  area  of  3,816,936  square  miles,  is  distrib- 
uted as  follows : — 

Germany, 244,375  square  miles. 

The  Prussian  provinces  of  Prussia  and  Posen,      36,508        "  M 

Hungary,  Galicia,  etc.,  .        .  .  164,521 


EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 


Area  and  Population  of  each  country. 


Italy, v  119,706  square  miles. 

Switzerland, 15,815 

Holland  and  Belgium,   ....  24,644 

France,           .                 ■.  204,825 

Spain  and  Portugal,       ....  216,429 

British  Islands  (including  Guernsey,  etc.),  117,921 

Denmark  (including  Iceland),         .         .  49,927 

Sweden  and  Norway,    ....  293,280 

Russia  (in  Europe),        ....  2,099,903 

Ionian  Islands, 1,108 

Greece, 19,149 

Turkey  (in  Europe),       ....  209,422 

Total, 3,816,936 

Thus,  the  extent  of  Europe  is  almost  equal  to  that  of  the 
United  States,  and  of  Mexico,  put  together. 

3.  The  population  of  Europe,  is  distributed  as  follows : — 

Germany, 42,000,000  inhabitants. 

The  Prussian  provinces  of  Prussia  and  Posen,     3,865,000  " 

Hungary,  Galicia,  etc.,    .        .        .        .  20,082,000 

Ital7» 24,573,100 

Switzerland,    .        .        .        .        .        .  2,400,000 

Holland  and  Belgium,     ....  7,558,000          " 

France> 35,401,000 

SPain' 12,000,000 

ro«*&l 3,750,000 

British  Islands  (including  Guernsey,  etc.),  28,500,000          " 

Denmark  (including  Iceland),         .        .  1,800,000 

Sweden  and  Norway,      ....  4,650,000 

Russia  (in  Europe) 62,000,000 

Ionian  Islands, 220000          „ 

Greece> 1,000,000         - 

Turkey  (in  Europe),        ....  i2,500,000          « 

Tota^ '         '        •        •         •         .  262,299,100 


GENERAL   VIEW   OF   EUROPE. 


Density  of  Population — Boundaries — Climate. 


This  makes  a  population  of  about  70  inhabitants  to  a  square 
mile — the  highest  ratio  in  any  division  of  the  world.  For  Asia 
(including  the  Indian  Archipelago)  has  only  32,  Africa  has  13, 
America  (i.  e.,  North  and  South  America)  has  but  3,  and  Aus- 
tralasia and  Polynesia  have  no  more  than  1  inhabitant  on  a 
square  mile.  If  the  United  States,  whose  extent  (including 
Texas,  but  excluding  California)  is  estimated  at  2,620.000  square 
miles,  and  where,  upon  an  average,  at  present  only  9  souls  live  on 
a  square  mile,  were  as  thickly  settled  as  Europe,  they  would 
have  a  population  of  183,400,000  inhabitants  ;  and  not  less  than 
801,720.000,  if  the  proportion  were  like  that  of  Holland  aud 
Belgium,  where  the  population  is  306  to  a  square  mile. 

4.  The  most  northerly  point  of  the  European  continent  is 
North  Cape  (which  belongs  to  Norway),  N.  lat.  71°  11' ;  and  its 
most  southerly  point  is  Gibraltar,  N.  lat.  36°  7'.  Thus  these 
parallels  correspond  with  those  of  the  northern  part  of  Hudson's 
Bay,  and  of  Hillsboro,  or  Louisburg,  in  North  Carolina.  The 
distance  between  North  Cape  and  Gibraltar,  is  2,424  miles.  The 
most  easterly  point  of  Europe  is  Catharinburg  (at  the  frontier  of 
European  Russia  and  Siberia),  long.  60°  40'  E.  from  Greenwich ; 
and  its  most  westerly  point  is  Cape  Roxant  (belonging  to  Portu- 
gal), long.  9°  31'  W.  from  Greenwich  ;  and  the  distance  between 
these  two  extreme  points,  is  3,370  miles. 

5.  Europe  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  On  the  east  the  Ural  Mountains, 
the  Ural  River,  the  Bosphorus,  the  Dardanelles,  and  the  Archi- 
pelago, form  the  boundaries  towards  Asia ;  and  on  the  south, 
Europe  is  separated  from  Asia  by  the  Black  Sea,  and  from  Africa 
by  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

6.  The  climate  is  generally  much  warmer  than  in  the  same 
parallels  in  America  and  Asia,  and  the  difference  is  equivalent  to 
eight  or  ten  degrees  of  latitude.     This  may  be  accounted  for  by 


EUROPE,    PAST   AND    PRESENT. 


Surface.— Mountains :  Alp3— Pyrenees. 


the  almost  universal  cultivation  of  the  soil  in  Europe,  and  by  the 
absence  of  those  extensive  forests,  which  are  to  be  found  in 
America  and  Siberia. 

7.  In  the  north  (with  the  exception  of  European  Russia)  and 
in  the  south,  the  surface  is  generally  mountainous ;  but  in  the 
middle  parts  of  Europe,  plains,  here  and  there  intersected  by  ranges 
of  low  mountains  and  hills,  are  prevailing.  From  the  mouths  of 
the  Rhine,  an  immense  plain  runs  through  Holland,  the  north  of 
Germany,  the  provinces  of  West  and  East  Prussia,  Poland,  and 
Russia,  to  the  Ural  Mountains  ;  and  its  highest  elevation,  near 
the  sources  of  the  Volga,  Dnieper,  and  Don,  is  1,064  feet.  Other 
plains  of  smaller  extent  are  to  be  found  in  Hungary,  Wallachia, 
Lombardy,  France.  &c.  The  mountainous  regions  of  the  Euro- 
pean continent,  occupy  together  an  area  of  about  979,800  square 
miles.  The  most  remarkable  mountain  ranges  of  Europe  are  the 
following : — 

a.  The  Alps,  the  principal  chain  of  mountains  in  Europe,  occupying  an 
area  of  nearly  74,550  square  miles,  run  from  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  at  the  boundary  between  France  and  Italy,  through  Savoy,  Switzerland, 
Tyrol,  and  other  provinces  of  Austria,  to  the  western  parts  of  Turkey,  at  a 
distance  of  about  550  miles.  Several  regions  of  them  have  particular  names, 
as,  Maritime  Alps  (nearest  to  the  coast),  Cottian  Alps  (with  the  Pelvoux  de 
Vallouise),  Gray  Alps  (between  Savoy  and  Piedmont),  Pe?inine  Alps  (with 
the  Mont  Blanc),  Lepontine  Alps  (with  the  Mount  Rosa),  etc.  The  highest 
peaks  of  the  Alps,  are:  the  Mont  Blanc  (in  Savoy,  15,668  feet  high),  Mount 
Rosa  (in  Savoy,  but  near  the  frontier  of  Switzerland,  15,527  f.),  Finsteraar- 
horn  (in  Switzerland,  14,325  f.),  Pelvoux  de  Vallouise  (on  the  French  territory, 
14,044  f.),  Jungfrau  (or  Virgin,  13,730  f),  Schrcckhorn  (13,310  f— the  two 
latter  in  Switzerland),  Ortles  (in  Tyrol,  13,065  f),  Watmann  (in  Bavaria, 
9,150  f.),  and  Terglou  (in  Carinthia,  10,194  f.  high). 

6.  The  Pyrenees  separate  France  from  Spain,  running  in  an  almost  westerly 
direction  from  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  to  that  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 
The  highest  peaks  of  this  mountain  range,  are:  the  Maladetta  (11,436  f.), 
Mont  Perdu  (10,482  f.),  and  Pico  Las  Posets  (10,584  f.)  on  the  Spanish  side, 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  EUROPE. 


Mountains  :  Sierra  Nevada — Appenines— Carpathians,  etc. 

and  the  Marbore  (10,374  f.),  Vignemale  (10,350  f),  Piclong  (9,972  f),  and 
Canigou  (8,800  f.)  on  the  French  side. 

c.  The  Sierra  Nevada,  the  principal  mountain  range  of  Spain,  covers  chiefly 
that  part  of  the  country  commonly  called  Upper  Andalusia,  or  the  province 
of  Granada.  Its  highest  peaks  are  the  Cumbre  de  Mulhaccn  (11,678  f.),  and 
Picacho  de  Veleta  (11,200  f).  One  branch  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  running  in 
the  direction  of  Cadiz,  and  ending  in  Cape  Trafalgar,  is  partly  named  Alpu- 
jarras,  partly  Surra  de  Ronda.  Parallel  with  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  in  the 
direction  of  Algarve  (the  southern  province  of  Portugal),  runs  the  Sierra 
Morena,  which,  in  Portugal,  bears  the  name  of  Sierra  Monchique.  Other 
mountain  ranges  in  Spain,  are  the  Cantabrian  and  Iberian  Mountains,  the 
Sierra  de  Cuenca,  Sierra  de  Guadarama,  and  Sierra  de  Guadalupe. 

d  The  Apennines  skirt  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  and  run  south-east  to  the  south 
extremity  of  Italy.  They  bear  particular  names,  according  to  their  local 
position.  Ligurian  Apennines  (with  the  Monte  Chnone,  in  the  Duchy  of 
Modena,  6,778  feet  high),  Etruscan  Apennines,  Roman  Apennines  (with  the 
Monte  di  Sibylla,  7,038  f),  Neapolitan  Apennines,  and  Abruzzi  (in  the 
northern  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  with  the  Gran  Sasso  d'Ralia.  9,577 
f.  high).  The  volcano  Mount  Vesuvius,  near  Naples,  is  3,932  feet  high.  On 
the  island  of  Sicily  are,  besides  the  volcano  Mount  Etna  or  Monte  Gibello 
(10,870  f.  high),  to  be  noted  the  Callata  bellata  (3,699  f),  Cuceio  (3,329  f), 
and  Scudery  (3,190  f);  on  the  island  of  Sardinia,  the  Gennargentu  (5,630  f), 
and  Gigantinu  (3,744  f.) ;  and  on  the  island  of  Corsica,  the  Monte  Rotondo 
(8,500  f),  Pagalia  Orba  (8,100  f),  and  Cinto  (7,900  f). 

e.  The  Carpathes,  forming  the  boundary  between  Hungary  and  Galicia, 
run  in  a  south-easterly  direction  from  the  sources  of  the  Oder  River  to  the 
Danube.  The  western  part  bears  the  particular  name  of  the  Beskides,  the 
middle  part  that  of  the  Carpathes  Proper  or  Tatra  Mountains,  and  the  south- 
east part,  comprising  Transylvania,  Upper  Hungary,  and  the  north  of  Walla- 
chia,  is  called  the  Highland  Erdely.  The  highest  peaks  of  the  Carpathian 
Mountains  are,  the  Ruska  Poyana  (9,912  f.),  Gailuripi  (9,000  f),  Lomnitzer 
Spitze  (Peak  of  Lomnitz,  8,316  f.),  and  Krivan  (7,818  f).  The  highest  peak 
of  the  Beskides  in  particular,  is  the  Babia  Gura,  which  rises  to  5,420  feet. 

/.  The  Scandinavian  Mountains  form,  for  a  great  part,  the  boundary  be- 
tween Sweden  and  Norway,  where  they  are  called  Kblen  (literally,  the  Keel). 
Near  Roeraas,  in  Norway,  the  chief  branch  of  the  range,  running  south-west, 
the  name  of  Dovre-fjeld  (fjeld  has  the  signification  of  Alpine  range), 


EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Mountains :  in  Turkey,  France,  Germany. 


and  its  highest  peak  is  here  the  Skagastoeltind  (8,400  f.).  Other  peaks  of  the 
Skaudinavian  Mountains,  are  the  Sncehcetta  (8,122  f.),  an  1  Sulitehna  (6,840  f.). 

g.  The  Balkan  or  Haemus,  running  east  through  the  midst  of  Turkey,  rises 
to  the  height  of  no  more  than  3,000  feet,  and  is  thoroughly  covered  with 
extensive  forests.  Among  its  five  passes,  those  of  Schumla  are  renowned  in 
military  history.  Another  mountain  ran^e  in  Tin-key,  and  partly  in  Greece, 
is  the  Pindus,  rising  to  the  height  of  more  than  5,000  fiet,  and  some  of  its 
divisions  are  called  the  Bora,  Mczzovo,  and  Agrapha  Mountains. 

h.  In  France  are,  besides  the  Pyrenees,  to  be  noted :  the  Jura  Mountains, 
forming  the  boundary  between  France  and  Switzerland  (with  the  Reculet, 
5,280  £,  and  Grand  Colombier,  5,220  f.,  on  the  French  side ;  and  with  the 
Dole,  5,147  t,Mont  Tendre,  5,170  f.,  Chasseron,  4,976  f.,  Crenx  du  Vent,  4,512 
f.,  and  Tete  de  Rang,  4,384  f.,  on  the  side  of  Switzerland);  the  Sevennes, 
commencing  near  the  east  end  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  running  north,  form  the 
dividing  ridge  between  the  valleys  of  the  Rhone  and  Loire  (their  highest 
summits  are,  the  Mezin  of  6,162  £,  Lozere  of  5,584  f.,  Tarare  of  4,350  f.,  and 
PUat  of  3,696  f.  in  height) ;  the  Mountains  of  Auvergne,  branching  from  the 
Sevennes  and  running  north-west,  form  the  dividing  ridge  between  the  valleys 
of  the  Loire  and  the  Garonne;  their  principal  part  is  known  by  the  name  of 
Mont  Dure,  and  their  highest  peaks,  commonly  called  Puy,  are :  Puy  de  Sancy 
(5,838  f.)t  Puy  de  Lome  (4,548  f.),  and  Plomb  de  Cantal  (5,718  f.) ;  the  Vosges, 
running  parallel  with  the  Rhine,  separate  the  provinces  of  Lorraine  and  Alsace, 
and  rise  to  4,400,  4,300,  3,900,  and  3,100  feet,  in  the  Ballon  de  Sulz,  Tete 
<T Ours,  Ballon  d' Alsace,  and  Grand  Donnon  (branches  at  the  north  end  of 
the  Vosges,  bear  the  names  of  Monts  de  Faucille  and  Hardt  Mountains,  the 
latter  with  the  Mont  de  Tonnere,  2,035  £  high) ;  the  Cote  d'Or  (in  the  prov- 
ince of  Burgundy),  and  Mokwan  Mountains  (on  the  high  road  between  Paris 
and  Lyons),  rise  to  1,842  and  2,000  feet;  lastly,  the  Ardennes,  running  from 
the  northern  parts  of  Champagne  to  Luxemburg,  are  woody  hills  rising  to 
1,800  feet,  and  part  of  them  are  called  the  Argonnes. 

i.  The  highest  mountain  range  in  the  north  of  Germany,  are  the  Sudetes, 
or  Sudelic  Mountains,  along  the  southern  frontier  of  Silesia,  with  different 
divisions  and  names.  The  Sudetic  Mountains  proper  form  the  boundary 
between  Austrian  Silesia  and  Moravia  (with  the  Altvater  4,640  f.,  and  the 
Great  Schneeberg  or  Snow-peak,  4,400  f.  high).  The  Riesengebirge,  or  Giants' 
Mountains,  form  the  boundary  between  Silesia  and  Bohemia,  (with  the  Riesen, 
or  Schneekoppe,  5,056  f.,  the  Great  Sturmhaube,  4,540  £,  Little  Sturmhaube, 


GENERAL   VIEW  OF   EUROPE. 


Mountains  of  Germany. 


4,400  f.,  and  Great  Rod,  or  Wheel,  4,707  f.),  and  the  Lusatian  Mountains 
(with  the  Jeschken,  3,140  f.,  and  Lausche,  2,460  f.),  form  the  boundary  between 
Lusatia  and  Bohemia.  Other  divisions  of  the  Sudetes  are :  the  Moravian 
Mountains,  (between  Moravia  and  Bohemia),  the  Habehchwerdt  Mountains 
(in  Silesia),  the  Eulen-Gebirge,  or  Owl  Mountains,  (with  the  Hohe  Eule,  3,08  :i 
f.,  in  Silesia),  and  Heuscheuer  Gebirge,  or  Haybarn  Mountains  (partly  in 
Silesia,  partly  in  Bohemia).  Between  Breslau  and  the  Eulen-Gebirge,  mm 
the  Zobtenberg  to  2,280  feet 

j.  Other  mountain  ranges  in  Germany,  are :  the  Boehmeewald  Mountains, 
which  form  the  boundary  between  Bohemia  and  Bavaria,  and  rise  to  4,000 
and  4,500  £ ;  the  Erzgebirge,  or  Ore  Mountains,  which  form  the  boundary 
between  Bohemia  and  Saxony,  and  rise  to  3,870  f.  (in  the  Somienwirbel), 
3,732  f.  (Kleine  or  Little  Fichtelberg),  and  3,721  £  (Grosse  or  Great  Fichtcl- 
bcrg);  the  Fichtel-Gebirge,  in  the  north-east  part  of  Bavaria,  with  the 
Sch.ieeberg,  3,221  f.,  and  OcJisenkopf,  3,123  £;  the  Black  Forest  (Schwarz- 
wald),  partly  belonging  to  Wirtemberg,  but  chiefly  occupying  the  southern 
part  of  Baden ;  it  is  covered  with  gloomy  pine  forests  (hence  its  name),  and 
its  middle  elevation  is  between  3,000  and  3,500  feet ;  although  the  Feldberg 
and  Belchen  (both  in  Baden),  rise  to  4,650  and  4,397  feet ;  the  Au  (which 
has  nothing  in  common  with  the  Alps  in  Switzerland  and  Italy),  in  Wirtem- 
berg, where  it  is  commonly  called  Swabian  Alp  (with  the  Ober-Hohenberg, 
3,160  £,  Schafberg,  3,121  f.,  and  Plattenberg,  3,100  f.),  and  partly  Rauhe 
(rough)  Alp,  and  then  running  north-east  through  Bavaria,  by  the  name  of 
Franconian  Alp;  the  Odenwald,  branching  from  the  Black  Forest  and 
running  north  through  Hesse  Darmstadt  (with  the  Katzenbuckel,  2,180  f., 
and  Malchen,  or  Melibocus,  1,690  £);  parallel  with  it  runs  on  its  western  side 
the  so-called  Bergstrasse,  between  Prankfort  and  Heidelberg ;  the  Spessart, 
between  Aschaffenburg  and  Wurtzburg,  in  Bavaria,  with  an  elevation  not 
exceeding  1,900  feet,  and  having  in  its  neighborhood  the  inferior  ranges  of  the 
Hass- Gebirge,  and  the  Steigerwald;  the  Rhoen-Gebirge,  on  the  north-west 
boundary  of  Bavaria,  with  the  Holy  Kreuzberg  (2,856  f.),  Dammersfeld  (2,840 
f.),  and  Beierberg  (2,264  f);  to  the  westward,  in  Hesse  Darmstadt,  is  to  be 
noted  the  range  of  the  Vogelsberg,  with  an  elevation  of  2,388  feet;  the 
Thuringerwald  (Forest  of  Thnringid),  forming  the  boundary  between 
Bavaria  and  the  Saxon  Duchies,  with  the  Beerberg  (3,064  f.),  Schneekopf 
(3,043  £),  Inselsberg  (2,855  £),  and  Kickelhahn  (2,643  f.) ;  its  eastern  extrem- 
ity is  called  the   Frankenwald ;  the  Hartz,  a  more  or  less  isolated  mountain 


EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Mountains  of  Great  Britain,  Iceland,  Russia. 


range,  occupying  the  south  of  Hanover,  part  of  Brunswick,  and  part  of  the 
Prussian  province  of  Saxony ;  it  has  its  highest  elevation  in  the  Brocken  or 
Blocksberg  (3,500  f.),  and  that  part  situated  on  the  west  side  of  the  Brocken 
is  called  Upper  Hartz,  and  the  other  part  is  called  Lower  Hartz ;  the  Huns- 
ni'CKEN,  or  Hundsruck  (dog's  back),  a  rough  and  woody  table-land  between 
Treves  and  Coblentz,  rising  to  2,263  feet  in  the  Idarkopf;  the  Eifel,  between 
Aix  la  Chapelle  and  Treves,  rising  to  2,260  feet;  the  Taunus,  in  Nassau,  with 
the  Greut  Feldberg  (2,605  f.),  and  Altkonig  (2,400  f.);  the  Westerwald, 
partly  in  Nassau,  partly  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Westphalia ;  its  north- 
west slope  is  formed  by  the  Siebengebirge,  or  Seven  Hills,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  opposite  to  Bonn ;  the  Osning,  or  Teutoburger  Wald,  in  Lippe- 
Dctmold ;  the  Wesergebirge,  or  Weser  Mountains,  along  the  Weser  River. 
Other  inferior  or  hilly  ranges,  are :  the  Habichtswald,  near  Cassel,  the  Sollin- 
ger  Wald,  the  Deister,  and  Suntel,  in  Hanover. 

k.  The  principal  mountain  ranges  in  Great  Britain,  are :  the  Grampian 
Hills  (with  the  Ben  Lawers,  4,051  f,  Ben  Nevis,  4,379  f,  and  Cairngorm, 
4,050  f.),  running  from  the  head  of  the  frith  of  Clyde,  north-east  through  the 
centre  of  Scotland ;  and  the  Cheviot  Hills,  on  the  southern  boundary  of 
Scotland  The  highest  peaks  in  England  are,  the  Wharnside  (4,052  f.),  and 
Ingleborough  (3,987  f.),  and,  in  Wales,  the  Snowdon  (3,568  I),  and  Cader  Idris 
(3,550  f.). 

I.  Iceland— this  rocky  island  on  the  borders  of  the  frigid  zone,  is  almost 
entirely  covered  with  volcanoes,  among  them  the  celebrated  Mount  Hecla, 
rising  to  5,210  feet.  The  highest  peaks  of  the  island  are,  the  Oeraefe-Joekul 
(6,240  f.),  and  the  Oester-Joekul,  or  Eyjafialle-Joekul  (5,794  f.). 

m.  In  European  Russia  is  only  to  be  noted  the  Tauric  Mountains,  in 
Crimea,  rising  to  4,740  feet  in  the  Tschadyrdagh.  The  Wolchonsky  Forest, 
between  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow,  is  nothing  else  but  a  ridge  of  low  hills, 
not  exceeding  1,000  f.  in  height;  although  the  Volga  and  other  mighty  rivers 
have  their  sources  here.  The  Ural  and  Caucasus  Mountains  belong  to  Asiatic 
Russia. 

8.  The  Northern  and  Atlantic  Oceans,  by  which  Europe  is 
bounded  on  the  north  and  west,  penetrate  in  many  parts  of  the 
continent,  thus  forming  a  great  number  of  peninsulas,  bays,  and 
inland  seas.     The  most  remarkable  of  the  latter,  formed  by  the 


GENERAL   VIEW  OF  EUROPE. 


Inland  Seas,  Bays,  Sounds,  Straits. 


Arctic  Ocean,  is  the  White  Sea,  which  penetrates  the  northern 
coast  of  Russia  to  the  extent  of  276  miles. 

The  principal  inland  seas,  bays,  etc.,  formed  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  are  the  following : — 

The  North  Sea,  which  separates  the  British  Islands  from  the 
European  continent,  and  has  an  extent  nearly  equal  to  that  of 
Germany.  A  branch  of  the  North  Sea,  called  Skagerack,  and  69 
miles  wide,  separates  the  Danish  peninsula  of  Jutland  from 
Norway;  the  then  following  Cattegat  (about  140  miles  long  and 
70  wide),  separates  Jutland  from  Sweden ;  and  the  following 
three  channels,  or  straits,  lead  from  the  Cattegat  into  the  Baltic 
Sea,  viz. :  the  Oeresound,  commonly  called  Sound  (between  Zealand 
and  Sweden),  the  Great  Belt  (between  Funen  and  Zealand),  and 
the  Little  Belt  (between  Sleswick  and  Funen). 

The  Baltic  Sea,  with  an  extent  of  135,680  square  miles,  and 
surrounded  by  Sweden,  Russian,  Prussian,  German,  and  Danish 
countries,  is,  between  Ystad  and  the  island  of  Rugen,  only  53 
miles  wide.  Two  gulfs  set  up  from  the  Baltic :  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia,  between  Sweden  and  Finland,  and  the  Gulf  of  Finland, 
between  Finland  and  Esthland.  Inferior  to  them  in  extent  is  the 
Gulf  of  Riga,  before  the  mouth  of  the  Duna  River.  Between 
Tilsit  and  Memel  is  the  Curische  Haff,  or  Sea,  almost  entirely 
enclosed  by  a  long  and  small  tongue  of  land,  with  a  narrow  pass- 
age into  the  Baltic.  Other  seas  of  the  same  kind,  are  the  Fresh 
Haff,  before  the  mouths  of  the  Pregel  and  other  rivers,  and  the 
Great  and  Little  Haff,  before  the  mouth  of  the  Oder. 

A  great  inland  sea,  or  bay,  in  the  north  of  Holland,  is  the 
Zuyder  Zee,  90  miles  long,  and  45  miles  wide.  Far  inferior  to  it 
in  extent  is  the  Dollart,  before  the  mouth  of  Ems  River. 

The  Strait  of  Dover,  separating  England  from  France,  is  about 
27  miles  wide ;  and  the  well-known  English  Channel,  is,  upon  an 
average.  70  miles  wide. 

1* 


10  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Seas,  Channels,  Straits,  Lakes. 

St.  George's  Channel  separates  Ireland  from  England  and 
Wales ;  at  its  south  end  is  to  be  noted  the  Bristol  Channel,  be- 
fore the  mouth  of  Severn  River,  and  at  its  north  end  the  North 
Channel,  which  separates  Ireland  from  Scotland. 

Between  the  French  peninsula  of  Bretagne,  and  the  northern 
coast  of  Spain,  is  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  about  345  miles  wide. 

A  narrow  passage,  connecting  the  Atlantic  Ocean  with  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  is  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  which  separates 
Spain  from  Africa. 

The  Mediterranean  Sea,  separating  Europe  from  Africa,  and 
on  the  east  bordered  by  Asia,  has  an  extent  of  1,01 1,750  square 
miles,  and  is  2,415  long,  while  its  breadth  is  very  different. 
Before  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone,  is  the  Gulf  of  Lyons,  and  before 
the  city  of  Genoa,  the  Gulf  of  Genoa.  The  Strait  of  Bonifacio 
separates  the  islands  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  and  the  Strait  of 
Messina  separates  the  island  of  Sicily  from  continental  Italy. 
At  the  south-east  extremity  of  Italy,  is  the  Gulf  of  Taranto ; 
farther  to  the  east,  the  Strait  of  Otranto  separates  Italy  from 
Turkey,  and  connects  the  Ionian  Sea  (between  the  Ionian 
Islands  and  Sicily)  with  the  Adriatic  Sea,  which  latter  separates 
Italy  from  Dalmatia,  and  whose  extent  is  estimated  at  nearly 
63,900  square  miles.  The  Grecian  Archipelago  separates  Greece 
and  European  Turkey  from  Asia  Minor,  and  is  connected  by  the 
Dardanelles  Strait,  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  and  the  Bosphorus  Strait, 
with  the  Black  Sea,  the  extent  of  which  is  computed  at  182,1 15 
square  miles.  The  Strait  of  Jenikale  connects  the  Black  Sea 
with  the  Sea  of  Azof,  before  the  mouth  of  the  Don. 

9.  The  most  remarkable  lakes  are  in  the  north  of  Europe,  and 
in  the  region  of  the  Alps. 

In  Russia  are  to  be  noted :  Lake  Ladoga,  east  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and 
in  the  neighborhood  of  St.  Petersburg ;  its  extent,  computed  at  6,220  square 
miles,  exceeds  that  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony ;  Lake  Onega,  east  of  the  former, 


GENERAL   VIEW   OF   EUROPE.  11 


Lakes. 


with  an  extent  of  4,260  square  miles ;  Lake  llnien,  28  miles  long  and  20  wide, 
in  the  province  of  Novogorod ;  Lake  Saima,  about  40  miles  long  and  wide,  in 
Finland. 

In  Sweden,  which  abounds  in  lakes,  are  to  be  noted :  Lake  Wener,  not 
very  far  from  Gottenburg,  with  an  extent  of  2,130  square  miles;  Lake  Wetter, 
in  the  midst  of  the  country,  celebrated  for  its  romantic  environs,  and  remark- 
able by  its  extraordinary  depth,  is  100  miles  long,  and  betweeu  14  and  28 
miles  wide;  Lake  Maelar,  near  Stockholm,  contains  about  1,800  islands  and 
islets,  with  many  handsome  mansions  and  castles  on  them ;  Lake  Hjelmar,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  former,  46  miles  long  and  20  wide;  Lake  Star 
(literally,  Great  Lake),  in  the  province  of  Jemtland,  and  Lake  Silja,  in  the 
province  of  Dalarne. 

In  Norway,  are  Lake  Mjos  (north  of  Christiana,  83  miles  long  and  11 
wide),  and  Lake  Faemund  (at  the  frontier  of  Sweden,  about  40  miles  long). 

On  the  boundary  of  Switzerland  and  Germany,  is  the  Lake  of  Constance, 
37  miles  long  and  about  9  wide.  Three  bays  set  up  from  it,  and  are  called 
Ueberlingen,  Lower,  and  Zeller  Lakes. 

On  the  confines  of  Switzerland  and  Savoy,  is  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  42 
miles  long  and  7  wide. 

In  Switzerland  are  to  be  noted:  the  Lake  of  Neufchatel,  18  miles  long 
and  about  5  wide,  in  the  canton  of  Neufchatel ;  Lake  of  Biel,  in  the  canton  of 
Bern ;  Lake  of  Thun,  in  the  canton  of  Bern ;  Lake  of  Luzerne,  in  the  centre 
of  Switzerland ;  Lake  of  Zurich,  surrounded  by  the  cantons  of  Zurich,  St. 
Gall,  and  Schwy tz ;  and  Lake  of  Lugano,  in  the  canton  of  Tesino. 

The  most  remarkable  lakes  of  Italy  are :  Lake  Maggiore,  in  Lombardy 
and  Piedmont,  37  miles  long  and  about  8  wide ;  Lake  Como,  in  Lombardy, 
32  miles  long ;  Lake  di  Gar  da,  east  of  the  former ;  Lake  of  Perugia,  in  the 
States  of  the  Church. 

In  Hungary,  are  the  Lake  of  Balaton,  or  Platten-See  (in  Lower  Hungary, 
46  miles  long),  and  Lake  of  Neusiedl,  near  the  frontier  of  Austria. 

In  Germany  are  to  be  noted :  the  Lakes  of  Gmunden,  of  Ossiach,  of  Cla- 
genfurt,  and  of  Cirknitz,  in  Austria ;  the  Lakes  of  Chiem,  of  Starenberg,  and 
of  Tegern,  in  Bavaria ;  of  Muritz,  Schwerin,  and  Malchin,  in  Mecklenburg ; 
of  Ploen,  in  Holstein,  and  Lake  of  Madue,  in  Prussia, 

In  Holland  is  the  Haarlem  Lake,  covering  a  tract  of  33,000  acres. 

In  Scotland  are  to  be  noted :  the  Loch  Lomond  (23  miles  long  and  9 


12  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Rivers. 


wide),  Loch  Ness  (20  miles  long),  and  Loch  Awe  ;  in  Ireland,  Lough  Neagh 
(18  miles  long)  ;  and  in  England,  Lake  Winandcr  (14  miles  long). 
In  the  other  countries  of  Europe,  are  no  remarkable  lakes  to  be  found. 

10.  Among  the  rivers  of  Europe,  ranks,  foremost,  the  Volga; 
next  in  length  is  the  Danube;  then  follow  the  Dnieper,  Don, 
Rhine,  etc.  We  describe  the  course  and  tributaries  of  the  prin- 
cipal rivers  of  Europe  in  the  following  order  : — 

Through  Russia  flow :  the  Volga,  having  its  head  in  the  Wolchonsky  Forest 
(see  §  7,  m.),  and  a  length  of  course  of  2,166  miles,  and  emptying  by  about 
70  outlets  into  the  Caspian  Sea.  Its  chief  branches  are  the  Oka,  Sura, 
Mologa,  Kostronia,  Wetluga,  and  Kama. 

The  Dnieper  (the  Borystheties  of  the  ancients),  having  its  sources  in  the 
province  of  Smolensk,  and  a  length  of  course  of  1,209  miles,  and  emptying,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Odessa,  into  the  Black  Sea,  forming  there  the  Gulf  of 
Liman.  Its  chief  branches  are  the  Beresina,  Pripet,  Bog,  Desna,  and  Sa- 
mara (the  latter  is  by  the  Cossacks  called  the  Holy  River). 

The  Don  (in  ancient  times  Tanais) :  its  sources  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Tula,  its  length  of  course  1,081  miles,  emptying  into  the  Sea  of  Azof.  Its 
chief  branches  are  the  Choper  and  Donez. 

The  Dniester  (in  ancient  times  called  Tyras,  or  Danastris) :  its  sources  in 
the  Carpathian  Mountains,  not  far  from  Lemberg ;  its  length  506  miles,  and 
emptying  into  the  Black  Sea,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Dnieper. 

The  Kuban  (by  Herodotus  called  Hypanis,  by  Ptolemy  Vardanes,  and  by 
the  Genoese,  in  the  middle  ages,  Copa) ;  its  sources  in  the  Caucasus  Mountains ; 
its  length  473  miles,  and  emptying  by  one  outlet  into  the  Sea  of  Azof,  and  by 
another  into  the  Black  Sea. 

The  Terek,  having  its  sources  in  the  Caucasus  Mountains,  and  emptying 
into  the  Caspian  Sea. 

The  Petschora:  its  sources  in  the  Ural  Mountains;  its  length  690  miles; 
its  mouth  in  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The  Mezen  :  its  sources  in  the  province  of  Wologda  ;  its  length  552  miles ; 
its  mouth  in  the  White  Sea. 

The  Dwina:  its  head  in  the  province  of  Wologda;  its  length  736  miles; 
its  mouth  in  the  White  Sea.  Its  chief  branches  are  the  Wytschegda,  Pinega 
and  Waqa. 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  EUROPE.  13 

Rivera. 

The  Onega,  having  its  sources  in  the  province  of  Olonetz,  and  emptying  into 
the  White  Sea. 

The  Kemi,  having  its  sources  in  Finland,  and  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia. 

The  Newa,  issuing  from  the  Lake  Ladoga,  and  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of 
Finland,  has  a  length  of  only  39  miles,  but  is  at  St.  Petersburg  from  1,800  to 
2,400  feet  wide. 

The  Duna,  rising  near  the  sources  of  the  Volga,  has  a  length  of  644  miles, 
and  flows,  below  Riga,  into  the  Gulf  of  Riga. 

The  Tornea,  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  forms  the  boundary 
between  Russia  and  Sweden. 

The  Niemen  rises  in  the  Russian  province  of  Minsk,  has  a  length  of  530 
miles,  and  crossing  Prussia,  where  it  receives  the  name  of  Memel,  empties 
into  the  Curische  Haff  (see  §  8). 

Poland  and  Prussia  are  crossed  by  the  Vistula,  which  rises  at  the  frontier 
of  Austrian  Silesia,  has  a  length  of  681  miles,  is  in  Prussia  from  1,000  to 
2,000  feet  wide,  and  empties  into  the  Baltic  Sea  by  two  outlets,  of  which  the 
eastern  is  called  Nogat.  The  chief  branches  of  the  Vistula  are  the  Bug,  San, 
Wieprz,  Drewenz,  Ossa,  Pilica,  and  Mottlau. 

Through  Prussia  flow :  the  Pregel,  in  East  Prussia,  empties  into  the  Fresh 
Haff  [see  §  8]. 

The  Passarge,  in  East  Prussia,  empties  into  the  same  HafF. 

The  Persante  and  the  Rega,  in  Pomerania,  emptying  into  the  Baltic  Sea. 

The  Oder,  which  rises  in  the  Sudetic  Mountains,  at  the  frontier  of  Moravia, 
crosses  Silesia,  Brandenburg,  and  Pomerania,  and  empties,  below  Stettin, 
into  the  Great  HafF,  which,  by  the  Peene,  Swine,  and  Divenow,  is  connected 
with  the  Baltic  Sea.  Its  length  is  616  miles.  The  chief  tributary  of  the  Oder 
is  the  Warthe,  into  which  flows  the  Netze.  Other  branches  are  the  Oppa,  the 
Silesian,  and  the  Lusatian  Neisse,  the  Ohlau,  Katzbach,  Bober,  Olsa,  Klod- 
nitz,  Malapane,  and  Stober. 

In  Sweden  are  to  be  noted  :  the  Clara  river  which  has  its  sources  in  the 
Dovrefjeld,  flows  through  the  Wener  Lake  after  which  it  is  called  the  Gotha 
river,  and  empties,  below  Gottenburg,  into  the  Cattegat.  Its  whole  length  is 
322  miles. 

The  Dal  river,  which  rises  in  the  province  of  Dalarne,  and  empties  into 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia. 


U  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Rivers. 


In  Norway  are  to  be  noted :  the  G  lommen,  which  rises  in  Dovrefjeld,  and 
empties  into  the  Cattegat 

The  Louven  :  sources  in  Dovrefjeld,  and  mouth  in  the  Skager  Rack. 

Denmark  has  no  remarkable  river,  besides  the  Guden,  in  Jutland,  where  it 
empties  into  the  Cattegat 

The  Eider,  which  has  ever  formed  the  boundary  between  Denmark  and 
Germany  since  the  days  of  Charlemagne,  has  its  source  in  Holstein,  and 
empties  into  the  North  Sea. 

In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  are  to  be  noted :  the  Thames  and  Humber 
(formed  by  the  united  rivers  Ouse  and  Trent),  emptying  into  the  North  Sea, 
and  the  Severn,  which  flows  into  the  Bristol  Channel, — in  England. 

The  Tay  and  the  Forth,  emptying  into  the  North  Sea,  and  the  Clyde, 
which  flows  into  the  North  Channel, — in  Scotland. 

The  Shannon  and  Barrow,  in  Ireland,  emptying  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

In  Spain  are  to  be  noted :  the  Ebro,  which  has  its  sources  in  the  Canta- 
brian  Mountains,  forming  then  the  boundary  between  Old  Castile  and  the  Bas- 
cyan  provinces  and  Navarre,  and  crossing  Aragon  and  Catalonia,  empties  into 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Its  length  is  405  miles,  and  its  chief  branches  are 
the  Aragon,  Gallego,  and  Segro. 

The  Guadalaviar,  which  rises  in  the  province  of  Arragon,  and  crossing  the 
province  of  Valencia,  empties  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Likewise,  into 
the  latter  flow  the  Xucar  and  the  Segura. 

The  Guadalquivir,  which  rises  on  the  boundary  of  Jaen  and  Murcia,  and 
empties  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  a  few  miles  north  of  Cadiz.  Its  length  is 
800  miles. 

Spain  and  Portugal  are  crossed  by :  the  Tagus,  which  rises  at  the  frontier 
of  Aragon  and  New  Castile,  crosses  the  latter  province,  Estremadura,  and 
Portugal,  where  it  is  called  Tejo,  and  empties,  below  Lisbon,  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.     Its  length  is  552  miles. 

The  Duero  (in  Portugal  called  Douro)  rises  between  Saragossa  and  Bur- 
gos, crosses  Old  Castile,  Leon,  and  Portugal,  and  empties  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.     Its  length  is  478  miles. 

The  Minho,  winch  has  its  sources  in  the  Spanish  province  of  Galicia,  forms 
the  boundary  between  the  latter  and  Portugal,  and  empties  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean. 

The  Guadiana,  which  has  its  sources  in  the  southern  part  of  New  Castile, 
forms  the  boundary  between  the  Portuguese  province  of  Algare  and  the  Span- 


GENERAL  VIEW   OF  EUROPE.  15 


Rivers. 


ish  province  of  Sevilla,  and  empties  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Its  length  ia 
483  miles. 

In  Italy  are  to  be  noted :  the  Po,  the  chief  river  of  Italy,  has  its  sources 
on  the  Cottic  Alps,  crosses  Piedmont  and  Lombardy,  has  a  length  of  405 
miles,  and  empties  by  several  outlets  into  the  Adriatic  Sea.  Its  chief  branches 
are  the  Tanaro,  Scrivia,  Dora  Riparia,  Dora  Baltea,  Sesia,  Ticino,  Adda, 
Oglio,  and  Mincio. 

The  Adige,  having  its  sources  in  Tyrol,  and  a  length  of  221  miles,  empties 
into  the  Adriatic  Sea. 

The  Tagliamento,  Piave,  and  Brenta,  in  Lombardy,  flow  into  the  Adriatic 
Sea  also. 

The  Arno  (in  Tuscany),  the  Volturno  (in  Naples),  and  the  Tiber  and 
Garigliano  (rising  in  the  States  of  the  Church),  flowing  west,  and  emptying 
into  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

In  Turkey  are :  tbe  Marissa,  having  its  sources  in  the  Balkan,  a  length  of 
243  miles,  and  its  mouth  in  the  Archipelago.  The  Karasu  or  Mcsto,  the 
Stromza  or  Struma  (by  the  ancients  called  Strymon),  and  the  Vardar  (Axius 
by  the  ancients),  have  their  mouths  in  the  Archipelago  also ;  while  the  Drin 
and  Narenta  (partly  crossing  Dalmatia)  empty  into  the  Adriatic  Sea. 

In  France  are  to  be  noted :  The  Seine,  having  its  sources  in  Burgundy, 
near  Dijon,  a  length  of  442  miles,  and  emptying  into  the  English  ChanneL 
Its  chief  branches  are  the  Marne,  Oise,  Aube,  Yonne,  and  Eure. 

The  Loire,  the  largest  river  in  France,  rising  in  the  Sevennes,  crossing  the 
centre  of  the  country,  having  a  length  of  607  miles,  and  emptying  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  below  Nantes.  Its  chief  branches  are  the  A/lier,  Cher, 
Indre,  Vienne,  Sevre  No,ntaise,  Arroux,  Nievre,  and  Mayenne. 

The  Garonne,  rising  in  the  Pyrenees,  having  a  length  of  416  miles,  and 
emptying  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  below  Bordeaux,  where  it  receives  the 
name  of  Gironde.     Its  chief  branches  are  the  Dordogne,  Tarn,  Lot,  and  Gers. 

The  Rhone,  having  its  sources  at  the  foot  of  the  St.  Gotthard,  in  Switzer- 
land, flowing  through  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  then  crossing  the  southern  prov- 
inces of  France,  and  emptying  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  west  of  Marseilles. 
Its  outlets  form  a  delta,  called  Camargue ;  its  length  is  460  miles,  and  its 
chief  branches  are  the  Saone,  here,  Drome,  Durance,  Ardeche,  and  Gard. 

Other  rivers  are  :  the  Var,  Herault,  and  Aude,  emptying  into  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea ;  the  Somme,  and  Orne,  emptying  into  the  English  Channel ; 


16  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


and  the  Vilaine,  Sevre  Niortaise  (into  which  flows  the  Vendee),  Charente, 
and  Adour,  emptying  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Through  France,  Belgium,  and  Holland  flows :  the  Meuse,  which  rises  at 
the  frontier  of  Champagne  and  Franche-Comte,  crosses  Lorraine  and  Cham- 
pagne, then  the  eastern  part  of  Belgium,  receives  below  Gorkum  in  Holland 
the  name  of  Merwe,  but  above  Rotterdam  is  called  Meuse  again,  and  empties 
into  the  North  Sea.     Its  chief  branches  are  the  Sambre,  Ourthe,  and  Boer, 

Through  Belgium  and  part  of  Holland  flows :  the  Scheldt,  which  rises 
near  the  frontier  of  France  and  Belgium,  runs  through  the  west  of  Belgium, 
by  Ghent  and  Antwerp,  and  dividing,  forms  a  delta  at  its  mouth.  One  outlet, 
which  runs  northward  into  the  North  Sea,  is  called  East  Scheldt,  and  the 
other,  running  southward,  is  called  West  Scheldt.  The  chief  tributaries  of  the 
Scheldt  are  the  Scarpe,  Lys,  Bender,  and  Rupel. 

From  Switzerland,  through  Germany,  into  Holland,  runs  the  Rhine, 
which  has  its  sources  on  the  east  side  of  Mount  St.  Gotthard,  in  the  canton 
of  Grisons,  forms  the  boundary  between  Switzerland  and  Tyrol,  flows  through 
the  Lake  of  Constance,  divides  France  and  Germany,  is  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Spire  3,000,  and  below  Mentz  2,500  feet  wide,  and  divides  within  the 
boundary  of  Holland  into  several  branches,  called  Waal,  Yssel,  Leek,  and  Old 
Rhine.  Its  length  is  874  miles.  Its  principal  tributaries  are  the  Mayne 
(rising  at  the  Fichtelgebirge ;  see  §  7,  j.),  and  the  Moselle  (rising  in  the  Vosges, 
at  the  frontier  of  Lorraine  and  Alsace).  Other  branches  of  the  Rhine  are, 
namely :  the  Neckar  (having  its  sources  in  the  Black  Forest),  the  Nahe,  Lahn, 
Sieg,  Wupper,  Ruhr,  and  Lippe. 

Through  Germany,  Hungary,  and  Turkey  flows :  the  Danube,  having  its 
sources  at  Donaueschingen,  in  Baden,  crossing  the  middle  parts  of  Bavaria, 
the  archduchy  of  Austria,  Lower  and  Upper  Hungary,  dividing  the  Turkish 
provinces  of  Bulgaria  and  Wallachia,  and  emptying  into  the  Black  Sea.  Its 
length  is  1,868  miles,  and  its  chief  branches  are :  the  Jller,  Lech,  Isar,  Inn, 
Altmuhl,  Nab,  and  Regen  (in  Bavaria) ;  the  Traun,  Ens,  March,  and  Trasen 
(in  Austria) ;  the  Waag,  Neitra,  Gran,  Theiss,  Leitha,  Raab,  Brave,  and  Save 
(in  Hungary) ;  the  Morawa,  Aluta,  Sereth,  and  Pruth  (in  Turkey). 

In  Germany  are  to  be  noted :  the  Elbe,  rising  in  the  Giant  Mountains, 
crossing  Bohemia,  Saxony,  and  Prussia,  forming  the  boundary  between  Hano- 
ver and  Mecklenburg  and  Holstein,  and  emptying  into  the  North  Sea ;  its 
length  being  713  miles.  Its  chief  branches  are:  the  Moldau  and  Eger  (in 
Bohemia) ;  the  Black  Elster  and  Saale  (in  Prussia) ;  the  Mulde  (in  Anhalt. 


GENERAL   VIEW   OF    EUROPE.  17 


Natural  Productions. 


Dessau);  the  Havel  (in  Prussia);  the  lhnenau,  Lulie,  and  Schwinge  (in  Han- 
over) ;  the  Alster  (in  Hamburg) ;  and  the  Stoer  (in  Holstein). 

The  Weser,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Werra  and  Fulda,  near  Munden 
(in  Hanover),  divides  Oldenburg  and  Hanover,  and  enters  the  North  Sea  near 
the  Elbe.  Its  length  is  253  miles;  and  its  chief  branches  arc  the  Aller 
(whose  principal  branch  is  the  Leine),  the  Wumme  or  Lesum,  Geeste,  and 
Hunte. 

The  Ems,  rising  in  the  Teutoburger  Wald  (see  §  7,  j.),  and  emptying  into 
the  Dollart  (see  §  8).     Its  chief  branch  is  the  Haaxe. 

The  Trave,  rising  in  Holstein,  and  entering  the  Baltic  Sea  below  Lubec 
Its  chief  branch  is  the  Steckenitz. 

The  Warnow,  in  Mecklenburg,  entering  the  Baltic  Sea  below  Rostock.  Its 
only  branch  is  the  Nebel. 

11.  Europe  abounds  in  a  variety  of  useful  natural  productions. 
As  for  minerals,  no  other  division  of  the  world  has  so  many  iron, 
lead,  copper,  tin,  quicksilver,  salt,  and  coal  mines ;  whereas,  pre- 
cious metals  are  more  abundant  in  America,  Asia,  and  Africa. 
The  Russian  gold  and  silver  mines,  are  situated  in  Asia.  Hun- 
gary and  Transylvania  have  the  richest  gold  mines  in  Europe. 
Silver  is  chiefly  found  in  the  Carpathic,  Ore,  Hartz,  and  Scandi- 
navian Mountains  ;  copper,  in  Sweden,  Norway,  Russia,  Hungary, 
and  England ;  iron,  in  Sweden,  Russia,  Austria,  France,  Prussia, 
England,  and  Belgium  ;  tin,  in  England.  Lead  is  very  generally 
diffused  in  Europe ;  but  quicksilver  is  obtained  exclusively  from 
the  mines  of  Almaden,  in  Spain ;  of  Idria,  in  Austria ;  and  of 
Wolfstein,  in  the  Palatinate  of  Bavaria.  The  most  noted  coal 
mines  are  near  Newcastle,  in  England ;  yet  this  mineral  is  also 
found,  in  almost  inexhaustible  quantities,  in  France,  Belgium,  and 
Germany.  Galicia,  Hungary,  and  Transylvania,  abound  in  rock 
salt ;  and  the  salt  mines  of  Wieliczka,  in  Galicia.  are  the  most 
noted  in  the  world.  Nowhere  are  found  so  many  mineral  springs 
as  in  Europe.  The  staple  agricultural  products  of  Europe,  are 
wh-eat,  rye,  barley,  and  oats.     Maize  is  cultivated  in  the  south  of 


18  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Natural  Productions— Animals— Races  of  Men. 


Europe,  and  rice  only  in  Loinbardy,  and  Turkey.  The  potato  is 
very  commou  in  Europe ;  and  the  highest  degree  of  latitude, 
where  it  thrives,  is  the  60th.  In  the  cultivation  of  the  vine 
(from  43°  aud  49°  of  latitude  down  to  the  southern  extremity  of 
Europe),  olice  (chiefly  in  Frauce  and  Italy),  and  chestnut,  Europe 
excels ;  and  this  division  of  the  world  is,  at  the  same  time,  the 
ouly  one  where  the  forests  are  regularly  manage  J.  With  regard 
to  animals,  horses  (the  finest  breed  in  England  and  Germany), 
cattle  (the  finest  in  Switzerland,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  and 
Holland)  sheep  (of  various  breeds,  but  the  finest  in  Germany, 
Spain,  and  England),  hogs,  and  other  valuable  domestic  animals 
are  found  in  great  perfection  throughout  Europe,  nearly  to  the 
parallel  of  60°.  Mules  are  reared  in  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  and 
in  ihe  south  of  France.  The  ferocious  and  other  wild  animals  of 
Europe,  are  generallly  less  in  number  than  those  of  some  of  the 
other  quarters  of  the  earth.  The  wolf  and  bear  are  still  found 
in  Russia,  Sweden,  and  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  France ; 
elks,  in  some  parts  of  Sweden,  Russia,  and  East  Prussia ;  the 
wild  ox  (in  ancient  times,  very  common  in  Germany.)  is  still  pre- 
served in  the  forest  of  Bialowicza.  in  Lithuania  The  largest 
bird  of  Europe,  is  the  great  bustard  (otis  tarda.)  Silkworms  are 
most  abundant  in  Italy. 

12.  Nearly  all  the  Europeans  belong  to  the  Caucasian  race. 
Only  a  few  tribes  in  Russia  are  Mongolians.  With  respect  to  their 
origin,  the  Europeans  form  three  great  divisions  :  the  Grermanes, 
Slavonians,  and  Romanians,  (a.)  The  Germanes  are  to  be  con- 
sidered as  descendants  of  Gomer  (Gen.  x.  2),  or  of  the  Kimres, 
who  at  first  lived  in  the  countries  near  the  mouths  of  the  Dnieper 
and  Dniester,  whence  they  afterwards  moved  to  the  north  and 
north-west,  and  peopled  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  the  present 
kingdom  of  Denmark,  Germany,  etc.  The  old  Goths  were  like- 
wise Germanes.     Thus,  to  the  great  family  or  tribe  of  the  Ger- 


GENERAL   VIEW  OF  EUROPE. 
Races  of  Men— Religion. 


manes  belong  the  Germans  proper,  most  of  the  Swiss,  and  part 
of  the  English,  the  Dutch,  the  Flemings  (in  Belgium),  the  Danes, 
Icelanders,  Norwegians,  and  Swedes.  (b.)  The  Slavonians  (or 
rather  Slaves,  but  in  another  sense  than  those  who  are  m  bondage), 
in  ancient  times  called  Sarmates,  are  probably  descendants  of 
Magog  and  Madai,  (Gen.  x.  2),  or  of  the  Scythians  and  Medes. 
In  the  beginning  they  lived  in  the  country  between  the  Don, 
Volga,  and  the  Caucasus  Mountains,  and  in  the  course  of  time 
spread  over  the  present  Russia  and  Poland,  and  westward  to  the 
Elbe  River.  To  the  great  family  or  tribe  of  the  Slavonians, 
belong  the  Russians,  Poles,  Servians,  Bosniacs,  Bulgarians,  Croats, 
Slavonians  proper,  Bohemians,  etc.  (c.)  The  Romanians  are  de- 
scendants, paitly  of  the  ancient  Iberians,  Gauls,  etc..  partly  of  the 
ancient  Romaus  and  Greeks,  and  partly  of  the  Germanes  ;  and  the 
Italians,  French,  Spaniards,  Portuguese,  and  part  of  the  Swiss, 
belong  to  this  great  family,  or  tribe.  Besides  these  three  great 
divisions,  there  are  still  found  descendants  of  the  ancient  Cells, 
or  Gaels,  in  Ireland  and  Wales,  and  the  highlands  of  Scotland ; 
and  Basques,  or  descendants  of  the  Iberians,  in  Biscay,  and  the 
neighborhood  of  Bayonne,  in  France.  The  Turks  belong  to  the 
Tartar  tribe ;  the  Magyars,  in  Hungary,  are  probably  descend- 
ants of  the  ancient  Scythians,  and  lived,  until  the  close  of  the 
ninth  century  of  the  Christian  era;  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Ural 
River ;  and  the  Greeks  are  descendants  partly  of  the  ancient 
Greeks,  but  chiefly  of  Slavonian  tribes.  The  descent  of  the  Jews 
is  universally  known. 

13.  With  the  exception  of  about  7,000,000  Mohammedans, 
3,000,000  Jews,  and  a  few  Pagans  among  the  Samojedes  and 
Kalmucs,  all  the  Europeans  are  Christians.  Of  these,  nearly 
133,000.000  are  Roman  Catholics  (occupying  the  Pyrenean  pe- 
ninsula and  Italy,  and  prevailing  in  France,  Ireland,  Belgium, 
Poland,  Austria  and  Bavaria),  more  than  59,000.000  are  attached 


20  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Civilization— Science  and  Arts. 

to  the  Greek  Church  (chiefly  in  Russia,  and  moreover  prevailing 
in  Turkey,  Greece,  and  the  Ionian  Islands),  and  about  53,000,000 
are  Protestants  (almost  exclusively  occupying  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula  and  Denmark,  and  prevailing  in  Great  Britain,  Prussia, 
Holland,  Finland,  in  the  Baltic  provinces  of  Russia,  and  in  most 
of  the  German  states). 

14.  All  Europeans  are  civilized,  except  the  Laplanders,  Samo 
jedes.  some  Kalmuc  tribes,  and  the  Gipsies  (the  latter  chiefly  in 
Hungary,  Russia,  Spain,  and  England),  who  are  to  be  regarded 
as  half-civilized ;  and  as  civilization  has  prevailed  among  them  for 
many  hundred  years,  Europe  is  not  only  the  most  enlightened,  but 
also  the  best  cultivated  grand  division  of  the  earth.  By  its  emi- 
grants, America,  and  civilized  countries  of  other  parts  of  the 
world,  have  been  peopled.  Husbandry  is  at  the  highest  pitch  of 
improvement  in  England,  Germany,  Belgium,  Holland,  Switzer- 
land, and  Lonibardy.  In  manufactures  and  commerce,  Great 
Britain  excels  all  other  empires  ;  but  in  the  former,  or  at  least 
in  many  branches  of  manufactures,  France,  Belgium,  and  Ger- 
many rival  it.  The  states  of  Europe,  next  after  Great  Britain  in 
commercial  importance,  are :  France,  Russia,  Germany,  Austria, 
Holland,  etc.  The  improvement  of  all  the  sciences,  and  the 
finest  productions  of  genius,  belong  exclusively  to  the  Europeans. 
In  almost  all  European  countries,  numerous  universities,  colleges, 
and  other  schools,  provide  for  every  branch  of  learning  ;  and.  on 
the  other  hand,  the  fine  arts  have  their  chief  seat  in  Europe.  All 
the  great  painters,  sculptors,  artists  in  music,  architects,  and 
poets  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  were  Europeans*  There  are 
to  be  found,  it  is  true,  huge  monuments  of  ancient  architecture 
in  Africa,  Asia,  and  America,  but  compared  with  the  sublime 


*  These  remarks  are  intended  to  include  the  descendants  of  Europeans  in 
the  United  States  and  elsewhere. 


GENERAL   VIEW   OF   EUROPE. 


Independent  Status. 


works  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  with  the  Gothic  build- 
ings of  the  middle  ages,  and  even  with  the  performances  of  mod- 
em architects  in  Europe,  they  must  yield  the  palm  to  them. 
Most  of  the  European  countries  are  noted  for  their  excellent 
roads  (above  all  England),  and  only  Turkey  and  Hungary  are 
without  them.  Canals  are  most  numerous  in  England,  and,  as 
for  the  European  continent,  in  Russia,  Holland,  Belgium,  France, 
and  Sweden.  Besides  this,  England  is  crossed  in  almost  every 
direction  by  rail-roads,  which  are  now  also  to  be  found  in  every 
country  of  the  continent. 

15.  Europe  comprises  55  independent  states,  of  which  33  belong 
to  Germany,  (exclusive  of  Prussia  and  Austria,  the  grand-duchy 
of  Luxemburg,  and  the  duchies  of  Holstein  and  Lauenburg),  7 
to  Italy,  and  2  to  the  Netherlands  (Belgium  and  Holland  being 
called  thus  in  a  general  signification).  If  we  mark  Germany, 
Italy,  and  the  Netherlands  with  the  name  of  countries,  we  may 
say  that  Europe  comprises  16  countries,  of  which  14  are  at  the 
same  time  states,  or  political  bodies. 

These  16  European  countries  are  the  following: — 1,  Russia; 
2,  Sweden  and  Norway ;  3,  Denmark ;  4,  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land ;  5,  Portugal ;  6,  Spain ;  7,  France  ;  8,  the  Netherlands  ; 
9,  Germany;  10,  the  kingdom  of  Prussia;  11,  the  Austrian  em- 
pire; 12,  Switzerland ;  13,  Italy;  14,  the  Ionian  Islands;  15, 
Turkey;  and  16,  Greece. 

Of  those  55  states,  8  have  a  republican,  and  the  remaining  47 
a  monarchic  form  of  government. 

The  7  republics  are :  France,  San  Marino,  the  Helvetic  and 
the  Ionian  Republics,  and  the  free  German  cities,  Hamburg,  Bre- 
men, Lubec.  and  Frankfort. 

Among  the  47  monarchic  states  are — 

3  Empires :  Austria,  Russia,  and  Turkey  (for  the  Grand  Sig- 
nior  is  in  some  respect  considered  as  successor  of  the  ancient 


22  EUKOPE,    PAST   AND    PRESEYi . 


independent  States. 


Greek  emperors  and,  partly  for  this  reason,  entitled  emperor  by 
the  Europeans). 

15  Kingdoms:  Prussia,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Denmark,  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  Portugal,  Spain,  Greece,  Two  Sicilies.  Sar- 
dinia, Holland,  Belgium,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Hanover,  aud  Wur- 
temberg. 

7  Grand  Duchies:  Tuscany,  Saxe  Weimar,  Mecklenburg — 
Schwerin,  Mecklenburg — Strelitz,  Oldenburg,  Hesse — Darm- 
stadt; and  Baden. 

9  Duckies :  3  Saxon,  2  Anhaltian,  Brunswick,  Nassau,  Modena, 
and  Parma. 

1 0  Principalities :  2  Reussian,  2  Lippian,  Hohenzollern — Hech- 
ingen,  Hohenzollern — Sigmaringen,  Schwartzburg — Rudolstadt, 
Schwartzburg — Sondershausen,  Waldeck,  and  Liechtenstein  :  (the 
other  principalities  in  Europe  are  not  independent). 

1  Electorate  :  Hesse — Cassel. 

1  Landgr aviate :  Hesse — Homburg. 

1  Ecclesiastical  State :  the  States  of  the  Church. 

The  oldest  republic  in  Europe  is  San  Marino,  (from  469 
A.  D.) ;  the  oldest  empire  is  the  Turkish  (from  1453;  the 
Russian  dates  from  1721,  and  the  Austrian  from  1804);  the 
oldest  kingdoms  are  Spain,  Denmark,  and  England  ;  the  oldest 
grand  duchy  is  Tuscany,  and  the  oldest  duchy  is  Brunswick. 

Russia  comprises  the  most  extensive  territory,  the  principality 
of  Liechtenstein  is  the  smallest  state  in  population,  and  San  Ma- 
rino the  smallest  in  extent  among  the  European  states. 


SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE. 

The  history  of  Europe  can,  as  a  general  historical  sketch 
of  all  the  European  states,  of  course,  not  go  farther  back  than 
to  the  time  of  the  migration  of  nations,  or  to  that  of  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  western  Roman  empire  ;  because  until  that  time  most 
of  the  European  countries  were  constituent  parts  of  the  Roman 
empire,  while  the  rest  were  then  still  in  a  too  barbarous  stage  of 
society  to  form  a  proper  subject  of  political  history.  We  will 
only  add,  that  at  the  time  of  the  Christian  era,  the  Roman  em- 
pire comprised  the  whole  south  of  Europe,  all  France,  England, 
the  greatest  part  of  the  Netherlands.  Switzerland  and  the  south 
of  Germany,  Hungary,  Turkey,  and  Greece,  beside  many  other 
nations  and  kingdoms  in  Asia  and  Africa. 

1.  In  the  fourth  century  after  Christ,  the  Goths  (see  In  trod. 
§  12)  occupied  the  north-east  of  Europe,  the  Visigoths  were 
settled  in  Dacia  (Moldavia  and  Wallachia)  and  west  of  the 
Dnieper :  and  the  Ostrogoths  east  of  the  Dnieper  river.  The 
Goths  were  the  first  among  all  the  Germanic  tribes,  who  adopted 
Christianity.  Between  the  Volga  and  Don  rivers  lived  the 
Alans. 

2.  Meanwhile  the  Huns,  whose  primitive  seat  was  near  the 
northern  boundary  of  China,  had  moved  onward  to  the  west ;  in 
375,  they  attacked  and  pressed  forward  the  Alans,  and  then  both 
nations  pressed  on  the  Goths.     In  this  way  commenced  the  grent 


24  EUROPE,  PAST  AND    PRESENT. 

The  Alans — Vandals — Burgundians— Saxons. 

migration  of  nations  into  the  several  parts  of  the  Roman  empire. 
In  378  the  Visigoths,  conjointly  with  the  Huns  and  Alans,  in- 
vaded Thracia,  and  defeated  the  Roman  emperor  Valens  at 
Adrianople.  Afterwards  Alaric,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  was  in- 
vested with  the  government  of  Illyrieum  (Dalmatia  and  the 
southern  provinces  of  Turkey),  and  in  403  he  invaded  Italy, 
threatened  Rome  twice  with  destruction,  and  in  the  year  410  he 
took  the  city  and  gave  it  up  to  plunder.  He  shortly  after  died, 
and  his  successor,  Athaulf,  making  peace  with  emperor  Hono- 
rius,  conducted  his  Visigoths  to  Gaul  or  France  (in  the  year  412), 
and  in  414  to  Spain,  where  the  Visigoths  soon  became  the  ruling 
nation,  and  founded  an  empire  which  comprised  Aquitania  (Guy- 
enne,  Gascogne,  and  Languedoc,  in  France)  also,  and  whose  capi- 
tal was  Toulouse. 

3.  About  the  same  time,  other  Germanic  tribes,  the  Alans, 
Vandals,  Burgundians,  and  Sueves  (ancestors  of  the  Suabians  in 
Wurtemberg),  had  moved  on  in  the  same  direction,  and,  crossing 
the  Rhine  (in  406),  settled  themselves  permanently  in  various 
parts  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  Vandals  had  their  primitive 
seat  in  the  north  of  Germany,  between  the  Elbe  and  Vistula 
rivers,  and  in  the  first  half  of  the  4th  century  transferred  it  to 
Pannonia  (Bosnia  and  parts  of  Hungary).  The  Burgundians, 
at  first  residing  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Vandals,  were  compelled 
by  the  Gepides  (a  Gothic  tribe)  to  move  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Vistula  into  Germany,  and  afterwards  into  Switzerland 
and  the  south-eastern  provinces  of  the  present  France.  The 
Sueves  had  their  primitive  seat  near  the  Elbe  and  in  the  middle 
parts  of  Germany,  and  many  of  them  joined  afterwards  the 
Alans  and  Vandals  on  their  march  to  the  south-west  of  Europe. 

4.  In  426,  the  last  Roman  troops  withdrew  from  Britannia, 
or  England,  which  since  was  invaded  and  ravaged  by  the  ancient 
Scots.     The  Britons,  therefore,  asked  the  assistance  of  two  tribes 


SOCIAL   AND    POLITICAL   HISTORY.  '25 

Tlie  [Jeruli— (Odoacer) — Ostrogoths— (Theodoric) — Franks. 

of  people  from  Germany,  called  Saxons  (occupying  the  present 
kingdom  of  Hanover  and  the  duchy  of  Holstein)  and  Anglk> 
(in  the  present  duchy  of  Sleswick).  These  people  readily  com 
plied  with  the  request,  and  in  449  went  over  to  Britain  :  they 
drove  back  the  Scots,  but  instead  of  then  returning  to  Germany, 
they  took  possession  of  the  country.  Britain  was  afterwards 
divided  by  them  into  seven  small  kingdoms,  called  the  Saxon 
Heptarchy.  The  Britons  partly  retired  into  Wales,  partly  emi- 
grated to  Armorica  (in  France),  which  since  received  the  name 
of  Bretagne,  or  Brittany. 

5.  At  the  same  time  the  Huns,  now  ruled  by  an  enterprising 
king,  Attila,  re-appeared  on  the  European  theatre  of  war.  At 
the  head  of  700,000  men,  Attila  marched  from  Hungary  into 
Germany,  ravaging  and  plundering  everywhere,  and  then  invaded 
Gaul,  or  France,  which  he  was  about  to  conquer  likewise.  But 
in  a  bloody  battle  at  Chalons  on  the  Marne,  in  451.  he  was  de- 
feated, whereupon  he  invaded  Italy,  and  died  (in  452).  After 
his  death  the  ties  of  his  empire  loosened,  and  the  Huns  them- 
selves dispersed  by  degrees  among  other  nations. 

6.  In  the  year  476,  almost  the  last  independent  part  of  the 
Western  empire,  or  Italy,  with  Rome  itself,  was  entirely  subju- 
gated by  Odoacer,  the  leader  of  another  northern  tribe,  called 
the  Heruli;  and  it  remained  under  this  dominion  for  14  years. 

7.  Meanwhile  the  Ostrogoths  (see  §  1  of  the  History)  had 
transferred  their  seat  into  Pannonia  (Bosnia)  and  Thracia,  and 
were  on  good  terms  with  the  rulers  of  the  Eastern  empire  at 
Constantinople.  Theoioric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  now  made 
to  emperor  Zeno  the  offer  of  conquering  Italy  for  him.  His 
proposal  being  agreed  to,  Theodoric  emigrated  with  all  the  Os- 
trogoths to  Italy,  defeated  in  490  Odoacer  in  three  battles,  made 
himself  master  of  the  whole  country,  and  was  by  emperor  Auas- 
tasius,  successor  of  Zeno,  acknowledged  as  king  of  Italy.     But 

2 


EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Merovingian  Dynasty,  founded  by  Clovis  in  Gaul. 


after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  52G,  emperor  Justinian  (who 
reigned  from  527  to  565),  anxious  to  realize  his  claims  on  Italy, 
sent  thither  two  eminent  commanders,  Belisarius  and  Narscs, 
who,  after  a  struggle  of  eighteen  years,  succeeded  in  their  task, 
and  made  of  Italy  a  province  of  the  Eastern  empire.  The 
Eastern  and  Western  empires  were  thus  reunited,  but  only  for 
a  short  period,  as  we  soon  shall  see. 

8.  It  is  now  time  to  cast  a  look  at  Gaul,  or  France.  This 
latter  name  the  country  derived  from  the  Franks,  a  German 
tribe,  who,  between  the  third  and  fourth  centuries,  or  in  the 
period  from  237  to  375,  got  possession  of  the  northern  part  of 
Gaul.  It  is  said,  their  first  king  here  was  Pharamond,  who  died 
in  428.  His  grandson  Meroveus,  who  died  in  458,  was  the 
founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Merovingians,  reigning  in  France 
for  about  three  lyindred  years.  But  the  most  eminent  of  the 
Merovingians  was  Clovis,  who  drove  the  Romans  out  of  France 
(in  486),  subdued  the  Ajinoricans  in  Bretagne,  subjected  the 
Burgundians  (see  §  3)  to  tnbute,  wrested  considerable  tracts  of 
land  from  the  Visigoths  in  the  south  of  France  (see  §  2),  and 
extended  his  conquests  northward  to  the  Rhine.  Clovis,  having 
married  a  Christian  princess,  and  attributing  his  success  to  the 
God  whom  she  worshipped,  determined  to  become  a  Christian 
himself,  and  in  496,  he,  with  three  thousand  of  his  subjects,  was 
baptized  and  anointed  as  king  of  the  Franks,  at  Rheims,  by  the 
bishop  Remigius.  After  his  death  (which  occurred  in  511), 
France  was  divided  among  his  four  sons.  This  impolitic  proceed- 
ing proved  fatal  to  the  common  interest ;  the  more  so,  as  it  was 
followed  by  subsequent  divisions.  At  last,  after  the  death  of 
king  Charibert,  of  Paris,  or  since  the  year  559,  France,  or  rather 
the  Frankish  empire,  was  divided  into  three  distinct  states,  viz. : 
Austrasia,  or  the  eastern  empire  (comprising  the  north-east  of 
Gaul  and  the  southern  half  of  Germany,  between  Tyrol  and  the 


SOCIAL   AND    POLITICAL   HISTORY. 


The  Majores-domus  in  France. — Carlovinarian  Dynasty. 


forest  of  Thuringia,  and  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Inn  rivers); 
Neustria,  or  the  western  empire  (comprising  the  north-west  of 
Gaul,  between  the  Waal  and  Loire  rivers) ;  and  Burgundy,  or  the 
southern  empire  (comprising  Provence,  parts  of  Aquitania,  parts 
of  Switzerland  and  Alsace).  The  capital  of  Austrasia  was 
Metz,  that  of  Neustria  Soissons,  and  that  of  Burgundy  Orleans. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century,  the  Frankish  king  used  to 
invest  eminent  men  with  the  superintendence  of  the  domains  and 
fiefs  of  the  crown,  and  with  the  command  of  the  royal  military 
forces.  These  men,  endowed  with  great  power,  were  called 
Majores-domus ;  one  of  them  had  the  superintendence  in  Aus- 
trasia, another  in  Neustria,  and  a  third  in  Burgundy.  The  last 
kings  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty  being  weaklings,  and  not  much 
better  than  mock-kings,  the  Majores-domus  came  soon  to  be  con- 
sidered as  the  actual  rulers.  In  687,  Pepin  of  Her  stall  (the  latter 
name  was  derived  from  his  estate  near  Liege),  Major-domus  of 
Austrasia,  was  invested  with  the  superintendence  in  the  other 
Frankish  kingdoms  too,  and  from  that  time  assumed  the  title  of 
"  duke  and  prince  of  the  Franks."  He  was  succeeded  in  his  dig- 
nity by  his  son  Charles  Martell,  renowned  for  his  brilliant  and 
decisive  victory  over  the  Moors  or  Arabs,  between  Tours  and 
Poitiers,  in  732.  The  son  and  successor  of  Charles  Martell  was 
Pepin  the  Little,  who  was  indeed  but  a  very  small  man,  but  had  a 
mighty  spirit  in  his  little  body,  and  moreover  an  enormous  deal 
of  strength.  The  weakness  and  inaptitude  of  the  Merovingian 
kings  having  become  now  too  obvious,  the  last  of  them,  Childeric 
III ,  was,  in  752,  by  an  assembly  of  the  states  of  the  empire 
held  at  Soissons,  declared  to  have  forfeited  his  throne,  and  was 
exiled  to  a  monastery ;  while  Pepin  the  Little  was  elected  king 
of  the  Franks,  and  anointed  by  the  bishop  Bonifacius.  With 
him  began  the  sway  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Carlovingians  (which 


28  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 


The  Lombards  -Visigoth? — Moors. 


name  was  derived  from  Pepin's  son,  Charles  the  Great,  or  Charle- 
magne). 

9.  The  Greek  emperors  exercised  their  sway  in  Italy  only  for 
fourteen  years.  The  Lombards  (a  Suevian  or  German  tribe,  at 
first  having  their  seat  near  the  middle  course  of  the  Elbe;,  who 
had  once  already  been  called  on  for  assistance  by  the  imperial 
governor  Narses,  returned  to  Italy  in  568,  headed  by  their  val- 
iant king  Alboin,  wrested  the  northern  part,  since  called  Lom- 
bardy,  from  the  Greeks,  and  got  possession  of  most  of  the  other 
parts  of  the  Italian  peninsula.  They  even  threatened  Rome,  but 
pope  Stephen  III.,  calling  on  the  Frankish  king,  Pepin  the  Little, 
for  help,  the  latter  defeated  the  Lombards,  and  compelled  them  to 
cede  to  the  holy  seat  the  maritime  country  on  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
which  they  lately  had  conquered.  In  this  way  the  pope's  temporal 
powerYT&s  established,  and  the  foundation  laid  of  what  is  now  called 
the  States  of  the  Church.  This  occurred  in  755.  In  774  new 
differences  between  the  pope  and  the  Lombards  brought  on  tho 
intervention  of  Charlemagne,  who  vanquished  the  Lombards 
completely  and  embodied  their  kingdom  with  that  of  the  Franks. 
Lower  Italy  (comprising  the  continental  part  of  the  present 
kingdom  of  Naples)  and  the  Island  of  Sicily  remained  under  the 
sway  of  the  Greek  emperors  until  842,  when  this  island  and 
Calabria  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Arabs. 

10.  The  Visigoths  had  since  their  inroad  in  Spain  (see  §  2) 
established  their  power  there  permanently,  and  extended  it  in 
the  course  of  time  over  all  parts  of  the  peninsula.  Their  capital 
and  royal  residence  was  Toledo  since  531.  But  as  soon  as  the 
wars  with  other  tribes  and  nations  had  ceased,  there  arose  civil  wars 
and  other  intestine  commotions,  which  caused  one  party  to  call 
on  the  Moors  or  Arabs  (who  then  had  conquered  the  whole  north- 
ern coast  of  Africa)  for  assistance.  The  latter  acted  the  same 
part  as  the  Saxons  and  Angles  had  done  in  Britain.     Scarcely 


SOCIAL  AND   POLITICAL  HISTORY.  29 


Slaves— Creates— Servians,  etc. 


had  they  set  their  foot  on  the  Spanish  ground,  in  711,  when  they 
attacked  the  Visigoths  and  defeated  them  completely  in  a  battle 
at  Xeres  de  la  Frontera,  which  lasted  nine  days.  The  fate  of  Rod- 
eric,  the  last  king  of  the  Visigoths  in  Spain,  was  never  known  ; 
his  horse  and  weapons  were  found  near  the  field  of  battle,  but  his 
body  was  nowhere  to  be  seen.  Pelagio,  a  prince  of  the  blood- 
royal,  took  command  of  the  Goths  who  had  not  been  slain  by  the 
Moors,  led  them  into  the  mountainous  region  of  Asturias,  and 
founded  there-a  little  kingdom,  the  boundaries  of  which  his  suc- 
cessors enlarged  in  the  course  of  time.  But  for  the  present,  and 
for  the  next  centuries,  the  Moors  possessed  the  greatest  part  of 
the  Pyrenean  peninsula. 

11.  During  the  migration  of  nations,  many  countries  in  the 
east  of  Europe  were  depopulated,  and  this  circumstance  gave  oc- 
casion to  the  Slaves  (see  Introduction,  §  12,6),  to  move  farther 
to  the  west,  and  occupy  the  abandoned  seats.  The  main  body 
of  the  Slaves  remained  in  Russia  and  Poland,  but  some  tribes 
peopled  Bohemia,  others  settled  themselves  in  the  German  coun- 
tries bordering  on  the  Baltic  Sea ;  while  lower"  Hungary  and 
Austria  were  occupied  by  the  Avares  (who  had  their  primitive 
seat  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas),  Dalmatia,  and  other 
countries  in  the  vicinity,  by  the  Cruates  and  Servians,  and  Bul- 
garia by  the  Bulgarians  (a  Tartar  tribe,  who  in  the  5th  century 
had  emigrated  from  their  primitive  seat  between  the  Volga  and 
Ural  rivers).     About  the  Magyars,  see  Introduction,  §  12. 

12.  The  European  territory  of  the  Eastern  empire,  or  of  the 
Roman  emperors  residing  at  Constantinople,  had,  by  all  these 
circumstances,  been  greatly  reduced  ;  nevertheless,  it  yet  ranked 
highest  among  the  Christian  kingdoms  by  its  civilization,  wealth, 
and  flourishing  commerce.  Constantinople  was  then  the  largest 
and  handsomest  city  in  Europe,  and  the  imperial  court  displayed 
much  splendor  and  luxury,  though  the  history  of  this  court  pre- 


30  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Scandinavians— Normans— Charlemagne. 


sents  a  series  of  cruelties  and  infamous  actions,  seldom  or  never 
heard  of  in  other  countries. 

13.  The  Scandinavian  cm?iiries,  or  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Den- 
mark, were,  if  not  first,  yet  chiefly  peopled  by  the  German  tribe 
of  Goths,  who  immigrated  there  about  the  Christian  era.  In 
the  course  of  time  those  countries  became,  in  a  certain  degree, 
overpopulated,  which  gave  rise  to  the  famous  naval  expeditions 
of  the  Normans,  who  after  the  9th  century  invaded  the  shores 
of  England,  Germany,  Holland,  Belgium,  and  France,  every- 
where plundering  and  ravaging.  They  proved  themselves  to  be 
as  daring  freebooters,  as  they  were  gallant  warriors,  and  acted 
an  important  part  in  the  political  affairs  of  several  European 
countries  in  the  west  and  south. 

14.  Charlemagne  (see  §  8),  who  was  born  in  742,  reigned 
from  the  year  768  to  814,  and  in  this  whole  period  he  was  almost 
continually  at  war.  In  774  he  wrested  the  kingdom  of  Italy 
from  the  Lombards  (see  §  9),  and  added  its  crown  to  that  which 
he  wore  already  as  king  of  the  Franks.  Meanwhile  the  long- 
nourished  hostile  sentiments  between  the  Franks  and  their  next 
neighbors  in  the  north,  the  Saxons,  had  finally  led  to  an  erup- 
tion, which  was  followed  by  a  war  of  more  than  thirty  years. 
Charlemagne  was  indeed  in  this  war  the  aggressor ;  but  beside 
his  anxious  desire  to  introduce  Christianity  among  the  pagan 
Saxons,  he  had  well-founded  political  reasons  to  act  as  he  did. 
For  the  Saxons  had  made  frequent  inroads  into  his  empire,  and 
moreover  being  a  very  valiant  and  enterprising  people,  it  was 
to  be  feared  they  would  sooner  or  later  try  to  conquer  it,  or 
at  least  wrest  some  provinces  from  it.  Thus  the  war  commenced 
against  them  in  772,  and  lasted,  though  with  some  intervals, 
until  804,  when  a  final  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded,  according 
to  which  the  Saxons  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  Charle- 
magne, and  adopted  the  Christian  faith.     In  one  of  those  inter- 


SOCIAL   AND   POLITICAL  HISTORY.  *1 

Diviaion  of  Ihe  Empire  of  Charlemagne — Germany. 

vals,  in  778,  the  Moorish  governor  of  Saragossa  requested  Charle- 
magne to  lend  him  his  assistance  against  the  Emir  Abderrahman. 
Accordingly,  a  Frankish  army  was*  sent  to  Spain,  and  this  cam- 
paign terminated  in  the  annexation  of  all  the  country  north  of 
the  Ebro  to  the  Frankish  empire.  This  new  acquisition  was 
called  the  Spanish  mark  (margraviate).  A  war  against  the 
Danes  was  in  810  terminated  by  a  treaty  of  peace,  which  stipu- 
lated that  the  Eider  river  was  to  be  considered  as  the  boundary 
between  the  Danes  and  Franks  ;  and  indeed  this  river  has  since 
continually  been  the  boundary  between  Denmark  and  Germany. 
To  secure  the  boundaries  in  the  east  and  south-east,  Charlemagne 
founded  there  several  maigraviates,  for  instance ;  the  Avarian 
mark  (comprising  what  is  now  called  the  arch-duchy  of  Austria) 
against  the  Avares  (see  §11);  Friaul,  etc.  In  the  year  800 
when  Charlemagne  happened  to  be  at  Rome,  the  pope  (who  for 
many  substantial  services,  was  highly  indebted  to  him)  placed 
the  imperial  crown  upon  his  head,  and  thus,  as  it  were,  revived  the 
Western  Roman  Empire.  Charles  the  Great  died  in  the  year 
814  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Louis,  sur- 
named  the  Pious,  who  was  in  point  of  mental  power  almost  the 
reverse  of  his  father.  Louis  the  Pious  died  in  840,  and  left  his 
dominions  to  his^  three  sons,  Louis,  Charles,  and  Lothaire,  who 
divided  them  by  a  treaty,  concluded  at  Verdun  in  843,  in  the 
following  manner  : 

Louis  (since  suruamed  the  German)  acquired  Germany,  which 
since  that  time  has  ever  been  separated  from  France,  and  where 
after  the  death  of  the  last  descendant  of  Louis  (which  occurred 
in  911)  an  elective  monarchy  was  established,  and  so  it  continued, 
even  so  late  as  the  year  1806.  Louis  the  German  had  shortly 
before  his  death  inherited  the  rights  to  the  imperial  crown,  as 
well  as  to  Italy,  Burgundy,  part  of  Switzerland,  to  Alsace,  Lor- 
raine, etc.,  and  entailed  these  rights  on  his  descendants  and  sue- 


32  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


France— Kingdom  of  Italy — England. 


cessors  to  the  German  crown.  They  were  realized  for  the  first 
time  by  his  grandson  Arnulph  (reigning  in  the  period  from  887 
to  899),  who  not  only  was  crowned  as  Roman-German  emperor, 
but  also  brought  the  kingdom  of  Italy  and  Burgundy  into  a  po- 
litical connection  with  Germany. 

Charles  (surnamed  the  Bald)  acquired  France,  which  was 
ruled  by  his  descendants  until  the  year  987,  when  the  Capetiaus 
supplanted  the  race  of  the  Carlovingians. 

LoChaire  acquired  the  imperial  crown  and  the  kingdom  of 
Italy,  and  besides  this  a  long  tract  of  laud  situated  between 
France  and  Germany,  viz.  Provence,  Dauphiny,  Bu,r gundy,  Al- 
sace, Lorraine  and  the  Netherlands.  But  his  race  became  extinct 
even  so  early  as  the  year  875  ;  and  thus  the  German  kings,  his 
nearest  relations,  became  the  heirs  of  his  rights. 

15.  As  for  England  (see  $  4),  all  the  seven  kingdoms  of  the 
Saxon  Heptarchy  were  united  into  one,  under  the  government 
of  Egbert,  King  of  Wessex.  This  occurred  in  the  year  827. 
Egbert  was  therefore  the  first  King  of  England — a  name  de- 
rived from  that  of  Anglia,  the  home  of  the  Angles,  and  sub- 
stituted for  the  former  name  of  Britannia  by  Egbert.  During 
his  reign,  and  for  many  years  afterwards,  the  Normans  (see  §  13) 
made  frequent  incursions  into  England,  and  sometimes  overran 
the  whole  country.  King  Alfred  the  Great  (who  reigned  from 
the  year  871  to  901)  opposed  them  with  good  success,  but  a  hun- 
dred years  after  his  death  the  Normans  again  broke  into  Eng- 
land, and  were  now  completely  victorious,  so  that  in  the  period 
from  1016  to  1042  three  Danish  kings  governed  the  country  in 
succession  (Swen,  Canute,  and  Hardicanute).  In  the  year  1042, 
the  Normans  or  Danes  were  driven  out  of  England,  and  another 
Saxon  King,  Edward  II,  surnamed  the  Confessor,  was  placed 
upon  the  throne.  Meanwhile  the  Normans  had  settled  in  France, 
and  acquired  there  (at  the  end  of  the  9th  century)  a  large  tract 


SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  HISTORY. 


Norman  Conquest  of  England— Moore  in  Spain. 


of  land,  siuce  called  Normandy.  William  duke  of  Normandy, 
who  was  related  to  King  Edward,  made  claim  to  the  English 
throne,  and  after  Edward's  death,  which  occurred  in  1066,  he  in- 
vaded England,  at  the  head  of  sixty  thousand  men,  defeated  his 
rival  Harold  (son  of  the  mighty  Count  Godwin  ;  for  Edward  had 
left  no  children)  in  the  battle  of  Hastings  (on  the  14th  of  Oct. 
1066),  and  became  King  of  England.  He  was  now  called  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror,  and  is  the  ancestor  of  the  still  reigning  royal 
family  of  Great  Britain. 

16.  The  Moors  in  Spain  (see  §  10)  were  in  the  beginning  ruled 
by  governors  of  the  Caliphs  then  reigning  at  Damascus  (the  seat 
of  the  latter  not  being  transferred  to  Bagdad  until  the  year  754)  ; 
but  in  756  the  Arabian  prince  Abderrahman  founded  an  inde- 
pendent empire  in  Spain,  and  took  his  seat  in  Cordova  (north-east, 
and  120  miles  distant  from  Cadiz),  which  soon  rose  to  be  a  splen- 
did city,  and  at  one  time  numbered  1,000,000  inhabitants.  The 
Moorish  empire  was  at  that  time  separated  from  that  of  the 
Christians  by  the  Duero.  Concerning  the  Christian  empire,  the 
little  kingdom  of  Asturias,  founded  by  Pelagio  (see  §  10),  was 
since  its  first  enlargement  called  the  Kingdom  of  Leon.  The 
Spanish  mark,  conquered  by  Charlemagne  (see  §  14),  having 
meanwhile  been  divided  into  two  counties,  Barcelona  and 
Navarre,  and  the  count  of  Navarre  having  since  assumed  the 
royal  title,  there  were  now  two  Christian  kingdoms  in  Spain  ; 
which,  in  the  course  of  time,  brought  into  existence  the  kingdoms 
of  Aragon,  Castile,  Galicia,  the  principality  of  Catalonia,  etc. 
Portugal,  being  first  a  province  of  the  united  kingdoms  of  Cas- 
tile and  Leon,  became  in  1139  an  independent  kingdom.  The 
power  of  the  Moors  in  Spain  was  more  and  more  restricted  by 
the  conquests  of  the  Christian  kings,  till  in  1492  Granada,  the 
last  Moorish  possession  on  the  Pyrenean  peninsula,  was  conquer- 
ed by  the  Queen   Isabella  of  Castile,  and  King  Ferdinand,  of 

2* 


34  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Ferdiuand  and  Isabella— Society  in  the  Middle  Ages. 


Aragon.  At  this  time  the  kingdom  of  Aragon  comprised  not 
only  Aragon,  but  the  whole  north-east  part  of  Spain,  while  the 
kingdom  of  Castile  comprised  all  other  parts  ;  and  as  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  were  united  by  marriage,  all  Spain  came  after  their 
death  under  the  sway,  first  of  their  daughter  Johanna  (or  rather 
their  son-in-law  Philip),  then  of  their  grandson,  the  celebrated 
King  Charles  I.  (or  Charles  V.  as  emperor  of  Germany),  who 
entailed  the  Spanish  crown  on  his  descendants. 

17.  This  sketch  of  the  political  history  of  Europe  will  suffice  for 
the  present ;  and  deferring  the  further  particulars  of  it  to  the  his- 
torical introduction  of  each  separate  state,  we  shall  now  give  a 
condensed  description  of  the  state  of  European  culture  in  tlie  mid- 
dle ages. 

Had  the  time  of  blooming  and  vigor  of  the  Roman  empire  last- 
ed forever,  there  is  no  doubt  but  Roman  culture  would  at  last 
have  prevailed  throughout  Europe.  But  the  migration  of  nations 
(see  §  2),  and  with  it  perpetual  wars,  interfered  and  destroyed 
almost  the  last  remains  of  it.  Thus  a  commencement  was  to  be 
made  anew.  But  a  quiet  and  peaceful  development  being  impos- 
sible at  that  time,  matters  went  on  in  the  following  succession : 

1.  Improvement  of  warlike  or  military  conditions. 

2.  Agriculture. 

3.  Foundation  of  new  towns  and  cities. 

4.  Commercial  intercourse  and  rudiments  of  industry. 

5.  A  more  general  efficiency  and  propagation  of  Christianity, 
and  subsequently  the  extension  of  the  clerical  power. 

6.  The  foundation  of  universities  and  the  generalization  of 
other  schools. 

7.  The  gradual  improvement  of  sciences  and  fine  arts. 

8.  Fresh  life  and  activity  in  commercial  and  industrious  enter- 
prises, generated  by  the  Crusades. 

9.  Origination  of  free  citizens  and  corporations. 


SOCIAL  AND   POLITICAL  HISTORY.  35 

Social  Progress  in  the  Middle  Ages. 


10.  New  progress  of  sciences  and  fine  arts. 

11.  The  invention  of  gunpowder  and  of  the  art  of  printing ;  the 
Reformation  and  the  discovery  of  America,  and  of  the  passage  by 
sea  to  India  ;  and  the  immense  social  and  intellectual  revolu- 
tions brought  on  by  these  events,  whose  consequences  are  still 
apparent. 

In  the  period  from  the  latter  time  of  the  migration  of  nations 
until  the  crusades,  Italy  (as  the  former  millennial  seat  of  the 
Roman  empire),  Spain  (as  the  seat  of  the  industrious  and  intel- 
ligent Moors  since  the  8th  century),  and  the  Eastern  empire  (as 
retaining  the  remains  of  Roman  culture)  were  to  be  considered 
as  illuminated  directly,  and  the  other  European  countries  as  il- 
luminated indirectly,  by  the  beams  of  the  sun  of  culture.  Mean- 
while the  progress  of  culture  went  on  in  the  above  indicated  man- 
ner.    Thus  we  shall  begin  with  the 

(a.)  Improvement  of  warlike  or  military  conditions  ; — of  course 
only  with  reference  to  the  Germanic  tribes  (see  §§  1,  2,  3,  etc.), 
as  all  other  European  nations  (with  the  exception  of  the  Romans) 
lived  at  that  time  in  a  state  of  complete  barbarity.  Among  the 
Germanic  tribes  it  was  the  custom  and  practice  to  wage  war  in 
two  different  ways:  viz.,  either  to  call  to  arms  all  freeborn  war- 
riors under  the  command  of  dukes  elected  by  each  tribe  (this  way 
was  less  frequent,  and  chiefly  used  in  defensive  wars) ;  or  to 
select  warriors  of  profession  out  of  those  freeborn  men,  who  were 
upon  terms  of  a  particular  political  dependence  with  the  com- 
mander-in-chief. With  this  warfare  the  feudal  system  was 
closely  connected.  As  soon  as  a  foreign  country  was  conquered? 
either  the  whole  (as  in  the  case  of  the  Saxons  in  England,  and  of 
the  Lombards  in  Italy),  or  some  part  of  it  (sometimes  one  third, 
but  most  frequently  two  thirds)  was  divided  between  the  king  (as 
commander-in  chief)  and  his  military  retinue  :  each  member  of 
the  latter  receiving  a  lot,  called  Allodium,  which  as  a  patrimonial 


EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Feudal  System— Agriculture— Bondage. 


estate  was  at  his  free  disposition.  The  king,  receiving  a  far 
greater  lot  than  any  member  of  his  retinue,  used  to  confer  parts 
of  it,  by  the  name  of  fees  (in  Latin  feuda  or  benejicia),  on  single 
members  of  this  retinue  in  usufruct  for  lifetime.  The  feoffees, 
called  vassals,  were  bound  to  faith  and  homage  towards  the 
feoffer,  and  to  warfare  in  case  of  war.  In  this  way  all  allodial 
proprietors  became  gradually  feudal  tenants  also.  The  feoffer 
was  under  the  obligation  to  protect  his  vassal,  and  for  this  reason 
many  allodial  proprietors,  being  incompetent  to  their  own  pro- 
tection, conferred  their  estate  upon  any  powerful  neighbor,  and 
received  it  back  again  from  him  as  a  fee.  At  first  the  fees  were 
not  transmissible  by  inheritance,  but  in  the  course  of  time  the 
heritable  quality  was  partly  conceded,  partly  usurped  ;  and  since 
that  time,  only  in  case  of  felony  the  fee  was  allowed  to  be  with- 
drawn. Considering  the  peculiar  condition  of  society  in  the 
middle  ages,  it  cannot  tte  denied  that  the  feudal  system  was 
quite  adapted  to  it,  and  afforded  many  advantages. 

(b.)  Agriculture,  formerly  in  a  more  or  less  flourishing  state 
throughout  most  of  those  European  countries  that  were  under 
the  Roman  sway,  but  since  the  beginning  of  the  migration  of 
nations  almost  totally  neglected  (except  in  the  Eastern  empire), 
made  but  poor  progress  in  the  period  from  the  year  476  till  752 
(when  the  sway  of  the  Carlovingians  commenced),  because  the 
freeborn  men  being  for  the  most  time  engaged  in  warfare,  gave 
themselves  seldom  the  trouble  to  cultivate  the  soil,  which  thus 
was  chiefly  tilled  by  the  bondsmen  or  serfs.  Bondage  or  servitude 
had  from  the  earliest  time  been  in  practice  not  only  among  the 
Germanes,  but  also  among  the  Slavonians  (see  §  12  of  the  Intro- 
duction), and  has  not,  in  most  of  the  countries  where  it  existed, 
been  abolished  before  the  last  and  the  present  centuries.  It  may 
indeed  be  called  a  kind  of  slavery,  but  in  various  respects  it  dif- 
fers from  proper  slavery,  which  was  in  use  among  the  ancient 


SOCIAL   AND  POLITICAL  HISTORY.  37 

Foundation  of  Towns  and  Cities. 

Romans,  Greeks,  etc.,  and  is  still  in  use  amongthe  Mohammedans 
and  other  peoples  ! — In  the  7th,  8th  and  9th  centuries  agriculture 
was  in  the  Christian  countries  of  Europe  promoted  chiefly  by  the 
endeavors  of  the  monks  ;  and  since  the  beginning  of  the  crusades 
(at  the  end  of  the  11th  century),  when  many  bondsmen  entered 
the  armies  of  the  cross,  in  order  to  partake  of  their  privileges  of 
personal  freedom,  agriculture  and  other  branches  of  husbandry 
became  more  and  more  the  occupation  of  free  farmers,  and  at  the 
same  time  attained  a  higher  degree  of  importance.  In  the  East- 
ern empire  the  culture  of  silk-worms  was  introduced  during  the 
reign  of  Justinian  I.  (527-565).  The  Moors  in  Spain  managed 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil  in  an  exemplary  manner  ;  and  even 
steep  and  sandy  hills  were  by  their  perseverance  transformed 
into  fertile  arable  land.  The  meadows  of  Andalusia  were  never 
parched  by  the  scorching  sun,  as  the  Moors  took  care  to  keep 
them  humid  by  irrigating  canals.  Along  the  Guadalquivir  river 
were  situated  more  than  12,000  flourishing  villages,  and  the 
township  of  Seville  alone  contained  not  less  than  100,000  villages 
and  farms. 

(c.)  In  speaking  of  the  foundation  of  towns  and  cities  since  the 
commencement  of  European  culture  in  general,  we  of  course  have 
only  in  view  those  countries  which  but  then  emerged  from  their 
state  of  barbarity,  and  where  hitherto  the  people  had  more  or  less 
been  accustomed  to  live  in  huts  lying  scattered  about  in  the 
woods  or  open  field.  This  was  the  custom  among  the  ancient 
Germans  (for  the  towns  and  cities  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine 
had  been  founded  by  the  Romans),  among  the  Poles,  Magyars, 
Britons,  and  in  general  among  all  the  northern  nations  of  Eu- 
rope. In  the  north  and  north-east  of  Europe,  the  foundation  of 
towns  and  cities,  in  the  style  of  those  in  the  southern  countries, 
did  not  take  place  before  the  middle  of  the  13th  century,  and  the 
few  existing  ones  were  not  endowed  with  municipal  laws  before 


S8  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


lloeskilde— Moscow — London — Constantinople. 


that  time.  In  Sweden  the  city  of  Bjoerkoe,  on  an  island  of  the 
lake  Maelar.  (see  §  9,  of  the  Introduction),  was  indeed,  even  so 
early  as  in  the  first  half  of  the  9th  century,  distinguished  by  its 
numerous  population,  its  riches  and  power  ;  but  the  country  in 
general  had  but  few  towns  of  any  importance.  Rocskilde.  the 
capital  of  Denmark  until  the  year  1443,  was  founded  at  a  very 
early  period,  and  had  since  the  11th  century  a  population  of 
100,000  inhabitants,  and  not  less  than  27  magnificent  churches 
and  monasteries  ;  but  this  was  rather  an  exception  from  the  rule. 
Moscow  in  Russia  may  have  been  founded  in  the  9th  century,  but 
it  is  more  probable  that  its  foundation  did  not  take  place  before 
the  middle  of  the  12th  century.  In  1367  the  first  palace  of 
stone  was  built  here.  The  first  foundation  of  London  was  laid 
by  the  Romans  even  so  early  as  the  year  52 ;  in  the  beginning 
of  the  7th  century  it  was.  says  a  contemporary,  "a  commercial 
town  frequented  by  many  nations  by  sea  and  by  land  ;"  and  since 
the  11th  century,  the  commercial  intercourse  was  still  more  ac- 
tive here  ;  yet  until  towards  the  end  of  the  12th  century  most  of 
the  houses  here  were  built  of  wood  and  thatched,  till  in  1189 
King  Richard  I.  ordered  all  houses  with  more  than  two  stories  to 
be  built  of  stone,  and  roofed  with  tiles  or  slates.  In  Germany, 
the  lack  of  cities  or  fortified  towns  was  first  felt  when  the  fierce 
Magyars  or  Huns  (as  they  commonly  were  called,  and  from  which 
name  originated  that  of  the  Hungarians)  made  their  plundering 
incursions  at  the  end  of  the  9th,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
10th  century;  and  not  until  now  most  of  the  principal  towns  in 
the  interior  of  Germany  were  founded.  Constantinople  was  at 
that  time  not  only  the  emporium,  but  also  in  other  respects  the 
most  important  city  of  Europe.  Besides  this  capital,  the  Eastern 
empire  had  many  other  fine  cities  ;  while  in  Italy  those  which  had 
been  founded  by  the  ancient  Romans,  were  multiplied  by  new 


SOCIAL  AND   POLITICAL  HISTORY 


Commercial  I nlercourse— Industry. 


ones,  for  instance,  by  Venice.     Likewise  in  Spain  and  in  some 
parts  of  France,  there  were  many  cities  of  early  origin. 

(d.)  In  the  period  from  the  5th  to  the  latter  half  of  the  8th 
century,  the  commercial  intercourse  as  well  as  the  industry,  was 
in  general  very  insignificant,  and  almost  entirely  confined  to  Con- 
stardinople,  where  industry  was  considerably  promoted  by  the 
luxury  of  the  magnificent  imperial  court,  and  an  important  trade 
was  at  that  time  carried  on  with  several  maritime  countries  on 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  In  the  next  period  until  the  beginning 
of  the  crusades  or  of  the  12th  century,  the  Moors  in  Spain  ex- 
celled all  other  nations  of  Europe  in  point  of  manufactures  and 
other  branches  of  industry.  Their  woollen  cloth,  silk  stuffs,  em- 
broideries in  gold  and  silver,  Morocco-leather,  hardware,  their  ex- 
cellent workmanship  in  arms,  etc.  found  everywhere  in  Europe 
as  well  as  in  Africa  and  Asia,  a  lucrative  market.  In  the  art  of 
dyeing,  the  Moors  were  eminently  skilled.  Likewise  the  work- 
ing in  the  Spanish  gold  and  silver  mines  was  managed  by  them 
with  ability  and  circumspection,  and  added  greatly  to  their 
wealth.  In  other  countries  of  Europe  in  the  latter  period,  the 
commercial  preponderance  of  Constantinople  gradually  went  over 
to  the  Italian  sea-towns  of  Venice,  Pisa,  Genoa  and  Amalfi  (the 
last-named  town  is  situated  in  the  vicinity  of  Naples).  These 
towns  had  risen  to  be  independent  commercial  states,  while  in 
other  western  countries  of  Europe  (with  the  exception  of  the 
Arabian  part  of  Spain)  the  commercial  intercourse  was  almost 
confined  to  trade  by  barter,  or  provision  only  for  the  daily  supply. 
But  now  the  circumstances  there  were  more  favorable.  Indian 
and  Levantine  goods  were  sent  from  Constantinople  by  way  of 
the  Danube  river  up  to  Ratisbon  (on  the  Danube),  which  was  at 
that  time  the  most  considerable  and  populous  city  of  Germany,  and 
mediated  the  intercourse  not  only  between  the  eastern  and  west- 
ern countries,  but  also  between  the  north-east  part  of  Europe  and 


40  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Chris. lanky — Monastic  Life. 

Italy.  In  France  the  southern  cities,  above  all  Marseilles,  traded 
with  the  Levant,  while  those  of  the  north  carried  on  commerce 
chiefly  with  England.  Even  the  Slavonian  tribes  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Elbe  River  and  on  the  Baltic  Sea,  especially  the  citizens  of 
Julin  (on  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oder  River;  it  was  de- 
stroyed in  1170),  kept  up  a  commercial  intercourse  with  neigh- 
boring countries.  The  increasing  number  of  towns  and  cities, 
the  establishment  of  fairs,  and  the  discovery  of  gold  and  silver 
mines  in  the  Hartz  (see  §  7,  k.  Introd.)  and  in  other  parts  of 
Germany  were  promoting  the  industry  in  those  quarters. 

(e.)  A  more  general  efficiency  and  'propagation  of  Christianity 
was  almost  impossible  during  the  troubles  and  disturbances  in 
the  period  of  the  migration  of  nations.  Yet  a  roundabout  ground 
of  it  was  laid  by  the  transplantation  of  monastic  life  from  the 
dioceses  of  the  oriental  church  to  those  of  the  occidental.  This 
was  effected  by  St.  Benedict  of  Nursia,  who  in  529  founded  a  mon- 
astery on  Mount  Cassino,  near  Naples,  that  gave  rise  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  monasteries  in  other  countries  of  Europe.  These 
institutions  were  not  only  the  seminaries  for  nearly  all  those 
heroes  of  the  faith,  who  in  the  earlier  time  of  the  middle  ages,  as 
missionaries,  propagated  Christianity  among  the  pagan  tribes  of 
Europe,  frequently  at  the  risk  of  their  lives ;  but  may  likewise 
be  considered  as  the  only  nurseries  and  preservers  of  classical 
literature  and  of  sciences  in  general  in  those  dark  ages.  With- 
out the  monasteries,  even  genuine  manuscripts  of  the  Holy  Bible 
might  be  very  rare.  That  monks  deserved  well  for  their  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil,  has  already  been  mentioned  ;  and  moreover  they 
were  engaged  in  handiwork,  in  the  instruction  of  youth,  in  writ- 
ing chronicles,  in  copying  classical  manuscripts,  etc.  Before  the 
time  of  Charlemagne,  the  pope,  as  the  visible  head  of  the  occiden- 
tal church,  had  but  little  influence  or  authority  in  temporal  mat- 
ters ;  but  since  he  had  placed  the  imperial  crown  upon  the  head 


SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  HISTORY.  41 


Papal  Power— Instruction  of  the  People. 


of  this  king  (see  §  14),  be  assumed  the  privilege  of  crowning  all 
his  successors,  and  subsequently  (in  the  next  period  until  the  1 1th 
century)  the  supreme  legislative  power  in  ecclesiastical  matters, 
the  supreme  judicial  power  in  the  same  matters  and  in  all  causes 
concerning  the  clergy,  and  the  right  of  pronouncing  the  interdict 
(a  papal  prohibition  to  the  clergy  to  celebrate  the  holy  offices) 
against  whole  districts  and  even  countries,  and  the  anathema 
against  persons,  in  cases  of  transgressions  against  the  church. 
But  the  preponderance  of  the  papal  authority  dated  from  the 
time  of  Pope  Gregory  VII  (1073-1085)  and  of  the  crusades 
(from  the  end  of  the  11th  to  that  of  the  13th  century).  The 
popes  now  went  so  far  as  to  declare  that  God  had  given  them  all 
the  kingdoms  of  heaven  and  earth  ;  they  actually  dethroned  kings, 
treated  them  as  their  vassals,  and  continued  for  more  than  three 
hundred  years  to  exercise  an  almost  undisputed  sway  over  both 
kings  and  peoples  of  the  Christian  world.  It  was  about  the  pe- 
riod of  the  reign  of  Innocentus  III  (1198-1216)  t&at  the.  power 
of  the  pope  was  at  its  highest  pitch.  But  after'  Boniface  VIII. 
(1294-1303)  had  been  deeply  humbled,  and  treated  with  con- 
tempt by  King  Philip  IV.  of  France,  the  papal  power  went  rap- 
idly to  decay. 

(f.)  It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  Roman  Catholic  church  has 
done  far  more  for  promoting  knowledge  and  instruction  than  the 
oriental  church,  especially  in  the  middle  ages.  Yet  many  kings 
were  not  behind  in  their  endeavors,  among  them  Charlemagne, 
who  established  a  great  number  of  .schools  and  interested  himself 
even  personally  in  the  progress  of  the  pupils.  In  the  preceding 
period,  the  objects  of  instruction  in  the  higher  schools  consisted 
of  the  so-called  seven  liberal  arts,  viz.  study  of  the  classical  liter- 
ature, rhetoric,  dialectics,  arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy  and 
music.  The  best  schools  of  this  kind  were  at  that  time  those  of 
Cambridge,  York  and  Canterbury  in   England,  from  whence  sci- 


42  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Schools — Universities. 

entific  knowledge  gradually  spread  over  the  European  continent. 
In  the  Eastern  empire  the  Roman  literature  had  lost  its  strength- 
ening freshness  by  the  prevalence  of  a  depraved  taste  ;  all  attain- 
ments in  literature  and  science  were  nearly  concentrated  in  Con- 
stantinople ;  yet  until  the  reign  of  Justinian  I.  (527-565)  there 
was  still  a  renowned  academy  at  Athens.  The  Moors  in  Spain, 
so  distinguished  in  other  branches  of  human  exertions,  excelled 
also  in  the  cultivation  of  sciences,  especially  in  the  period  from 
the  8th  to  the  12th  century.  Cordova  was  the  seat  of  literary 
institutions,  academies  and  numerous  common  schools.  The 
academies  were  celebrated,  and  much  resorted  to  from  other 
countries.  Both  Christians  and  Jews  attended  the  instruction 
in  matters  of  philosophy,  medicine,  mathematical  and  physical 
sciences.  In  the  last-named  period  (752-1100)  France.  Ger- 
many and  Switzerland  were  possessed  of  excellent  cloister,  cathe- 
dral and  episcopal  schools  in  Paris  and  Normandy,  at  Corvey, 
Fulda,  Paderborn  and  Hildesheim,  and  at  St.  Gall.  About  the 
same  time  the  first  universities  of  Europe  were  founded.  The 
most  celebrated  among  them  were  those  of  Salerno  (in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Naples),  of  Bologna  (in  the  States  of  the  Church),  and  of 
Paris.  The  object  of  instruction  in  the  first  was  principally  med- 
icine, in  the  second  jurisprudence,  and  in  the  third  theology  and 
philosophy.  At  the  medical  faculty  or  seminary  of  Salerno, 
founded  in  the  beginning  of  the  1 2th  century,  and  endowed  with 
the  privileges  of  a  university  in  1150,  it  was  chiefly  Arabian  pro- 
fessors who  directed  the  instruction.  In  1119,  or  about  that 
time,  the  university  of  Bologna  took  its  rise  ;  but  its  glory  dates 
from  the  professorship  of  the  celebrated  legist  Irnerius  (f  1140); 
in  1158  it  was  endowed  with  the  privileges  of  a  university  by 
Emperor  Frederick  I.  About  the  year  1200,  when  another  re- 
nowned professor,  named  Azzo,  illustrated  this  university,  it  was 
frequented  by  10,000  students.     It  must  be  remarked  here,  that 


SOCIAL   AND   POLITICAL   HISTORY.  43 


Universities— Literary  Productions. 


many  of  the  latter  were  indeed  youth ;  yet  the  greatest  part  of 
those  students  consisted  of  men  of  rank,  or  who  filled  high  offices. 
For  them  was  the  knowledge  of  the  Roman  law  (which  was  ex- 
plained here,  and  which  had  become  the  common  law  in  most  of 
the  European  countries)  indispensable  ;  and  as  at  that  time  the 
art  of  printing  was  not  yet  invented,  and  thus  the  study  of 
books  impossible,  it  was  a  matter  of  course,  that  they  betook 
themselves  to  universities.  The  title  of  Doctor  came  first  in  use 
at  the  University  of  Bologna.  Never  did  any  university  maintaiu 
its  renown  so  long,  nor  influence  church  and  state  to  such  a  de- 
gree as  that  of  Paris.  Though  the  opinion  that  its  origin  might 
be  dated  from  the  days  of  Charlemagne,  is  untenable,  yet  it  orig- 
inated at  a  very  early  period,  perhaps  in  the  beginning  of  the 
10th  century.  In  the  12th  century  this  university  numbered 
among  its  professors,  several  men  distinguished  for  their  attain- 
ments in  literature  and  science,  of  whom  Peter  Lombardus 
(+H64),  a  disciple  of  Abelard,  was  the  most  celebrated.  His 
"  libri  sententiarum,"  comprise  a  theological  system  that  for  cen- 
turies vindicated  its  authority  among  the  theologians.  The  uni- 
versities of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  are  of  so  early  origin  too,  that 
the  period  of  their  foundation  cannot  be  stated  with  certainty. 
Before  the  end  of  the  13th  century,  there  had  been  founded  uni- 
versities at  Padua,  Naples,  Reggio,  Rome  and  Treviso ;  at  Mont- 
pelliei',  Orleans  and  Toulouse ;   and  at  Salamanca  in  Spain. 

(g.)  The  literary  productions  in  the  western  countries  of  Eu- 
rope during  the  period  from  the  5th  to  the  latter  half  of  the  8th 
century,  consisted  only  of  philosophical  and  church  historical 
works,  and  were  entirely  written  in  Latin.  Beda  Venerabilis, 
author  of  a  history  of  the  Christian  church  in  Eugland,  intro- 
duced first  the  Christian  chronology  into  the  western  countries 
of  Europe.  In  this  period  too,  the  first  essays  in  the  art  of 
painting  (wholly  neglected  since  the  first  period  of  the  Roman 


EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


I  iterary  Productions— Fine  Arts— Architecture. 


emperors)  were  made,  and  a  transition  from  ancient  to  modern 
architecture  was  effected  by  the  Gothic  style  (invented  by  the 
Ostrogoths,  but  in  the  course  of  time  much  improved  and  brought 
to  its  high  state  of  grandeur),  and  likewise  by  the  tasteless  Lom- 
bardic  style  mingled  with  that  of  the  Byzantines.  In  the 
Eastern  empire  the  Latin  language  prevailed  until  the  latter 
half  of  this  period,  when  it  began  to  be  supplanted  by  a  corrupt- 
ed Greek  dialect.  Literary  productions  at  that  time  were 
rather  insipid,  and  poetry  was  almost  confined  to  the  epigram. 
The  church  of  St.  Sophia,  built  in  Constantinople  during  the 
reign  of  Justinian  I.  (527-563),  was  considered  as  a  pattern 
of  the  early  Christian  architecture,  the  peculiar  properties  of 
which  were  the  form  of  a  cross,vthe  cupola  and  the  semicircular 
arch  resting  on  cubical  capitals.-  It  was  not  until  the  9th  century 
that  the  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture  began  to  be  improved  in 
the  Eastern  empire. — In  the  next  period  (752-1100)  it  was 
chiefly  the  Moors  in  Spain  who  excelled  in  poetry.  The  ballad 
was  devised  by  them.  Their  architectonic  performances  in  the 
Arabian  style  (an  improved  imitation  of  the  Byzantine  style) 
were  distinguished  for  their  easy  forms  and  rich  ornaments.  In 
scientifical  matter  they  chiefly  cultivated  the  mathematical  and 
physical  sciences.  Edrisi  (-f-1 180)  who  made  his  studies  at  Cor- 
dova, wrote  several  geographical  works  of  great  value.  In  the 
other  European  countries  (with  the  exception  of  the  Eastern  em- 
pire) the  Latin  ceased  to  be  a  living  language,  since  in  the  9th 
century  the  Romanic  and  Germanic  languages  had  been  im- 
proved with  more  success.  In  the  same  period  (752-1100)  sev- 
eral poetical  and  other  works  were,  for  the  first  time,  written  in 
German,  and  the  grand  cathedrals  of  Bamberg,  Worms,  Mentz, 
Spires,  etc.,  built  in  the  mixed  Lombardo-Byzantine  style.  In 
the  1 1th  century,  the  first  feudal  castles  were  built ;  among  theni 
the  celebrated  Wartburg  (now  belonging  to   Saxe  Weimar),  in 


SOCIAL   AND   POLITICAL  HISTORY. 


The  Crusades. 


1067.     About  the  same  time  music  and   painting  on  glass  were 
cultivated  successfully. 

(A.)  As  the  Crusades,  undertaken  since  the  end  of  the  11th 
century  by  European  nations  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land, 
were  attended  by  most  important  consequences  with  regard  to 
the  social  condition  and  culture  of  Europe,  we  must  previously 
give  some  historical  outlines  of  them.  The  Holy  Land,  or  Pal- 
estine, had,  since  the  end  of  the  4th  century,  formed  part  of  the 
Eastern  empire,  but  in  the  7th  century  been  conquered  by  the 
Arabs.  The  latter  granted  free  exercise  of  religion  to  the  Chris- 
tian population,  and  in  general,  treated  them  with  equity.  In 
963  the  sultan  of  Egypt  took  possession  of  Palestine,  which 
continued  to  be  under  the  sway  of  himself  and  his  successors 
until  the  year  1078,  when  the  Seldschuks  (or  Turks,  who  from  other 
Turkish  tribes  differed  only  by  their  particular  name,  which  they 
had  derived  from  that  of  their  former  sultan,  named  Seldschuk) 
subdued  the  country  ;  and  by  them,  the  Christians  especially  the 
pilgrims  to  Jerusalem,  were  often  treated  with  cruelty  and  scorn. 
The  pilgrims  returned  to  Europe  and  gave  an  account  of  the 
treatment  they  received.  This  excited  the  indignation  of  the 
European  Christians,  and  they  were  easily  induced  to  unite  in  a 
great  effort  for  taking  the  Holy  Land  from  the  infidel  Seldschuks. 
There  were  in  all,  seven  crusades:  the  first,  in  the  period  from 
the  year  1096  to  1100;  the  second,  1147-1149;  the  third,  1189 
-1 193  ;  the  fourth,  1203-1204  ;  the  fifth,  in  1228  ;  the  sixth,  in 
1248;  the  seventh,  in  1270.  We  shall  now  show  the  various 
consequences  of  the  crusades,  already  alluded  to.  How  they 
exerted  influence  on  the  extension  of  the  papal  power,  see  above 
paragraph,  marked  (e).  Yet  we  must  add  here  that  the  possession 
of  the  immense  riches  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy,  especially 
of  the  regular  clergy,  dates  from  the  period  of  the.  crusades,  they 
being  then  enabled  to  purchase  at  the  cheapest  prices  the  estates 


46  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

Consequences  of  the  Crusades— Chivalry— Orders  of  Knighthood. 

of  crusaders.  To  the  princes,  too,  the  crusades  presented  many 
opportunities  for  extending  their  power  ;  for  instance,  by  the 
escheating  of  fiefs,  which  thus  became  estates  of  the  crowu.  The 
consequences,  with  regard  to  the  nobility,  were  iu  substance  the 
following : — First,  the  spirit  of  chivalry  was  improved,  family- 
names  and  ensigns  armorial  came  into  use  among  the  nobles,  and 
the  tournaments  became  now  more  general  and  more  splendid. 
Then  the  crusades  gave  rise  to  the  erection  of  the  following 
religious  and  military  orders  :  1.  The  Knights  of  St.  John,  whose 
first  origin  dates  from  the  year  1048,  when  some  merchants  from 
Amalfi  (near  Naples)  erected  a  monastery  and  hospital  at  Jeru- 
salem ;  yet  their  regular  organization  took  place  during  the  first 
crusade.  In  1187  they  transferred  their  seat  from  Jerusalem 
to  Ptolemais  or  Acre  (on  the  Syrian  coast),  in  1291  to  Cyprus, 
and  in  1309  to  Rhodes.  On  the  last-named  island  they  main- 
tained themselves  for  more  than  two  hundred  years  until  the 
year  1522,  when  the  island  was  conquered  by  the  Turkish  sultan 
Soliman  II.  The  king  of  Spain  and  German  emperor  Charles 
V.,  who  then  was  in  possession  of  Malta,  ceded  in  1530  to  the 
knights  this  island,  which  in  1798  was  conquered  by  the  French, 
but  since  the  year  1800  belongs  to  Great  Britain.  2.  The 
knights  templars,  whose  first  organization  dates  from  the  year 
1118,  and  who  were  distinguished  for  their  valor  and  great  ser- 
vices in  the  Holy  Wars.  Since  the  loss  of  the  Holy  Land,  the 
knights  templars  transferred  their  principal  seat  to  France,  but 
to  their  misfortune.  For  their  great  wealth  excited  the  avidity  of 
King  Philip  the  Fair,  who,  in  1312,  exterminated  almost  the 
whole  order.  3.  The  Teutonic  order,  originating  in  1190,  and  its 
members  consisting  only  of  German  knights.  Since  the  re-con- 
quest of  Palestine  by  the  Saracens,  the  master  of  the  Teutonic 
order  transferred  his  seat  from  Jerusalem  to  Venice,  thence  to 
Marburg  (belonging  to  Hesse  Cassel),  and  finally  to  Marienburg 


SOCIAL  AND   POLITICAL  HISTORY.  47 

Commercial  Intercourse. 

(south-east,  and  32  miles  distant  from  Dantziok).  The  knights 
of  the  Teutonic  order  subdued,  in  the  period  from  the  year  1 233 
to  1283,  the  pagan  tribes  of  the  Prussians  proper,  and  took  pos- 
session of  the  whole  country  that  now  comprises  the  Prussian 
provinces  of  East  and  West  Prussia.  The  last  master  of  the 
Teutonic  order  was  the  margrave  Albert,  of  the  house  of  Hohen- 
zollern  ;  he  changed  his  Catholic  creed  for  Protestantism,  and  in 
1525  transformed  his  mastership  into  a  duchy.  The  Teutonic 
order,  dissatisfied  with  this  alteration,  now  left  the  country,  and 
removed  their  principal  seat  to  Mergentheim  (now  belonging  to 
the  German  kingdom  of  Wirtemberg).  The  dissolution  of  the 
order  took  place  in  1809.  Similar  other  orders  originated  chiefly 
in  Spain.  Concerning-  the  consequences  of  the  crusades  with 
regard  to  European  commerce  and  industry,  it  may  be  remarked 
that  before  that  period  the  commercial  train  of  Europe,  in  the 
direction  from  east  to  west,  was  to  be  compared  with  the  moderate 
running  of  a  river,  which  afterwards  rising  to  a  mighty  stream  and 
dividing  into  several  branches,  diffused  its  contents  in  every  di- 
rection. Italian,  French,  and  Catalonian  maritime  towns  seized 
upon  the  sea-commerce;  while  German,  Netherlandish,  and 
French  traders  took  possession  of  the  inland  commerce.  We 
shall  first  speak  of  the  European  sea- commerce,  which  from  the 
remotest  ages  until  the  end  of  the  15th  century  ever  continued 
to  be  (at  least  substantially)  restricted  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
During  the  crusades  Venice,  and  partly  Genoa  and  Pisa,  acquired 
the  most  substantial  monopolies  and  other  commercial  advantages 
in  all  seaports  of  the  Eastern  empire,  as  well  as  of  Syria  and 
Palestine.  During  the  fourth  crusade  (in  1203  and  1204)  the 
Venetians  conquered  most  of  the  shores  and  islands  of  the  first- 
named  empire,  and  founded  settlements  there.  At  the  same  time 
the  navigation  on  the  Black  Sea  became  subject  to  their  sway, 
and  thus  they  not  only  participated  in  the  commerce  between 


48  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Trade  of  Venice,  Genoa,  Pisa,  and  Amain"  with  the  East. 

+ : — : 

Asia  and  the  interior  of  Europe,  but  for  a  long  while  superin- 
tended the  commercial  intercourse  with  the  north  of  Europe. 
But  after  the  re-establishment  of  the  Byzantinian  authority  at 
Constantinople  in  1261,  the  Venetians  were  expelled  from   this 
capital,  and   the    Genoese  succeeded   them  ;  while  the  Venetians 
became  now  (by  commercial  treaties  with  the  Saracens)  possessed 
of  the  highly  important  Indian  trade  through  Egypt.     Since  they 
even  participated  in  the  caravan  trade  with  the  interior  of  Africa 
and  obtained  settlements  on  the  coast  of  the  Barbary.     About 
the  same  time  the  Genoese  founded  settlements  in  Crimea  and 
on  other  shores  skirting  the  Black  Sea.      The  exports  of  Venice 
to   Egypt  were  chiefly  olive-oil,  cloth,  velvet,  furs,  quicksilver, 
copper,  lead,  cinnabar,  sweet  oranges,  and  other  fruits,  etc.,  upon 
the  whole  at  the  value   of  about   300,000   ducats  (an   immense 
sum  at  that  time)  annually.     Besides  these  goods,  other  ones,  at 
the  value  of  about  50,000  ducats,  were  smuggled  in   Egypt  by 
the  ships'  crews.     Towards  the  end  of  the  14th  century  the  Vene- 
tian merchant-vessels  amounted  to  upwards  of  3,000  (including 
300  of  the  burthen  of  700  tons  each),  and  were  navigated  by  25,000 
men.     The  annual  exports  and  imports  of  Genoa  were  likewise 
very  considerable.    Thus,  for  instance,  in  1201,  one  cargo,  brought 
from  the  Levant,  comprised  among  other  valuable  goods    1500 
pounds  of  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones  ;  and  in  J  379,  a  large 
Genoese  vessel  brought  a  cargo  of  spices,  muslin,  silk  stuffs,  gold, 
and  silver,  at  the  value  of  1,500,000  ducats.     A  large  portion  of 
the  imported    goods  was    exported   to   Germany,  especially   to 
Nuremberg      Bills  of  exchange  came  first  in  use  at  Genoa  in 
this  period.     Pisa  was  not  behind  in  commercial  and  shipping 
enterprises ;  it  kept  up  a  lively  intercourse  with  the  Levant,  and 
acquired  substantial  privileges   in   Constantinople.       The  mer- 
chants of  Amalfi   (near    Naples)   were   the  first  who   exported 
European  goods  to  Syria  and  Egypt.      The  mariner's  compass  is 


SOCIAL   AND   POLITICAL  HISTORY.  49 


Maritime  Laws— Inland  Commerce. 


said  to  have  been  invented  at  Anialfi,  in  1302,  by  Flavio  Gioja ; 
but,  the  peculiar  use  of  the  loadstone  being  known  already  a 
century  before,  he  has  perhaps  only  improved  that  instrument. 
Ancona  traded  chiefly  with  Cyprus;  among  other  goods,  it  ex- 
ported Florentine  and  French  cloth,  soap,  and  wine,  and  im- 
ported cotton,  spices,  sugar,  and  alum.  In  the  period  from  the 
12th  to  the  end  of  the  15th  century,  Barcelona,  the  capital  of 
Catalonia  in  Spain,  was  renowned  for  its  commercial  and  ship- 
ping enterprises,  and  rivalled  successfully  even  with  Venice  and 
Genoa.  In  France,  not  only  Marseilles,  but  also  Aigues  Mortes 
and  Montpellier  carried  on  great  business  in  the  last-named 
enterprises.  Finally,  it  may  be  remarked  that  in  this  period 
the  maritime  laws,  if  not  established  for  the  first  time,  were  im- 
proved and  brought  into  more  general  practice. 

With  regard  to  the  inland  commerce,  there  were  in  this  period 
two  principal  commercial  roads :  the  one  between  Constantinople 
and  Germany  by  way  of  the  Danube  river,  and  the  other  between 
the  Italian  or  French  seaports  and  the  staples  of  the  interior  of 
Europe.  The  first  of  these  roads  was  indeed  of  great  import- 
ance, but  in  general  not  so  much  frequented  as  the  latter,  for 
the  simple  reason  of  its  shorter  distance.  Besides  Ratisbon, 
which  continued  to  be  an  emporium,  Vienna  was  chiefly  engaged 
in  the  trade  through  Constantinople.  For  the  Levantic  and 
Indian  trade  through  Venice  and  Genoa,  Nuremberg  and  Augs- 
burg became  the  great  staples  of  Germany  and  other  European 
countries.  Their  intercourse  with  Venice  did  not  commence 
before  the  14th  century,  but  it  soon  yielded  immense  profits  to 
them.  The  goods  received  from  Venice  (and  partly  from  Genoa), 
they  exporteJ  partly  to  Erfurt  (the  staple  of  the  east  of  Ger- 
many, etc.),  partly  to  Mentz  and  Cohgne  (the  staples  of  the 
west  and  north  of  Germany,  etc.),  but  chiefly  to  Bruges,  Ant- 
werp, and  Brussels,  though  these  Netherlandish  emporia  received 


EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Commercial  Marts— Manufactures. 


also  directly  goods  from  Venice  by  sea.  In  France,  there  were 
in  this  period  no  such  staples  like  those  of  Germany ;  yet  in 
various  other  regards  Lyons  and  Avignon  were  at  all  events  sta- 
ples of  great  importance.  The  emporium  of  Kussia  during  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries  was  Novogorod,  which  at  that  time  had  a 
population  of  400,000  inhabitants.  Next  to  this  city  Pskow  or 
Pleskow  (south-west,  and  156  miles  distant  from  St.  Petersburg) 
was  an  important  staple  of  Russia.  The  emporium  of  Sweden 
was  Wisby,  on  the  island  of  Gothland,  which  in  the  beginning 
of  the  12th  century  sent  abroad  its  merchant  vessels  even  as  far 
as  to  Alexandria  in  Egypt.  The  maritime  law  of  Wisby  was  of 
great  authority  far  and  near.  The  staples  of  Denmark  were 
Roeskilde,  Aalborg,  and  Aarhuus,  and  that  of  Norway  was  Bergen. 
In  England,  London  continued  still  to  be  the  only  emporium, 
but  in  the  15th  century  Bristol  also  began  to  rise.  Lastly,  with 
respect  to  industry,  it  was  chiefly  silk-weaving  and  dyeing,  that 
were,  the  former  art  introduced,  the  latter  improved,  since  the 
crusades.  The  Normans,  settled  on  the  island  of  Sicily,  waged 
war  against  the  Eastern  empire,  and  in  1 148,  headed  by  their 
king,  Roger  II.,  they  took  in  Corinth,  Athens,  and  Thebes,  where, 
as  in  Constantinople,  silk-manufactures  were  flourishing.  Greek 
silk-weavers  were  now  by  them  induced  to  go  to  Sicily  and  in- 
struct people  there  in  the  mysteries  of  their  art.  The  latter, 
thus  introduced  for  the  first  time  in  Italy,  was  soon  improved 
with  great  success  at  Palermo ;  thence  it  was  transplanted  to 
Lucca,  in  1309  to  Venice,  and  since  the  year  1314  to  Florence, 
Milan,  Bologna,  etc.  The  art  of  dyeing  was  improved  chiefly  by 
the  multiplication  of  dyeing  materials ;  saffron,  alum,  and  prob- 
ably indigo  too,  being  introduced  by  the  crusaders.  Orchilla.  as 
dyeing  material,  was  not  known  in  Europe  before  the  14th  cen- 
tury, and  first  brought  from  the  Orient  to  Florence  in  the  year 
1300.       Sicily,   favored   by   its   climate,   enjoyed    the    peculiar 


SOCIAL  AND   POLITICAL  HISTORY.  51 

Origin  of  Free  Citizenships  and  Corporations. 

advantage  of  cultivating  the  sugar-cane,  and  introducing  the  im- 
portant article  of  this  tropical  produce  into  Europe.  Before  the 
period  of  the  crusades,  honey  was  the  only  substitute  for  sugar 
throughout  Europe,  until  the  first  crusaders  became  acquainted 
with  the  sugar-cane  in  Syria.  Already,  before  the  middle  of  the 
12th  century,  it  was  cultivated  in  Sicily  on  a  large  scale  ;  thence 
it  was  transplanted  to  Madeira  (discovered  in  1419),  and  finally 
to  the  West  Indies.  Even  so  early  as  the  14th  century  the  con- 
sumption of  sugar  in  Italy  was  immense. 

(i.)  It  is  obvious  that  these  various  improvements,  occasioned 
by  the  crusades,  could  not  forbear  to  react  favorably  upon  the 
condition  of  the  citizens  in  most  of  the  European  towns.  Many 
communities  acquired  their  independence  and  privileges  by  grant- 
ing loans  or  gratuities  to  their  sovereigns  in  cases  of  pecuniary 
embarrassments.  The  first  cities,  obtaining  substantial  privileges, 
were  those  of  Upper  and  Central  Italy,  which  availing  themselves 
of  the  opportunity  presented  by  the  long-lasting  differences  be- 
tween the  German  emperors  and  the  popes,  became  independent 
in  the  administration  of  their  local  affairs.  Their  mayors  were 
called  podestas,  and  partly  appointed  by  the  German  emperor  (see 
historical  introduction  of  Italy),  partly  and  chiefly  elected  by  the 
citizens.  In  the  beginning  the  governmental  power  was  exercised 
exclusively  by  the  nobles  (or  patricians,  as  they  were  called  in 
most  of  those  cities) ;  but  subsequently  the  mechanics  laid  claim 
to  a  participation  in  government,  and  for  the  most  part  effected 
their  desire.  In  Germany,  those  free  cities,  whose  last  remnants 
are  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Lubec,  and  Frankfort,  took  existence 
during  the  reign  of  emperor  Frederic  II.  (1215-1250),  and  du- 
ring the  interregnum  (1250-1273  ;  see  historical  introduction  of 
Germany).  Although  these  cities  continued  to  be  subjected  to 
the  emperor,  their  privileges  were  very  substantial,  and  comprised, 
among  others,  the  right  of  immediateness  (i.  e.,  they  were  in- 


52  EUROPtt,   PAST   AND    PRESENT 

Municipal  Privileges — Luxuries. 

dependent  members  of  the  German  empire),  the  right  of  self- 
government  in  local  affairs,  the  staple-right,  the  rights  of  coinage, 
of  holding  fairs,  of  levying  customs,  etc.  Here,  as  in  the  Italian 
cities,  the  governmental  power  was  at  first  exercised  exclusively 
by  the  patricians,  till  in  the  14th  century  the  mechanics,  or  rather 
the  guilds,  obtained  the  right  of  participation  in  government,  at 
least  in  many  cities  of  southern  Germany.  In  France,  especially 
in  the  south  of  that  country,  the  high  nobility  and  clergy  granted 
regales,  or  other  similar  privileges,  to  many  cities,  partly  for 
money,  and  partly  because  they  considered  the  flourishing  of  these 
cities  suitable  to  their  own  interest.  In  Aragon  (see  §  16),  since 
the  year  1137,  comprising  Catalonia  also,  there  were  likewise 
privileged  cities,  besides  Barcelona ;  yet  the  governmental  power 
here  was  divided  between  royal  and  municipal  officers.  In  the 
north  of  Europe,  only  Novogorod  and  Pleskow  in  Russia,  and 
Wisby  in  Sweden,  enjoyed  similar  privileges  (Novogorod  even 
more)  as  the  Italian  and  German  free  cities.  The  increasing 
number  and  wealth  of  free  citizens  influenced  greatly  on  the  im- 
provement of  manufactures  and  of  industry  in  general,  and  the 
reaction  proved  favorable  in  almost  every  branch  of  human  exer- 
tion. The  cloth  manufactories,  for  instance,  being  in  this  period 
most  extensive  and  flourishing  in  Italy,  Germany,  France,  Switzer- 
land, Spain,  Englaud,  and  above  all  in  the  Netherlands  (where 
Louvain,  Ghent,  Dendermonde,  Ypres,  Brussels,  Bruges,  etc.,  were 
highly  distinguished  for  their  cloth  manufactures,  and  those  of 
Bruges  alone  yielded  the  means  of  existence  to  more  than  10,000 
families),  were  promoting  in  an  extraordinary  manner  the  raising 
of  sheep,  which  branch  of  husbandry  was  cultivated  chiefly  in 
England  and  Spain.  The  prevailing  luxury  influenced  again  on 
the  manufactures.  Scarlet  and  citrine  were  the  most  fashionable 
colors  of  dress  in  the  middle  ages ;  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
14th  century,  even  the  lower  classes  of  Genoa  wore  red  garments 


SOCIAL   AND   POLITICAL  HISTORY.  53 

Drinking  Propensities  and  Customs. 

with  lemon-colored  lining,  at  least  on  holydays.  Scarlet  state- 
dresses  were  sometimes  lined  with  green.  The  ladies  of  Placen- 
tia,  and  of  other  Italian  cities,  used  to  wear  wide  and  long  scarlet 
dresses,  either  of  fine  woollen,  or  of  silk  and  velvet,  or  of  gold- 
brocade.  Sleeves  and  girdles  were  set  with  pearls.  Besides 
diamond  rings  on  the  fingers,  the  hair  was  adorned  with  gold 
chains,  pearls,  and  precious  stones.  In  many  cities  of  Germany, 
Flanders,  Brabant,  and  France,  the  ladies  were  not  inferior  to 
those  of  Italy  in  finery.  On  the  other  side,  the  gentlemen  were 
not  behind-hand  in  ornament,  and  even  their  breeches  were  em- 
broidered with  gold,  silver,  and  pearls.  That  the  delight  in  the 
pleasures  of  the  table  kept  pace  with  this  luxury,  is  a  matter  of 
course ;  but  a  most  striking  feature  in  the  customs  of  the  middle 
ages  were  the  so-called  draughts  of  honor,  or,  in  plain  words,  the 
drinking  propensity.  In  Germany,  the  Netherlands,  and  in  the 
north  of  France,  beer  was  the  common  beverage,  in  the  northern 
countries,  mead,  and  in  the  southern,  wine.  Yet,  in  the  first-named 
countries,  wine  also  was  drunk  in  great  quantities.  In  the  drink- 
ing-rooms  of  the  cities  formal  drinking  rules  had  been  established 
by  practice.  The  drinkers  sat  down  round  "  the  abbot  and  his 
monks,"  viz. :  round  the  great  bumper  and  the  smaller  ones,  and 
the  chairman  insisted  upon  strict  observance  of  the  rules.  Woe 
to  him  who  was  dilatory  in  pledging!  He  incurred  the  risk  of 
having  the  contents  of  the  bumper  thrown  into  his  face.  Mead 
was  a  beverage  from  ancient  times  in  the  north  of  Europe ;  it 
was  even  exported  from  Germany,  through  Constantinople,  to 
Syria  and  Palestine,  until  the  end  of  the  12th  century.  In 
Meissen,  on  the  Elbe,  it  was  brewed  in  such  quantities,  that  in 
1015,  at  winter  time,  when  the  river  was  frozen  over,  a  rather 
great  fire  was  extinguished  with  mead.  The  multiplication  of 
the  branches  of  industry,  and  the  improvement  of  the  condition 
of  mechanics  and  tradesmen,  gave  rise  to  the  formation  of  guilds, 


EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Guilds — Hanseatic  League. 


or  corporations  of  mechanics  and  tradesmen.  They  originated 
in  the  period  of  the  crusades,  and  soon  spread  over  all  countries 
of  Europe.  In  Italy  they  were  most  numerous,  and  Florence, 
for  instance,  numbered  at  one  time  not  less  than  72  different 
guilds.  The  guild  of  the  cloth-weavers,  belonged  to  those  that 
stood  highest  in  credit.  Next  to  Italy,  the  guilds  were  most 
numerous  in  Germany.  In  the  middle  ages,  cases  of  sword-law 
occurred  frequently,  but  never  in  such  degree  as  since  the  midst 
of  the  13th  century.  About  the  same  time,  numerous  pirates 
were  roving  about  the  European  seas.  Thus  the  communications, 
both  by  land  and  by  sea,  were  infested  ;  and  whereas,  in  Germany, 
the  interregnum  (1250-1273)  prevented  the  redress  by  govern- 
ment, or  in  any  other  regular  way,  several  commercial  towns  en- 
tered into  a  confederacy  for  mutual  defence.  This  was  the  origin 
of  the  renowned  Hanseatic  League,  to  which  belonged  nearly  80 
cities  and  towns  of  Germany,  Prussia,  and  the  Netherlands,  among 
others,  the  following:  Hamburg,  Lubec,  Bremen,  Brunswick, 
Luneburg,  Magdeburg,  Breslau,  Dortmund,  Soest,  Osnabruck, 
Stralsund,  Wismar,  Rostock,  Stettin,  Konigsberg,  Elbing,  Dant- 
zick,  Amsterdam,  Arnhem,  Dort,  Deventer,  Groningen,  Zutphen, 
Zwoll,  Middelburg;  moreover,  Cracow  in  Poland,  Dorpat  in 
Livonia,  and  Wisby  on  the  Swedish  island  of  Gothland.  In  the 
course  of  time,  Lubec  became  the  head  of  the  Hanseatic  League 
that  entertained  a  large  navy.  The  Guildhall,  in  London,  was 
established,  if  not  directly  by  this  league,  yet  by  a  corporation  of 
German  merchants.  Other  confederacies  in  Germany  were  the 
Rhenish  League,  which  was  established  at  Mentz  in  1255,  and  to 
whom  belonged  not  only  Mentz,  Worms,  Spire,  Frankfort  on  the 
Maine,  etc.,  but  also  Cologne,  Wesel,  Munster,  and  other  members 
of  the  Hanseatic  League.  To  the  Swabian  League,  originating 
partly  in  the   13th,  but  chiefly  in  the   15th  century,  belonged 


SOCIAL  AND   POLITICAL   HISTORY.  65 

Geographical  Knowledge— Poetry  and  the  Fine  Arts. 

Nuremberg,  Augsburg,  and  other  cities  of  southern  Germany 
that  traded  chiefly  with  Italy. 

(j.)  New  scientific  progress  since  the  crusades,  was  chiefly 
made  in  Geography  and  other  kindred  branches  of  knowledge 
The  geographical  conceptions  hitherto  prevailing  in  most  parts 
of  Europe,  were  in  some  measure  enlarged  and  corrected  by  the 
crusades,  and  moreover  by  the  accounts  of  several  missionaries 
sent  to  Karakorum  (830  miles  north-west  from  Pekin,  and  370 
miles  south  from  Irkutsk),  once  the  splendid  capital  and  residence 
of  the  Mongolian  emperors,  by  the  pope,  and  king  Louis  IX.  of 
France,  in  1246,  and  the  following  years.  Besides  these  mission- 
aries, a  Venetian  merchant,  named  Marco  Polo,  visited  Mongolia, 
or  Tartary,  and  thence  China,  Cochinchina,  Malacca,  Ceylon, 
Persia,  and  Armenia,  in  the  period  from  the  year  1271  to  1295. 
Although  mixed  with  numerous  fables,  his  accounts  are,  in  sub- 
stance, correct ;  yet  they  did  not  in  general  add  much  to  geo- 
graphical knowledge  for  want  of  auxiliary  knowledge  in  nautical 
and  other  mathematical  branches.  All  mathematical  acquire- 
ments at  that  time  had  been  derived  from  Arabian  authors,  or 
Arabian  translations  of  Greek  authors.  This  latter  fact  may 
appear  strange ;  as  of  course  it  might  have  been  much  better  to 
make  use  of  the  Greek  original  instead  of  translations.  But 
(with  the  exception  of  the  Eastern  empire  and  Arabian  Spain) 
in  Europe  the  study  and  knowledge  of  the  ancient  Greek  language 
did  not  commence  before  the  latter  half  of  the  15th  century ;  and 
until  then  no  other  Bible  was  used  or  scarcely  known  than  its 
Latin  translation,  commonly  called  Vulgata.  The  fine  arts  made, 
in  this  period,  much  greater  progress  than  the  sciences.  Espe- 
cially poetry  rose  to  a  high  state  of  improvement,  and  assumed, 
after  the  crusades,  the  character  of  the  romantic.  Epic  and 
lyrical  poetry  flourished  chiefly  in  Germany  and  in  France,  and 
highly  celebrated  were  the  German  poets  of  the  12th  and  13th 


66  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Invention  of  Gunpowder— Art  of  Printing. 

century  (they  were  called  Minnesingers,  or  minstrels  of  love),  and 
at  the  same  period  the  Troubadours,  or  poets  of  Provence,  and 
other  parts  of  southern  France.  Even  on  the  island  of  Iceland 
(at  that  time  a  fertile  and  well-cultivated  country)  the  spirit  of 
poetry  was  improved  with  the  greatest  success.  The  Scandina- 
vian poets  of  the  middle  ages  were  called  Scalds.  Painting  and 
sculpture  were  first  raised  to  independent  fine  arts  in  the  13th 
century;  the  former  by  Cimabue  (born  in  1240,  died  in  1300), 
the  latter  by  Nicolo  Pisano  (the  latter  surname  alludes  to  Pisa, 
where  he  lived  in  the  midst  of  the  13th  century).  Painting  on 
glass  and  plastic  brass  founding  were  at  a  high  pitch  of  improve- 
ment in  this  period ;  but  above  all.  architecture,  whose  admirable 
grandeur  in  the  Germanic,  or  New  Gothic  style  (an  improvement 
of  the  original  Gothic  style)  dates  chiefly  from  the  13th  century. 
The  construction  of  the  cathedrals  of  Paris,  Rouen,  Rheims,  and 
Amiens,  of  Burgos  and  Toledo,  of  Cologne  and  Magdeburg,  and 
of  St.  Peter  in  York,  and  of  Westminster  Abbey  in  London, 
commenced  in  this  century,  while  that  of  the  cathedral  of  Stras- 
burg  commenced  in  1018,  and  of  those  of  Vienna  and  of  Freiburg 
(now  belonging  to  the  grand-duchy  of  Baden)  commenced  towards 
the  midst  of  the  12th  century.  Not  only  churches,  but  also 
monasteries,  or  abbeys,  palaces,  castles,  town-halls,  bridges,  etc., 
were  at  that  time  built  in  the  above-named  style. 

(k.)  Since  the  days  of  the  crusades,  Europe  had  more  and 
more  become  the  focus  of  universal  history,  yet  it  attained  its 
permanent  ascendency  in  this  respect  not  before  the  end  of  the 
15th  century,  when  not  only  the  use  of  gunpowder  (invented, 
according  to  common  supposition,  about  the  year  1350,  by  a  monk, 
at  Freiburg  in  Baden,  named  Barthold  Schwarz)  had  become 
more  general,  but  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing  (in  1 440) 
had  brought  another  not  less  powerful,  though  moral  weapon  into 
its  hand,  and  moreover  now  the  discovery  of  America  (in  1492), 


SOCIAL   AND   POLITICAL  HISTORY.  57 

The  Reformation. 

and  of  the  passage  by  sea  to  India  (1498),  opened  at  once,  as  it 
were,  all  temporal  treasures  to  its  spirit  of  enterprise,  and  ex- 
tended its  commerce,  hitherto  confined  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
in  a  rather  short  time  over  the  whole  earth.  While  these  impor- 
tant discoveries  brought  on  the  most  substantial  changes  in  the 
material  condition  and  circumstances  of  Europe,  not  less  portentous 
spiritual  alterations  were  effected  by  the  almost  simultaneous  Refor- 
mation, dating  from  October  31, 1517.  It  is  remarkable,  and  gives 
a  new  evidence  of  the  defectiveness  of  human  exertions  and  per- 
formances, that  all  those  inventions,  discoveries,  and  events,  good 
as  they  were  in  themselves  (perhaps  with  the  exception  of  the  in- 
vention of  gunpowder),  proved  to  have  their  wrong  side  too.  So, 
for  instance,  Christianity  is  indebted  to  the  art  of  printing  for  the 
circulation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  among  all  classes  of  society, 
and  the  sciences  are  indebted  to  this  art  for  their  high  state  of 
improvement ;  but.  at  the  same  time,  infidelity  and  revolutionary 
spirit  have  likewise  availed  themselves  of  this  powerful  lever  to 
propagate  their  mischievous  principles,  unfortunately  with  great 
success.  The  advantages  of  the  discovery  of  America  have  been 
immense  in  almost  every  respect ;  yet  it  not  only  proved  fatal  in 
its  consequences  to  the  discoverers  themselves,  in  drying  up  the 
intrinsical  sources  of  prosperity  in  Spain ;  but  it  transformed, 
almost  throughout  Europe,  the  hitherto  more  or  less  prevailing 
meek  and  quiet  spirit,  into  a  turbulent  one.  While  the  former 
"is  in  the  sight  of  God  of  great  price"  (1  Pet.  iii.  4),  the  latter 
is  of  great  annoyance  to  those  who  are  excited  by  this  spirit. 
The  benefits  of  the  Reformation  are  unquestionable  ;  nevertheless, 
the  arch-enemy  knew  very  well  how  to  avail  himself  even  of  this 
blessing.  He  suggested,  that  the  primitive  aim  of  the  Reforma- 
tion had  been  not  only  the  overthrow  of  superstition,  but  the 
overthrow  of  Christianity  itself;  and  hence  the  whole  host  of 
English  deists,  French  atheists,  and  German  rationalists,  have, 

3* 


58  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Thirty  Years'  War— Balance  of  Power. 

under  the  head  of  superstition,  directed  their  weapons  against 
everlasting  divine  truths,  and  united  in  the  attempt  to  supplant 
the  latter  by  human  deceptions,  or  rather  by  their  own  wrong- 
headed  fancies.  Characteristic  in  this  respect  is  the  fact  that  at 
the  very  time  when  the  first  French  revolution  was  at  its  highest 
pitch  of  excess,  a  prostitute  acted  the  part  of  the  goddess  of 
reason ! 

18.  Besides  this  tendency  to  infidelity,  it  was  chiefly  the  improve- 
ment of  foreign  and  domestic  politics,  which  marked  the  prevailing 
spirit  of  the  age  in  the  last  three  centuries.  All  the  principal 
events  of  Europe,  from  the  16th  to  the  end  of  the  18th  century, 
may  be  traced  to  this  latter  head.  The  German  emperor,  Charles 
V.,  was  the  first  European  prince  who  followed  a  steady  line  of 
policy ;  the  next  were  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  Henry  IV.  of 
France ;  then  followed  Richelieu,  and  the  Swedish  king  Gustavus 
Adolphus ;  Louis  XIV.,  and  William  III.  (of  the  house  of  Orange) ; 
Peter  I.,  Frederic  II.,  and  Catharine  II.  The  war  of  thirty  years 
(1618-1648)  was,  among  those  of  a  general  character,  the  only 
one  that  did  not  (at  least  not  directly)  arise  from  the  principles 
of  this  policy ;  for  it  was  the  natural  result  of  a  reactionary  ten- 
dency, called  forth  on  the  part  of  the  Roman  Catholics  by  the  Refor- 
mation. But  the  chief  motive  of  all  other  wars  in  the  before- 
named  period,  was  more  or  less  the  desire  of  conquest  and  aggran- 
dizement. Thus  the  wars  of  Henry  II.  of  France,  of  Philip  II.,  of 
Richelieu  (or  nominally  of  Louis  XIII.),  and  above  all,  those  of 
Louis  XIV.,  had  no  other  aim.  Henry  IV.  of  France,  was  the 
inventor,  and  king  William  III.  of  England,  the  improver  of  that 
whimsical  policy  known  by  the  name  of  European  equilibrium. 
A  balance  was  imagined,  with  Western  Europe  in  the  one,  and 
Eastern  Europe  in  the  other  scale,  and  now  it  was  the  rulers' 
problem  of  constantly  equipoising  and  balancing.  Thus  the 
reciprocal  countries  and  provinces  were  to  be  weighed  in  a  manner 


SOCIAL  AND   POLITICAL   HISTORY.  59 

French  Preponderance — Licentiousness — Infidelity. 

not  unlike  that  of  the  grocer  who  is  weighing  his  spices.  Only 
to  this  strange  rule  of  politics  European  Turkey  owes  the  contin- 
uation of  its  existence.  Henry  IV.  was,  by  the  stabs  of  Ravaillac. 
prevented  from  realizing  his  dreams  of  equilibrium ;  while  William 
III.  sacrificed  to  them  the  public  interest  of  Holland,  his  native 
country.  Even  so  late  as  the  year  1790,  King  Frederic  William 
II.  of  Prussia,  was  about  to  wage  war  against  Austria  and  Russia, 
merely  for  the  sake  of  the  fancied  European  equilibrium.  Before 
the  days  of  Louis  XIV.  Spain  and  the  German  Empire  ranked 
foremost  among  the  European  powers,  but  since  then  France  had 
attained  the  ascendency,  although  her  political  preponderance  had 
begun  to  be  lessened  by  degrees  so  early  as  the  year  1692,  when 
in  the  battle  of  La  Hogue  her  navy  received  the  first  fatal  blow 
from  the  English.  Yet  her  moral  ascendency  and  influence  has 
unfortunately  continued  to  the  present  day,  and  generated  all 
that  corruption  and  licentiousness  in  customs  and  manners  by 
which  Europe  became  infected.  The  abominable  public  and  pri- 
vate behavior  of  Louis  XIV.  set  a  bad  example  not  only  to  his 
own  subjects,  but  also  to  other  nations ;  first  to  foreign  princes, 
then  to  their  subjects.  The  still  more  ignominious  dissoluteness 
of  his  successor,  Louis  XV.,  pulled  down  the  last  barriers  of  ven- 
eration and  shame,  the  more  so  as  this  king  stupidly  suffered 
Voltaire,  and  the  other  French  atheists,  to  undermine  both  the 
Christian  faith  and  his  own  throne.  Diderot  was  even  allowed 
to  declare  publicly,  that  the  sovereign  happiness  of  man  would 
begin  as  soon  as  the  last  king  had  been  strangled  with  the  entrails 
of  the  last  priest !  German  book-learned  fancymongers,  and  Eng- 
lish so-called  philosophers,  aping  the  French  fashion-leaders,  as- 
sisted them  faithfully  in  their  endeavors,  and  even  that  great 
Prussian,  King  Frederic  II.,  was  in  this  respect  so  infatuated 
that  in  his  epistolary  correspondence  with  Voltaire,  d'Alembert, 
and  others  of  the  same  stamp,  the  letters  written  by  him,  as 


60  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Plan  of  the  separate  accounts  of  each  country. 

well  as  those  written  by  his  correspondents,  closed  always  with 
the  refrain :  ecrasez  Vinfame !  And  let  it  be  remembered  that 
this  blasphemous  motto  was  applied  to  our  Saviour  himself!  At 
that  time,  in  the  higher  circles,  and  partly  even  among  the  lower 
classes  of  society  in  France,  it  was  the  fashion  to  deny  the  exist- 
ence of  God  ;  materialism  was  the  watchword  and  idol  of  the  age ; 
the  most  insolent  and  disgusting  selfishness  went  hand  in  hand 
with  these  principles,  and  a  French  author  asserted  publicly,  that 
egotism  was  to  be  considered  as  the  only  and  genuine  motive  of 
human  actions.  "  Professing  themselves  to  be  wise,  they  became 
fools."  (Rom.  i.  22.)  The  excesses  and  crimes  of  the  first  French 
revolution  (1789)  were  a  natural  sequence  to  this  state  of  things. 


Entering  now  into  particulars  of  the  description  of  Europe, 
we  shall  describe  the  different  countries  in  the  following  order 
of  succession: — 

Portugal,  Prussia, 

Spain,  Austria, 

Italy,  Denmark, 

Switzerland,  Sweden  and  Norway, 

France,  Russia, 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Ionian  Islands, 

Belgium  and  Holland,  Greece, 

Germany,  Turkey. 

It  may,  at  the  first  glance,  appear  somewhat  strange  that  we 
commence  with  Portugal,  one  of  the  less  interesting  countries  of 
Europe.  But,  on  due  consideration,  it  seemed  most  natural  to 
begin  at  the  extreme  boundaries,  viz. :  either  on  the  north-east, 
i.  e.,  with  Russia,  or  on  the  south-west,  i.  e.,  with  Portugal.     Russia 


SOCIAL  AND   POLITICAL  HISTORY.  61 

Proposed  Description  of  the  several  Countries. 

presents  indeed  far  greater  interest  than  Portugal ;  but  as  the 
description  of  that  country  must  indispensably  digress  in  many 
instances  into  Asiatic  Russia,  and  would  at  the  same  time  imply 
the  necessity  of  giving  next  after  Russia  the  description  of  other 
eastern  countries  (Turkey,  etc.),  it  appeared  more  suitable  to  com- 
mence with  Portugal. 


PORTUGAL. 

Area  :  36,508  square  miles. 
Population:  3,725,000  inhabitants. 

The  kingdom  of  Portugal,  comprising  the  western  coast  of  the 
Pyrenean  peninsula  is  upon  an  average  106  miles  in  breadth, 
surrounded  on  the  west  and  south  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and 
on  the  other  sides  by  Spain. 

Of  the  above-stated  area  continental  Portugal  comprises  35,358 
square  miles,  while  the  remainder  is  to  be  assigned  to  the  Azore 
Isles,  which,  together  with  the  former,  constitute  one  and  the 
same  political  body,  and  rank  among  the  other  Portuguese  prov- 
inces. Thus  they  are  not  to  be  considered  as  African  colonies, 
like  Cape  Verd  Islands,  Angola,  etc.  ;  and  as  they  at  the  same 
time  are  situated  very  nearly  opposite  Lisbon,  and  little  more 
than  800  miles  distant  from  continental  Portugal  (while  the  dis- 
tance between  them  and  the  next  points  of  Africa  amounts  to 
more  than  920  miles),  they  are  very  improperly  ranked  by  most 
geographers  as  among  the  African  Islands. 

Of  the  above-stated  population,  3,500,000  live  in  continental 
Portugal,  and  250,000  inhabitants  on  the  Azore  Isles.  The 
Roman  Catholic  profession  is  the  religion  of  the  state,  though  all 
other  denominations  are  tolerated.  The  archbishop  of  Lisbon 
bears  the  title  of  patriarch  since  the  year  1717;  besides  him, 
there  are  6  bishops  in  Portugal  and  its  colonies  (formerly  there 
were  12  archbishops  and  14  bishops),  and  their  dioceses  comprise 


PORTUGAL.  nx 


( 'limate— Soil— Productions. 


4,086  parishes.  Even  so  late  as  the  year  1821  Portugal  still 
numbered  360  monasteries  with  5,760  monks,  and  126  uunneries 
with  2,725  nuns.     But  in  1834  all  cloisters  were  abolished. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  in  general  mountainous,  though 
not  in  such  a  prevailing  manner  as  in  Spain.  The  highest 
mountain  ranges  of  Portugal  are  the  Sierra  de  Estrella,  rising  to 
7,700  feet  in  height,  and  the  Sierra  Monchique  (see  Introduction, 
§  7,  ,.). 

The  principal  rivers  of  Portugal  are,  the  Tagus,  Douro,  Minho, 
and  Guadiana  (see  Introduction,  §  10).  Besides  them  there  are 
only  coast-rivers,  e.  g.,  the  Mondego,  the  Lima,  etc. 

The  climate  is  in  general  mild  and  salubrious. 

The  soil  is  upon  the  whole  very  fertile  in  the  valleys  and  plains, 
especially  in  Algarve,  and  might  yield  the  richest  crops  of  various 
kind,  if  the  people  were  more  diligent  and  intelligent.  Here,  as 
in  Spain,  the  possession  of  rich  colonies  paralyzed  more  or  less 
the  vigor  of  the  national  spirit,  and  while  in  the  16th  century  the 
riches  of  India,  and  subsequently  those  of  Brazil,  directed  their 
streams  to  Portugal,  the  people  sunk  by  degrees  into  indolence 
and  poverty.  Until  the  16th  century  the  cultivation  of  corn  was 
the  most  productive  source  of  wealth  to  the  country ;  but  later 
it  was  more  and  more  neglected,  and  already  for  many  years  past 
the  corn  raised  in  Portugal  is  not  sufficient  for  home  consumption. 
Wine,  sea-salt,  and  olive  oil,  are  the  chief  natural  products  of  the 
country.  The  best  wines  are  those  produced  in  the  environs  of 
Oporto  (universally  known  by  the  name  of  port-wine),  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  Lisbon  and  St.  Ubes.  Algarve  yields  the  best  olive 
oil,  and  the  chief  place  for  making  sea-salt  is  St.  Ubes.  Hemp 
and  flax  are  cultivated  in  some  northern  districts.  The  rearing 
of  cattle  is  far  less  important  than  the  rearing  of  mules,  and 
horses.  Fine  sheep  are  reared,  and  they  produce  valuable  wool. 
The  rearing  of  silk-worms  is  rather  considerable. 


EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Industry— Commerce— Education. 


The  industry  was  hitherto  in  a  backward  state  as  well  as  the 
agriculture  ;  yet  in  recent  times  several  of  its  branches  have  been 
improved  with  much  success.  To  be  noticed  are:  the  silk  manu- 
factories of  Oporto,  Braganza,  and  Campo  Grande  (near  Lisbon), 
the  cloth  and  woollen  manufactories  of  Portalegre,  Covilhan,  and 
Fundao,  the  manufactories  of  calico,  gold  and  silver  ware  of 
Lisbon  and  Oporto,  the  linen  manufactories  in  the  provinces  of 
Minho,  Beira,  and  Traz  os  Montes ;  and  finally  the  tanneries  of 
Lisbon,  St.  Ubes,  Oporto,  Coimbra,  Beja,  etc. 

The  commerce  of  Portugal,  once  very  extensive,  especially  in 
the  16th  century,  and  even  in  the  last  century,  is  now  quite 
limited,  and  the  imports  far  exceed  the  exports  in  value.  Since 
the  days  of  Cromwell,  and  chiefly  since  the  conclusion  (in  1703) 
of  the  so-called  Methuen-treaty  (derived  from  the  name  of  the 
English  plenipotentiary,  named  Methuen),  the  English  have  not 
only  acted  the  part  of  masters  of  the  country,  but  almost  exer- 
cised a  monopoly  on  Portugal,  into  which  they  import  even  the 
meanest  necessaries  of  life  besides  their  manufactures.  Fortu- 
nately the  exports  of  port- wine  to  England  are  very  considerable  ; 
otherwise  the  Portuguese  would  have  to  pay  the  whole  of  the 
English  imports  in  ready  money.  In  1844,  Portugal  exported 
33,946  pipes  of  port-wine,  of  which  25,492  were  exported  to 
England,  3,278  to  the  United  States,  1,943  to  Brazil,  919  to 
Hamburg,  716  to  Calcutta,  and  Hongkong,  290  to  Sweden,  Nor- 
way, and  Denmark,  225  to  Canada,  212  to  Halifax,  162  to  Hol- 
land, 109  to  Newfoundland,  95  to  Russia,  67  to  Prussia,  6  to 
France,  and  432  to  the  Portuguese  colonies. 

The  means  of  education  are  very  deficient,  notwithstanding  the 
pompous  names  of  the  different  schools.  Besides  one  university 
at  Coimbra  (founded  in  1297  at  Lisbon,  but  in  1308  transferred 
to  Coimbra;  in  1841  it  numbered  1,300  students),  public  reports 
of  the  year  1841  enumerated  17  seminaries,  27  lyceums.  8  gymna- 


PORTUGAL. 


Government— Finances. 


shims,  263  progymnasiums,*  and  873  common  schools  ;  yet  all  these 
schools  were,  in  the  named  year,  frequented  by  no  more  than  31.280 
pupils.  (The  common  schools  of  the  city  of  Berlin  alone,  were 
at  the  same  period  frequented  by  as  many  pupils.)  Moreover, 
the  instruction  itself  is  managed  in  a  rather  miserable  manner. 
It  is  needless  to  remark  that  under  these  circumstances  very  few 
of  the  lower  class  in  Portugal  can  read  and  write. 

The  government  of  Portugal  is  a  limited  hereditary  monarchy, 
the  supreme  power  being  vested  in  a  King,  or,  at  present,  Queen 
(Donna  Maria  II.  da  Gloria,  born  April  4,  1819,  ascending  the 
throne  in  1834.  and  married  in  second  marriage  to  Prince  Ferdi- 
nand, of  Coburg-Kohary),  and  a  legislative  body. 

With  respect  to  the  public  finances,  the  official  statement  for 
the  period  of  1845-1846  estimated  the  amount  of  the  revenue  at 
10,756,954  millrees  (one  millree  is  little  more  in  value  than  one 
dollar),   and    that   of  the   expenditure   at   10,717,542   millrees. 

*  As  the  above-mentioned  terms  will  frequently  occur  in  this  work,  it  may 
be  suitable  to  give  some  explanations  about  them.  The  higher  schools  of 
continental  Europe  have  the  same  object  in  view,  but  in  general  not  the  same 
organization  as  those  of  the  United  States.  Universities  have,  in  Germany, 
Holland,  Sweden,  Denmark,  etc.,  the  signification  of  high  schools,  where  all 
branches  of  science  are  taught,  and  which  for  this  purpose  unite  the  four  fac- 
ulties of  theology,  jurisprudence,  medicine,  and  philosophy  (including  astrono- 
my and  the  higher  branches  of  mathematics,  history ,etc.).  Lyceums  and  Gym- 
nasiums are  those  higher  schools,  where  all  branches  of  preparatory  knowledge, 
necessary  for  those  who  frequent  the  universities,  are  taught  (for  instance,  the 
Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew,  mathematics,  etc.).  Their  pupils  are  (at  least  in 
most  of  the  countries  of  continental  Europe)  not  boarders,  but  frequent  the 
ly  ceums  and  gymnasiums  only  at  certain  hours  of  the  day  and  then  go  home  again. 
Seminaries  have  in  Europe  almost  everywhere  the  signification  of  prepara- 
tory schools  for  future  teachers.  Progymnasiums  are  schools  where,  beside  the 
elements  of  knowledge,  the  Latin  is  taught,  and  which  for  this  reason  are  as 
frequently  called  Latin  schools. 


EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Public  Debt— Army— Navy. 


Nevertheless  in  the  preceding  year,  1844,  the  actual  amount  of 
the  revenue  was  9,843,000,  and  of  the  expenditure  11,158,000 
millrees.  Thus  a  deficiency  of  1,315,000  millrees  became  appa- 
rent. At  the  same  period  the  public  debt  was  84,130,000  millrees, 
of  which  amount  only  73,957,000  yielded  interest.  This  state 
of  things  must  appear  somewhat  strange,  when  we  consider  that 
in  1834  nearly  500  cloisters  were  abolished  (see  ante)  and  their 
estates  confiscated  in  behalf  of  commonwealth.  The  produce  of 
the  sale  must  have  been  very  considerable,  as  most  of  these  con- 
vents were  wealthy,  and  some  of  them  had  an  annual  revenue  of 
more  than  $100,000.  Towards  the  end  of  the  year  1836  the  real- 
ization of  all  these  estates  had  been  effected  ;  nevertheless,  one  or 
two  months  afterwards,  viz. :  on  the  first  of  February,  1837,  the 
minister  of  finances  declared  publicly  and  officially  a  deficiency 
to  the  extent  of  5,312,500  millrees!  Thus  the  money  got  by 
the  sale  of  the  monastic  estates  cannot  have  been  deposited  in 
the  public  treasury,  but  must  in  some  way  or  other  have  gone 
astray.  And  so  it  is.  The  Portuguese  people  have  not  received 
a  farthing  of  the  money,  and  their  public  burdens,  instead  of 
being  alleviated,  have  on  the  contrary  been  aggravated  by  adding 
new  items  to  the  former  heavy  taxes ;  but  Don  Pedro  and  his 
English  and  Portuguese  adherents  have  been  enriched  by  that 
lucrative  experiment ;  and  it  is  a  fact  that  golden  crosses,  sacred 
vessels,  and  many  other  objects  of  great  value,  have  clandestinely 
been  pilfered  and  carried  away  to  England. 

The  Portuguese  army  amounts,  according  to  official  statement, 
to  25,970,  but  actually  only  to  about  18,000  men,  besides  9,000 
men  in  the  colonies.  The  navy  is  at  present  reduced  to  5  frigates, 
4  sloops  of  war,  and  several  other  vessels  of  smaller  size.  In 
1783,  and  still  in  1808,  the  naval  force  of  Portugal  consisted  of 
10  ships  of  the  line,  18  frigates,  etc.,  all  in  good  order;  and  in 


PORTUGAL.  67 


Ordrrs  of  Honor— History  of  Portugal. 


1825  it  numbered  at  least  still  5  ships  of  the  line,  while  at  pres- 
ent there  is  none  more  left. 

The  Portuguese  orders  of  honor  are  the  following: — 1.  The 
orJer  of  merit  of  St.  Benedict  of  Aviz,  established  in  1162  as  a 
religious  order  of  knighthood,  but  in  1789  transformed  by  Maria 
I.  into  a  military  order  of  merit.  2.  The  order  of  St.  Jago  from 
the  year  1288,  transformed  by  Maria  I.  into  an  order  of  merit. 

3.  The  order  of  Christ,  derived  from  the  papal  order  having  the 
same   name    (see   introduction,  of  the    States   of  the    Church). 

4.  The  order  of  St.  John,  arisen  from  that  order  from  the  year 
1048,  described  above  (see  History  of  Europe,  §  17,  h).  5.  The 
order  of  tower  and  sword,  established  in  1459,  and  renewed  in 
1808.  6.  The  order  of  the  immaculate  conception  of  Villa  Vicosa, 
established  in  1819  by  John  VI. 

History  of  Portugal. — Portugal  was  called  Lusitania  by  the  Romans,  who 
waged  war  against  this  country  since  the  year  148,  B.  C,  but  did  not  conquer 
it  completely  before  the  year  19,  B.  C.  Its  fate  since  the  migration  of  nations 
we  have  learned  from  the  history  of  Europe  (§§  2,  10,  14,  and  16),  and  we 
shall  now  enter  into  further  particulars.  About  the  midst  of  the  11th  century 
King  Ferdinand  of  Castile  wrested  the  greatest  part  of  Lusitania  from  the 
Moors.  In  these  wars  Count  Henry  of  Burgundy  (see  History  of  Burgundy 
under  the  head  of  France)  rendered  such  signal  services  to  King  Alphonso  VL 
of  Castile,  that  the  latter,  in  reward  for  them,  gave  him,  in  1093,  his  daughter 
in  marriage  and  a  Lusitanian  province  in  dowry.  This  province,  comprising 
the  present  provinces  of  Traz  os  Montes  and  Entre  Minho  e  Douro,  was  styled 
the  earldom  of  Portucalia  (derived  from  Portus  Cafe,  the  ancient  name  of 
Oporto),  and  thus  Count  Henry  became  the  first  count  of  Portugal  (this  latter 
name  was  derived  from  Portucalia).  Henry's  son  and  successor,  Alphonso 
Henriquez,  prosecuted  the  conquests  of  his  father,  and  having  in  1139  in  the 
battle  at  Ourique  (at  the  Algafvian  frontier)  vanquished  five  Moorish  kings 
(hence  the  five  bucklers  in  the  Portuguese  coat  of  arms),  he  was  proclaimed 
king  of  Portugal  by  his  troops.  Soon  after  acknowledged  and  confirmed  in 
his  new  dignity  by  the  pope  Alexander  HI.,  he  in  1143  summoned  the  Cortes 
or  States  of  his  empire  to  an  assembly  at  Lamego,  and  on  this  occasion  it  was 


EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


History  of  Portugal— Early  Voyages  and  Discoveries. 


when  the  fundamental  laws  of  Portugal,  together  with  the  order  of  succession, 
were  established.  King  Alphonso  IV.  (1325-1357)  was  renowned  for  his 
valor,  yet  he  polluted  his  glory  by  consenting  to  the  assassination  of  his 
daughter-in-law,  the  handsome  Inez  (Agnes)  de  Castro,  clandestinely  married 
to  his  son  Peter  Z,  surnamed  the  Cruel  (on  account  of  the  frightful  revenge 
ho  took  on  the  murderers  of  Inez).  Peter  the  Cruel  (died  in  1367)  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  eldest  son  Ferdinand  who  died  in  1383,  and  with  whom  the 
so-called  genuine  Burgundian  race  became  extinct.  For  the  second  marriage 
of  Peter  the  Cruel  with  Inez  de  Castro  was  not  considered  as  a  legitimate 
one ;  and  for  this  reason  a  Castilian  prince  claimed  the  right  of  succession  on 
the  Portuguese  throne.  Yet  the  Portuguese  Cortes,  or  states,  filled  with 
hatred  against  the  Castilians,  proclaimed,  in  1 384,  Peter's  second  son  John 
king  of  Portugal.  John  I.  being  the  son  of  Inez  de  Castro,  he  and  his  suc- 
cessors were  comprehended  under  the  appellation  of  the  bastard  Burgundian 
race.  Nevertheless  to  the  kings  of  this  race  the  Portuguese  owe  the  ages  of 
their  highest  renown.  For  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  or  15th  century  those 
famous  voyages  of  discovery  commenced  which  ended  in  unlocking  to  the 
Portuguese  the  treasures  of  India  and  Brazil,  and  ranked  them,  at  least  for  a 
long  while,  among  the  first  nations  of  the  world.  They  were  superintended 
by  Don  Henry,  son  of  King  John  I.,  who  personally  interested  himself  in 
these  enterprises.  The  first  vessels  he,  in  1416,  sent  out  for  this  purpose 
sailed  close  by  the  north-western  coast  of  Africa,  and  did  not  venture  to 
double  Cape  Bojador;  in  1418  the  island  of  Porto  Santo  (near  Madeira),  in 
1419  that  of  Madeira,  and  in  1432  the  Azore  Isles,  were  discovered  and  set- 
tled. In  the  last-named  year  Cape  Bojador  was  at  length  doubled,  and  later 
Cape  Blanco,  Cape  Verd,  Cape  Verd  Islands,  and  Guinea  discovered.  King 
John  II.  was  of  a  very  active  and  enterprising  character  too ;  he  frequently 
sent  vessels  to  the  West- African  shores,  and  thus  in  1486  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
was  discovered  by  Barthol.  Diaz.  On  the  9th  of  July,  1497,  Vasco  de  Gama 
sailed  from  Lisbon ;  he  doubled  the  last-named  cape  on  the  20th  of  Novem- 
ber, and  arrived  at  the  port  of  Calicut  on  the  19th  of  May,  1498.  Thus  the 
maritime  way  to  India  was  opened  to  the  enterprising  spirit  of  the  civilized 
world,  six  years  after  the  discovery  of  America.  King  Emanuel  of  Portugal, 
the  successor  of  John  II.  since  the  year  1495,  hastened  to  avail  himself  of  the 
important  discovery  made  by  Vasco  de  Gama  (who  returned  to  Lisbon,  August 
29,  1499),  and  sent  a  fleet  of  13  vessels  to  India  in  1500.  On  this  occasion 
Brazil  was  discovered.     But  we  must  now  return  to  the  political  history  of 


PORTUGAL.  09 


History — Spanish  Rule — House  of  Braganza. 


Portugal.  King  Emanuel  died  1521,  and  was  succeeded  by  John  III.,  who 
died  in  1557,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson  Sebastian.  Unfortunately 
King  Sebastian  was  at  the  period  of  the  regal  vacancy  only  three  years  old, 
and  his  education,  as  well  as  the  regency  during  his  minority,  was  intrusted 
to  the  care  of  the  Jesuits,  who  inspired  him  with  a  fanatic  spirit  to  such  a 
degree  that  it  became  his  most  ardent  desire  to  wage  war  against  the  infidels. 
Guided  by  this  spirit  and  turning  a  deaf  ear  to  the  warnings  of  his  counsel- 
lors and  even  of  the  king  of  Spain,  he  in  1578  ventured  an  expedition  against 
the  Moors  of  Morocco,  and  on  the  4th  of  August,  in  a  bloody  battle  at  Alcassar, 
not  only  his  army  was  totally  routed,  but  he  himself  disappeared  in  a  myste- 
rious manner  forever.  His  only  legitimate  successor  to  the  crown  was  the 
old  cardinal  Henry,  third  son  of  King  Emanuel,  but  his  reign  was  of  short 
duration;  for  he  died  in  1580.  Amongst  the  pretenders  to  the  throne  who 
now  came  forth  with  their  claims,  the  most  powerful  was  King  Philip  II. 
of  Spain,  whose  mother  had  been  the  eldest  daughter  of  King  Emanuel. 
Philip,  countenancing  his  claims  by  an  army  of  24,000  men,  attained  his  aim, 
and  thus  Portugal  was,  in  the  period  from  the  year  1580  to  1640,  under  the 
sway  of  Spain.  Yet  the  national  hatred  between  the  Portuguese  and  the 
Spaniards  did  not  subside;  and  Philip's  next  nearest  successor,  Philip  IV., 
being  a  weak  and  indolent  king,  the  Portuguese  seized  the  first  opportunity 
of  casting  off  the  odious  Spanish  yoke,  and  proclaimed  the  duke  of  Braganza 
king  of  Portugal  (December  1,  1640).  The  duke  of  Braganza  was  the  de- 
scendant of  a  natural  son  of  King  John  I.  (see  above),  and  mounted  the  throne 
as  King  John  IV.  Since  that  time  the  house  of  Braganza  has  continued  to 
reign  over  the  kingdom  of  Portugal.  John  IV.  died  in  1656,  and  his  succes- 
sors were  the  following :  Alphonso  VI.  (1656-1667),  Peter  II.  (1667-1706), 
John  V.  (1706-1750),  Joseph  I.  (1750-1777),  Maria  I.  (1777-1816),  and  John 
VI.  (1816-1826).  The  reign  of  the  rather  imbecile  King  Joseph  I.  was  sig- 
nalized by  the  despotic  proceeding  of  his  minister,  the  marquis  of  Pombalf 
who.  being  a  mimic  and  enthusiastic  admirer  of  the  so-called  French  philoso- 
phers (see  History  of  Europe  towards  the  end),  intended  to  civilize,  or  rather 
to  force  the  Portuguese  people  into  his  Utopian  system  at  any  price.  Pre- 
possessed as  he  was  with  his  insensate  ideas  and  dreams,  he  treated  every 
one,  who  seemed  to  stand  in  his  way,  with  the  utmost  recklessness  and 
tyranny ;  and  after  his  degradation  (which  took  place  at  the  death  of  King 
Joseph),  the  astonishing  discovery  was  made  that  several  rooms  of  his  palace 
were  filled  with   letters  of  petition,  claims,  etc.,   unopened!     Prince   John 


70  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


History  of  Portugal— Brazil— Contest  of  Pedro  with  M  gnrl. 

(subsequently  King  John  VI.)  was  in  1792  declared  Prince  Regent  in  conse- 
quence of  his  mother's  insanity.  He  did  not  meddle  at  all  with  the  French 
revolution  and  the  subsequent  political  affairs  of  Europe ;  yet  being  compelled 
by  the  English  to  disregard  the  continental  system  established  by  Napoleon, 
the  latter  sent,  towards  the  end  of  October,  1807,  an  army  to  invade  Portugal. 
In  these  circumstances  the  Prince  Regent  followed  the  advice  of  the  English, 
and  embarked  with  the  royal  family  for  Brazil,  the  chief  Portuguese  colony. 
Here  he  resided  until  the  year  1821,  when  he  returned  to  Portugal,  leaving 
his  eldest  son  Don  Pedro  behind.  In  the  following  year  (1822)  Don  Pedro 
declared  himself  emperor  of  Brazil,  which  country  has  since  continued  to  be 
an  independent  empire ;  and  by  this  declaration  he  actually  renounced  his 
hereditary  right  of  succession  to  the  Porhtguese  crown,  according  to  the  clear 
terms  of  the  order  of  succession  established  in  1641  by  the  Cortes  of  Lamego 
(as  the  legitimate  representatives  of  the  Portuguese  people  were  called). 
Thus,  when  John  VI.  died  in  1826,  his  legitimate  successor  was  his  second 
son,  Don  Miguel,  who  indeed  was  in  1828  proclaimed  king  by  the  Cortes 
with  the  agreement  of  the  majority  of  the  Portuguese  people.  But  as  Don 
Miguel  considered  both  the  English  monopoly  (see  above)  and  a  constitution 
of  modern  pattern  as  incompatible  with  the  interest  and  welfare  of  the  Por- 
tuguese people,  he  aroused  on  the  one  side  the  jealousy  of  the  British  gov- 
ernment, and  on  the  other  side  the  rage  of  the  liberal  party  in  France  and  other 
countries.  Meanwhile  Don  Pedro  had  in  1831  been  compelled  by  the  Brazil- 
ians to  abdicate,  and  was  driven  away.  He  went  to  Paris  and  lived  there  in 
retirement,  until  English  stock-jobbers,  headed  by  Lord  Pahnerston,  induced 
him  to  venture  an  expedition  against  his  brother.  The  former  provided  him 
money,  and  the  latter  with  adventurers  of  every  kind.  It  would  be  endless 
to  relate  all  the  tricks,  machinations,  briberies,  etc.,  employed  for  the  purpose 
of  attaining  the  aim.  In  short,  Don  Pedro  at  last  succeeded,  and  in  1834  his 
daughter  Donna  Maria  II.  (see  above)  mounted  the  throne.  In  the  same  year 
died  Don  Pedro  (on  the  24th  of  September),  having  previously  taken  care  to 
provide  for  himself  and  his  good  friends  by  confiscating  the  estates  of  the  con- 
vents (see  above).  We  are  well  aware  that  this  statement  of  the  modern 
part  of  Portuguese  history  differs  from  the  misrepresentations  circulated  about 
Portugal  in  these  last  twenty  or  twenty- five  yeais.  But  as  it  is  the  duty  of 
every  lristorian  to  adhere  strictly  to  historical  truth,  we  have  not  a  moment 
hesitated  to  give  the  facta  as  they  actually  have  been,  and  not  as  they  should 
have  been,  according  to  feverish  dreams,  commonly  called  the  spirit  of  the  age. 


PORTUGAL.  •       71 


Geographical  Description— Estremadura. 


Portugal  (exclusive  of  the  islands)  has  from  old  been  divided 
into  6  provinces,  of  which  the  most  southerly  is  styled  the  king- 
dom of  Algarve.  In  1835,  of  the  two  provinces  of  Beira  and 
Entre  Minho  e  Douro  four  provinces  were  formed,  and  the  whole 
of  the  provinces  subdivided  into  17  districts.  But  as  this  altera- 
tion is  not  an  essential  one,  we  shall,  for  the  sake  of  simplifica- 
tion, retain  the  former  division. 

1.  The  province  of  Estremadura  (subdivided  into  the  3  districts  of  Lis- 
bon, Leiria,  and  Santarem),  at  the  mouth  and  on  both  sides  of  the  Tagus, 
containing:  Lisbon  (Portuguese  Lisboa),  the  capital  of  Portugal  and  royal 
residence,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tagus,  with  280,000  inhabitants,  44  parish- 
churches  (among  them  the  remarkable  cathedral),  and  numerous  other 
churches  and  chapels,  many  charitable  institutions,  fine  public  and  private 
buildings,  a  royal  academy  of  sciences,  a  royal  library  with  85,000  volumes, 
3  observatories,  etc.,  and  the  royal  palaces  of  Ajitda,  Bemposta,  and  Necessi.- 
daden.  Lisbon  is  a  place  of  considerable  commerce,  and  has  one  of  the  finest 
harbors  in  the  world.  A  magnificent  aqueduct,  built  in  1743  entirely  of 
marble,  supplies  the  city  with  fresh  water.  Lisbon  has  frequently  suffered 
by  earthquakes ;  the  most  formidable  of  them  were  those  of  1356,  1597,  and 
especially  of  1755  (Nov.  1),  when  one  half  of  the  city  was  destroyed,  and 
more  than  30,000  of  the  inhabitants  perished.  Upon  the  whole,  the  city  is 
ill-built,  and  numerous  dogs  are  running  about  in  the  dirty  streets.  Lisbon, 
wrested  from  the  Moors  in  1147,  has  since  the  days  of  John  I.,  been  royal 
residence.  Belem,  though  a  town  by  itself,  is  considered  as  forming  a  part  of 
Lisbon ;  it  is  noted  for  its  royal  castle,  and  a  magnificent  pile,  formerly  an 
abbey  of  the  order  of  St.  Jerome,  the  church  of  which  contains  the  royal 
family  vault.  Another  royal  castle  is  at  Queluz.  About  14  miles  to  the 
north-west  of  Lisbon  is  situated  the  town  of  Cintra,  with  4,000  inhabitants, 
and  the  remarkable  so-called  cork-cloister,  the  interior  walls  of  which  are 
covered  with  cork  in  order  to  keep  off  humidity.  Quite  near  lie3  the  village 
of  Vimieira,  noted  for  the  first  important  battle  between  the  English  and 
the  French  in  1808.  The  royal  palace  of  Mafra,  built  in  the  period  from 
1717-1731,  contains  870  apartments,  with  5,200  windows,  and  bears  in  many 
points  resemblance  to  the  famous  palace  of  the  Escurial  in  Spain.  Torres 
Yedras,  a  city  with  3,500  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  the  strong  lines  of  fortifica- 


72  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Geographical  Description— Beira— Douro. 

tions  which  Lord  Wellington  established  here  in  1810.  About  55  miles  to 
the  north  of  Lisbon  are  situated  the  stately  building  of  the  former  monaste- 
ries of  Alcobaca  (founded  in  1148),  and  Batalha  (founded  in  1386),  whose 
monks  were  altogether  nobles  and  possessed  of  immense  riches.  Santarem, 
a  town  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tagus,  46  miles  above  Lisbon,  with  8,000, 
and  Abrantes,  37  miles  farther  up  the  river,  with  considerable  trade,  and  5,000 
inhabitants.  St.  Ubes,  or  Setubal,  a  sea- town  at  18  miles  distance  from  Lis- 
bon, has  15,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  salt-works.  Other  cities  and 
towns  in  the  province  of  Estremadura  are :  Leiria  (with  2,000  inhabitants), 
Pombal  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Obidos  (witli  5,500  inhabitants),  Ourem 
(with  4,500  inhabitants),  Thomar  (with  3,800  inhabitants),  Ahnada  (with 
4,000  inhabitants),  Cezimbra  (with  4,500  inhabitants),  etc. 

2.  The  province  of  Beira,  between  the  Douro  and  Tagus  rivers,  and  subdi- 
vided into  the  districts  of  Coimbra,  Aveiro,  Lamego.  and  Guarda  (belonging 
to  Upper  Beira),  and  of  Castello  Branco  (or  Lower  Beira) ;  containing  :  Co- 
imbra, capital  of  the  province,  on  the  Mondego,  north-north-east,  and  110 
miles  distant  from  Lisbon,  and  southward  and  69  miles  distant  from  Oporto, 
with  the  only  university  of  the  country  (see  above),  a  remarkable  cathedral, 
considerable  inland  commerce,  and  15,000  inhabitants.  In  the  middle  ages, 
Coimbra  was  for  years  the  royal  residence,  and  in  a  garden  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  Mondego  the  unfortunate  Inez  de  Castro  was  murdered  in  1350 
(see  History  of  Portugal).  Aveiro,  a  maritime  town  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Vouga  river,  with  4,500  inhabitants.  Vizeu,  or  Viseu,  a  town  situated  south- 
east, and  50  miles  distant  from  Oporto,  with  great  fairs,  and  9,000  inhabitants. 
Lamego,  a  city  eastward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Oporto,  with  9,000  inhabi- 
tants, cultivating  much  vine.  At  Lamego  the  Cortes  or  states  of  Portugal  framed 
the  fundamental  laws  of  the  kingdom  (see  History  of  Portugal).  Other  cities 
and  towns  in  the  province  of  Beira  are :  Esqueira  (formerly  noted  for  its 
oldest  and  wealthiest  Benedictine  convent  of  the  country),  Figueira  do  Mon- 
dego (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Pinhel  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Almeida 
(strongly  fortified,  with  3,000  inhabitants),  Covilhao  (with  6,000  inhabitants), 
Castellobranco  (with  6,500  inhabitants),  Ovar  (with  11,000  inhabitants),  etc. 

3.  The  province  of  Entre  Minho  e  Douro,  on  the  west  bordered  by  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  north  by  the  Spanish  province  of  Galicia,  and  on  the 
other  sides  by  Beira  and  Traz  os  Montes ;  it  is  the  best  cultivated,  most  indus- 
trious, and  most  populous  province  (subdivided  into  the  3  districts  of  Oporto, 
Braga,  and  Viana),  and  contains :  OroaTo,  or  Porto,  the  capital  of  the  prov- 


PORTUGAL.  73 


Geographical  Description— Traz  os  Montes— Algarve. 


ince,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Douro,  is  not  only  the  second  city,  but  the  sec- 
ond emporium  of  the  kingdom;  Ion*  since  famous  for  its  considerable  exports 
of  port-wine  (see  the  particulars  above),  and  has  moreover  numerous  manufac- 
tures of  various  descriptions,  many  fine  building.?,  90  churches,  40  hospitals, 
etc.,  and  80,000  inhabitants.  Brag  a,  a  city  situated  north-north-east,  and  ST 
miles  distant  from  Oporto,  with  a  great  and  remarkable  cathedral,  and  15,00<> 
inhabitants.  The  Suevian  kings,  shortly  after  they  had  conquered  the  coun- 
try (see  History  of  Europe,  §  3),  took  their  seat  at  Braga.  Other  cities  and 
towns  of  this  province  are:  Viana  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  Guhnardes  (with 
6,000  inhabitants),  Amarante  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Ponte  tie  Lima  (with 
2,500  inhabitants),  Barccllos  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Villa  do  Conde  (with 
3,000  inhabitants),  etc. 

4.  The  province  of  Tuaz  os  Montes  (subdivided  into  the  2  districts  of  Bra- 
ganza  and  Villarcal),  on  the  east  side  of  the  preceding  province,  containing  : 
Braganza,  the  capital  of  the  province,  and  the  ancestral  seat  of  the  royal 
family  (see  History  of  Portugal),  not  far  off  the  Spanish  frontier,  north-east- 
ward, and  184  miles  distant,  from  Lisbon,  with  5,000  inhabitants.  Peso  da 
Regoa,  a  little  town,  but  noted  for  its  considerable  depot  of  port-wine  and  its 
famous  wine-fairs  in  February.  Other  towns  in  this  province  are :  Villareal 
(with  4,000  inhabitants),  Chaves  (with  5,500  inhabitants),  Torre  de  Monoorvo 
(with  2,000  inhabitants),  Miranda  de  Douro  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  Miran- 
della  (with  1,800  inhabitants,)  etc. 

5.  The  province  of  Alemtejo,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Tagus  (divided  info 
the  3  districts  of  Evora,  Beja,  and  Portalegre),  contains :  Evora,  the  capital 
of  the  province,  74  miles  south-east  from  Lisbon,  with  many  Roman  antiqui- 
ties, and  9,100  inhabitants,  cultivating  much  vine.  Bkja,  a  town  with  Roman 
antiquities,  and  5,000  inhabitants.  Elvas,  a  strongly  fortified  city  near  the 
Spanish  frontier,  with  a  remarkable  aqueduct  built  by  the  ancient  Romans, 
and  10,000  inhabitants.  Villa  Vicosa,  a  fortified  town,  with  a  royal  palace, 
and  3,000  inhabitants.  Ourique,  a  town  near  the  frontier  of  Algarve,  south- 
eastward, and  100  miles  distant  from  Lisbon,  with  2,000  inhabitants,  is  noted 
for  the  defeat  of  the  Moors  by  Alphonso  I.,  in  1139  (see  History  of  Portugal). 
Other  towns  of  this  province  are :  Portalegre  (with  6.400  inhabitants),  Estre- 
moz,  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Moura  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Serpa  (with 
6,000  inhabitants),  Campo  Mayor  (with  4,500  inhabitants),  Sines  (with  1,200 
inhabitants),  etc. 

6.  The  province  (or  kingdom)  of  Algarve,  the  most  southerly  province  of 

4 


74  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


The  Azores. 


Portugal  (with  an  area  of  2,151  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  136,000  in- 
habitants), comprising  only  the  district  of  Faro,  and  containing :  Lagos,  the 
ancient  capital  of  Algarve,  on  a  bay  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  with  9,000  inhab- 
itants. Taviua,  the  modern  capital  of  Algarve,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gua- 
diana  River,  with  9,000  inhabitants.  Near  Cape  St.  Vincent  (noted  for  a 
naval  victory  of  the  English  in  1797)  is  situated  the  little  town  of  Sagres, 
with  the  ruins  of  an  old  castle,  the  former  seat  of  Don  Henry,  when  he  super- 
intended the  famous  voyages  of  discovery  (see  History  of  Portugal).  Other 
towns  of  Algarve  are :  Faro  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  Monchique  (with  3,000 
inhabitants),  Stives  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Villareal  de  San  Antonio  (with 
2,000  inhabitants),  Albufeira  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  etc. 

The  Azores,  or  Western  Isles,  constitute,  as  has  already  been 
stated,  together  with  continental  Portugal,  one  and  the  same 
political  body,  and  rank  among  the  other  Portuguese  provinces 
as  well  as,  for  instance,  the  Balearic  Isles  rank  among  the  Spanish 
provinces.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  existence  of  the  Azores 
Isles  was  known  to  the  Phoenicians,  or  at  least  to  the  Cartha- 
ginians;  yet  to  Europe  they  were  unknown  until  the  year  1432, 
when  they  were  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  (see  History  of 
Portugal).  In  1449  the  first  Europeans  settled  here.  The 
climate  of  the  Azores,  situated  between  the  parallels  of  40°  and 
37  of  N.  lat.,  and  between  25 D  and  31 3  long,  west  from  Green- 
wich, is  peerless  mild,  and  healthful ;  and,  besides  grain  and  wine, 
oranges,  lemons,  and  other  similar  fruits,  thriving  marvellously 
here,  are  the  chief  staples  of  the  isles ;  which  latter  yield  to  the 
government  an  annual  revenue  of  about  $30,000,  while  the  ex- 
penditure amounts  to  little  more  than  $10,000.  The  Azores, 
having  together  an  area  of  1,150  square  miles,  and  a  population 
of  250,000  inhabitants,  comprise  9  islands,  which  are  the  follow- 
ing:— 

1.  San  Miguel,  or  St.  Michael  (area :  341  square  miles ;  population :  100,000 
inhabitants),  productive  of  grain  and  fruits.     Its  capital  is  Punta  Delgade, 


PORTUGAL.  76 


Colonies. 


which  is  considered  as  the  capital  of  the  whole  group  too,  and  has  20,000 
inhabitants.  Another  important  staple-town  is  Ribeira  Grande,  with  12,000 
inhabitants.  The  romantic  valley  of  Furnas  is  noted  for  its  hot  and  cold 
mineral  springs.  2.  Terceira  (area :  224  square  miles ;  population :  40,000 
inhabitants),  with  excellent  pastures  and  numerous  herds  of  cattle ;  containing 
Angra,  fortified  town  and  seat  of  the  governor  of  the  Azores,  with  15,000 
inhabitants.  Praya,  a  town  with  4,000  inhabitants.  3.  Pico  (area:  287 
square  miles ;  population :  30,000  inhabitants),  with  many  vineyards  and  a 
vulcan  6,500  feet  high ;  containing  the  towns  of  Lages  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
Magdalena  and  St.  Boca.  4.  San  Jorge,  or  St.  George  (area:  106  square 
miles ;  population :  20,000  inhabitants),  noted  for  its  husbandry  and  vines, 
containing  the  towns  of  Velas  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Catheta  and  Topo. 
5.  Fayal  (area :  53  square  miles ;  population :  24,000  inhabitants),  noted  for 
its  delightful  climate  and  tropic  fruits.  Horta  is  an  important  commercial 
town  and  sea-port,  with  10,000  inhabitants.  6.  Sta.  Maria  (area:  43  square 
miles;  population:  8,000  inhabitants),  productive  of  grain  and  wine.  Its 
chief  town  Porto  has  2,000  inhabitants.  7.  Flores  (area :  43  square  miles ; 
population :  10,000  inhabitants),  the  most  charming  island  of  the  whole  group ; 
productive  of  grain  and  with  numerous  herds  of  cattle.  Its  chief  town,  Santa 
Cruz,  has  3,000  inhabitants.  8.  Graciosa  (area :  32  square  miles ;  population . 
12,000  inhabitants),  noted  for  its  husbandry,  and  productive  of  barley  and 
wine.  Its  chief  town  bears,  like  that  of  the  preceding  island,  the  name  of 
Santa  Cruz,  and  has  likewise  3,000  inhabitants.  9.  Corvo  (area:  21  square 
miles;  population:  1,000  inhabitants),  the  smallest  and  most  northerly  island. 

Since  the  loss  of  Brazil  (see  History  of  Portugal),  the  Portu- 
guese Colonies  are  reduced  to  the  following  : — 

1.  Tn  Africa:  settlements  and  possessions  in  Lower  Guinea 
and  Eastern  Africa,  the  Madeira  and  Cape  Verd  Islands,  and  two 
islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 

2.  In  Asia  :  the  cities  and  townships  of  Goa  and  Diu  in  Hin- 
dostan,  Macao  in  China,  and  part  of  the  island  of  Timor  in  the 
Indian  Archipelago. 


SPAIN. 

Abea  :  179,921  square  miles. 
Population  :  12,000,000  inhabitants. 

The  kingdom  of  Spain  comprises  nearly  four  fifths  of  the 
Pyrcnean  peninsula,  separated  from  France  by  the  Pyrenees. 

The  statements  about  the  actual  amount  of  the  population  dif- 
fer materially,  even  in  the  so-called  official  reports  ;  for  want  of  a 
regular  census  of  tlie  people.  Yet  the  estimation  of  12,000,000 
can,  in  all  probability,  not  much  fall  short  of  the  actual  number 
of  inhabitants.  Besides  the  Spaniards  proper,  or  Castilians  (as 
they,  in  Spain,  are  called  by  way  of  eminence),  there  are  500.000 
Basques  (see  Introduction,  §  12)  in  the  Basque  provinces  and 
Navarre,  about  60,000  Modejares,  or  descendants  of  the  Moors, 
and  nearly  45,000  Gipsies  The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  estab- 
lished church ;  yet  all  other  denominations  are  at  present  not 
only  tolerated  but  enjoy  almost  the  same  political  privileges  as 
the  Catholics.  At  least  the  recent  endeavors  of  protestant  mis- 
sionaries to  propagate  the  sound  doctrines  of  the  gospel  among 
the  Spanish  people,  have  met  with  far  less  obstacles  than  could 
have  been  expected,  considering  the  catholic  zealotism  pre- 
vailing here  formerly.  In  1 830  the  catholic  clergy  of  Spain 
numbered  8  archbishops  (the  archbishop  of  Toledo  ranks  fore- 
most as  primate),  77  bishops,  2.393  canons,  1,869  prebendaries, 
16,481  curates,  4,929  vicars,  17,411  beneficiaries,  27,757  seculars 
in  orders,  15,015  sacristans,  and  3,927  servitors.     In  the  begin- 


SPAIN.  77 


Geographical  Features. 


ning  of  the  year  1835,  there  were  still  1.940  monasteries  with 
30.906  monks,  and  a  proportional  number  of  nunneries  with 
about  24,000  nuns.  But  in  the  same  year  884  of  these  cloisters 
were  abolished,  and  the  sale  of  their  estates  had  yielded  (accord- 
ing to  official  reports  in  June,  1835)  a  sum  of  16,693,260  reals, 
which  was  designed  for  the  alleviation  of  the  public  charges. 
"We  shall  soon  see,  under  the  head  of  Spanish  finances,  whether 
this  intention  was  realized  or  not. 

Spain  is  thoroughly  mountainous  ;  in  regard  to  its  chief  moun- 
tain range,  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  the  other  ranges,  see  Introduc- 
tion, §  7,  c  ;  and  about  the  Spanish  part  of  the  Pyrenees,  see  §  7,  b. 

The  rivers  peculiar  to  Spain  are  the  Ebro,  Guadalaviar,  Xucar, 
Segura.  and  Guadalquivir,  and  those  in  common  with  Portugal : 
the  Tagus,  Ducro,  Minho,  and  Guadiana  (see  Introduction,  §  10). 
There  is  not  any  remarkable  lake  to  be  found  throughout  Spain, 
the  Albufera,  near  the  city  of  Valencia,  being  rather  a  lagoon 
than  a  lake.  The  Imperial  canal  (along  the  right  bank  of  the 
Ebro),  and  the  canal  of  Castile,  scarcely  deserve  to  be  mentioued 
as  canals. 

The  climate  is  generally  mild  and  pleasant,  except  in  some 
tracts  along  the  northern  coast.  The  provinces  of  Valencia  and 
Murcia  enjoy  the  charms  of  an  almost  perennial  spring,  while  in 
Granada  and  Andalusia  the  sugar-cane  and  other  tropical  pro- 
ductions thrive.  Noxious  winds  are  the  cold  and  rough  Gallego 
from  the  north,  and  the  scorching  and  enfeebling  Solano  from 
Africa ;  yet  they  commonly  do  not  last  long. 

The  soil  is  generally  very  fertile  except  in  some  tracts  of  the 
Sierra  Morena,  in  Estremadura  and  Asturias,  producing  in 
abundance,  in  most  parts  of  Andalusia,  and  in  the  Mediterranean 
provinces,  the  vine,  the  olive,  and  southern  fruits  (among  them 
the  delicious  pomegranate). 

The  natural  riches  of  the  country  consist  chiefly  of  salt  (rock- 


18  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Natural  Products  of  Spain. 


salt  in  Catalonia  ;  spring  salt  in  Valencia  ;  sea-salt  in  Valencia, 
Sevilla.  and  on  the  Balearic  Isles),  olives,  and  other  fruits  of 
southern  Europe,  wines -(the  choicest  sorts  are  those  from  Malaga, 
Xeres,  and  Alicante),  silk  (in  the  southern  provinces),  horses  (the 
finest  breed  in  Andalusia,  and  next  in  Asturias),  mules  (which  in 
Spain  generally  are  preferred  to  the  horses),  and  sheep,  for  which 
latter  Spain  has  been  renowned  since  the  middle  ages.  Besides 
the  merinos,  there  are  two  other  less  valuable  breeds,  called 
Churros  and  Metis.  During  summer  the  sheep  feed  on  the  ele- 
vated table  lands  of  Castile  and  Leon,  and  are  driven  in  winter 
to  the  low  plains  of  Estremadura,  and  the  adjoining  provinces. 
Yet  since  the  last  civil  war  the  flocks  have  greatly  diminished  in 
number ;  and  moreover,  the  Spanish  merinos  have  long  since  dis- 
continued to  outdo  those  of  Germany  and  other  countries.  From 
the  remotest  ages  until  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century,  Spain 
was  renowned  for  the  richness  of  her  gold  and  silver  mines,  that 
were  worked  successfully  by  the  Phoenicians,  Carthaginians, 
Moors,  and  finally  by  the  Spaniards,  but  were  closed  since  the 
discovery  of  the  exceedingly  rich  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru. 
In  the  most  recent  time  they  have  been  re-opened  and  worked 
again  so  successfully,  especially  in  Upper  Andalusia,  that  in  1843 
they  yielded  229,090  marks  of  silver.  For  the  rest,  the  Spanish 
mines  yield  excellent  copper  (yet  only  300  quintals  in  1843),  great 
quantities  of  lead  (next  to  England,  Spain  is  said  to  possess  the 
richest  lead-mines  in  Europe),  and  quicksilver  (at  Almaden  in  the 
Castilian  districts  of  La  Mancha ;  the  annual  produce  is  com- 
puted at  20.000  quintals) ;  moreover,  iron  (chiefly  in  the  Basque 
provinces ;  the  annual  produce  is  on  the  increase),  cobalt,  alum, 
etc.  Agriculture,  once  so  flourishing  in  the  days  of  the  Moorish 
sway  (see  History  of  Europe,  §  17,  b),  is  long  since  in  a  backward 
state  ;  chiefly  wheat  is  raised. 

With  regard  to  other  branches  of  industry,  there  are  indeed 


SPAIN.  79 


Industry— Commerce. 


woollen,  silk,  cotton,  and  various  other  manufactories,  still  to  be 
found  in  Spain ;  yet  being  unable  to  rival  with  those  of  Great 
Britain,  and  the  English  having  availed  themselves  of  their 
political  influence,  acquired  during  the  last  civil  war,  for  tiie 
purpose  of  exercising  a  kind  of  monopoly  in  Spain,  the  Spanish 
manufactories  are  far  from  being  in  a  prospering  state.  Since  the 
expulsion  of  the  Moors  (the  last  remnants  of  them  were  driven 
away  in  1609,  and  by  this  fanatic  and  insensate  proceeding  Spain 
lost  800,000  of  its  most  diligent  and  most  industrious  inhabi- 
tants) Spain  has  ceased  to  be  a  manufacturing  country.  Only 
the  woollen  manufactories  of  Castile,  the  damask  and  silk  manu- 
factories of  Audalusia,  the  manufactories  of  arms  in  the  north- 
western, and  the  paper  manufactories  in  the  eastern  provinces, 
were  prospering  in  the  17th  century,  while  the  cotton  manufacto- 
ries of  Catalonia  rose  in  the  18th  century.  Nevertheless  the 
woollen  and  silk  looms  did  not  exceed  the  number  of  10,000 
throughout  Spain,  and  in  1768  there  were  in  the  whole  country 
not  more  than  2.200,000  operatives,  mechanics,  husbandmen,  and 
others  depending  for  subsistence  on  handiwork.  Since  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  Spain  has  been  in  an  almost 
uninterrupted  state  of  war,  political  convulsions,  and  internal 
dilacerations,  which  has  proved  fatal  to  most  of  the  existing 
manufactures,  and  even  to  the  commerce.  The  chief  articles  of 
export  are :  wines,  fruits  of  southern  Europe,  salt,  olive  oil,  corks, 
quicksilver,  and  a  rather  inconsiderable  quantity  of  wool  (scarcely 
one  tenth  of  the  quantity  which  was  formerly  exported).  Of 
2.830  vessels  that  in  1844  entered  the  port  of  Cadiz,  2.060  were 
Spanish  coasters,  while  of  the  remainder  4S0  were  English 
vessels,  75  from  the  United  States,  6  from  Hamburg,  4  from 
Bremen,  4  from  Prussia,  etc.  Now  let  us  see  of  what  consist 
the  articles  of  import.  Besides  colonial  produces  and  spices,  they 
consist  chiefly  of  cloth,  calicos,  silks,  linen,  hardware,  copper  and 


80  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT 

Education  in  Spain. 

pewter  utensils,  glasswares,  furniture,  toys  and  trinkets,  fancy 
articles,  timber,  corn,  flax,  hemp,  dried  and  salt  fish,  salted  beef, 
butter,  cheese,  poultry,  and  hogs.  Now  we  ask,  what  conception 
can  be  formed  of  the  actual  state  of  industry  in  a  country  where 
kitchen  and  other  domestic  utensils,  and  even  victuals,  must  be 
imported  ? 

The  means  of  education  are  in  Spain  in  the  same  backward 
state  as  in  Portugal.  According  to  the  assertion  of  a  member 
of  the  Cortes  in  1839.  all  Spain  numbers  not  far  above  900  schools 
of  every  description.  At  this  ratio.  13,333  Spaniards  must  resort 
to  one  single  school !  Nominally,  there  are  still  8  universities :  at 
Salamanca  (founded  in  1222,  and  in  1845  frequented  by  302 
students),  at  Valladolid  (founded  in  1346,  and  in  1841  with 
1,300  students),  at  Valencia  (founded  in  1401,  and  in  1841  with 
1,600  students),  at  Saragossa  (founded  in  1474,  and  in  1841  with 
1,100  students),  at  Seville  (founded  in  1504,  and  in  1845  with 
800  students),  at  Granada  (founded  in  1531,  and  in  1845  with 
810  students),  at  St.  Jago  (founded  in  1532.  and  in  1845  with 
1,030  students),  and  at  Oviedo  (founded  in  1580,  and  in  1845 
numbering-  450  students).  Yet  by  all  the  distractions  and  revo- 
lutions, brought  on  by  the  last  civil  war,  they  have  been  deprived 
of  most  of  their  revenues,  and  many  of  their  best  teachers  and 
professors.  The  universities  at  Huesca  (founded  in  1354),  at 
Alcala  (founded  in  1499),  at  Toledo  (founded  in  1499),  at  Ori- 
huela  (founded  in  1555),  at  Cervera  (founded  in  1717),  and  at 
Palma  (founded  in  1827),  have  been  transformed  into  secondary 
schools.  Of  the  first-named  universities,  only  a  few  are  endowed 
with  the  privilege  of  instruction  in  all  branches  of  science  (see 
note,  or  explanatory  annotation,  under  the  head  of  Portugal). 
In  1832,  there  were  still  56  colleges  and  seminaries,  numbering 
altogether  3,810  pupils,  and  moreover,  774  Latin  schools  (see  the 


SPAIN.  81 


(Jnwinment— Finances. 


just-mentioned  note) ;  yet  they  likewise  are  at  present  in  a  mis- 
erable condition. 

Spain  is  a  kingdom,  and  its  government  a  limited  hereditary 
monarchy,  the  supreme  power  being  vested  in  a  King,  or  Queen 
(at  present  Isabella  II,  born  in  1830,  and  at  full  age  in  1843), 
and  a  legislative  body.  Since  the  end  of  the  15th  century,  the 
kings  of  Spain  bear  the  predicate  of  "  Catholic  Majesty."  in  re- 
membrance of  the  zeal  for  the  catholic  creed  evinced  by  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella  in  subduing  the  Moors  (see  History  of  Europe, 
*  16). 

There  is  scarcely  any  kingdom  or  state  to  be  found  in  the 
whole  world,  where  the  public  finances  are  in  such  .decayed  circum- 
stances as  in  Spain.  Every  year  brings  a  more  or  less  consider- 
able deficit,  which  in  1841  amounted  to  174,421,846  reals.  Ac- 
cording to  an  official  statement  of  the  year  1845,  its  amount 
would  have  been  no  more  than  45. 112,665  reals,  the  expendi- 
ture being  rated  at  1,250,635,353,  and  the  revenue  at  1,205,- 
522  688  reals.  Yet  in  reality  the  deficit  amounted  to  more  than 
double  that  named  sum,  the  revenue  being  designedly  estimated 
too  high,  while  the  expenditure  had  by  far  been  exceeded.  The 
amount  of  the  public  debt  does  not  fall  short  of  the  immense 
sum  of  20,000,000,000  reals  (say  in  words :  twenty  thousand  mil- 
lions), besides  about  twenty  millions  of  recently  contracted  debts, 
partly  not  consolidated  and  partly  without  paying  interest.  Con- 
sidering that  the  sale  of  the  estates  of  convents  (see  above)  has 
yieldeJ  large  sums,  and  that  in  1843  the  Spanish  silver  mines 
shall  have  yielded  229,090  marks  of  silver,  it  must  at  the  first 
sight  appear  strange,  that  the  Spanish  finances  should  be  in  such 
miserable  circumstances.  Yet  sifting  the  question  to  the  bottom, 
the  riddle  is  soon  solved.  The  leaders  of  the  Spanish  revolution 
have  been  in  the  skill  of  making  money  quite  as  experienced  and 
assiduous  as  the  leaders  of  the  Portuguese  revolution.     Thus, 

4* 


82  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Ministerial  Corruption. 


for  instance,  the  Spanish  minister  of  finances,  Mr.  Mcndizabal, 
had  been  for  years  but  a  poor  Jewish  pedlar,  jet  by  his  shrewdness 
he  insinuated  himself  into  the  favor  of  the  Queen  Regent,  Chris- 
tiana, who  appointed  him  Minister  of  Finances.  This  office  fur- 
nished ample  opportunities  for  him  to  fill  his  pockets,  as  well  as 
those  of  his  adherents  and  of  his  benefactress.  He  sold  the 
estates  of  convents,  a  great  deal  of  church  property,  sacred 
vessels,  and  utensils  ;  nay,  even  church-bells ;  and  according  to 
official  returns  from  the  month  of  June,  1835,  the  sum  received 
out  of  the  sale  of  559  estates  of  convents,  amounted  to  16,693,- 
260  reals,  and  according  to  official  returns  from  the  same  month, 
1840,  the  sum  received  out  of  the  sale  of  31,433  estates  of  con- 
vents and  churches,  amounted  to  1,245,549,569  reals.  Now  it 
is  a  fact  that  the  Spanish  people  have  not  since  been  released  from 
a  single  item  of  their  taxes,  which  number  not  less  than  94  of 
various  descriptions  :  but,  on  the  contrary,  they  have  at  present  to 
pay  more  taxes  than  ever,  while  the  ci-devant  poor  pedlar,  by  his 
industry  in  financial  affairs,  has  amassed  a  fortune  to  the  amount 
of  at  least  $3,000,000 !  If  Mr.  Mendizabal  should  be  asked  to  give 
an  account  of  his  stewardship,  and  to  restore  all  property  illegally 
acquired,  he  would  indeed  be  reduced  to  very  low  circumstances, 
and  that  deservedly.  For  he  has  evidently  despoiled  the  public 
treasure  of  the  Spanish  nation,  and  to  these  spoiliations  alone 
does  he  owe  his  wealth.  His  predecessors  as  well  as  his  succes- 
sors in  that  lucrative  office  have  practised  the  same  arts,  and  in 
this  way  acquired  immense  riches,  while  the  Spanish  nation  has 
been  burdened  with  taxes  at  the  ratio  of  more  than  120  reals 
per  head. 

The  Spanish  army,  notwithstanding  the  unsettled  state  of  the 
political  institutions  of  Spain  in  general,  is  in  good  order,  for 
the  plain  reason  of  being  the  principal  support  of  the  present 
rulers.     It  numbers  nearly  100,000  men,  and  is  arranged  in  31 


SPAIN. 


Army— Navy -Orders  of  Honor. 


regiments  and  3  battalions  of  foot,  18  regiments  of  cavalry,  and 
about  12,600  artillerists,  etc.  The  Spanish  navy  is  scarcely 
worthy  to  be  mentioned.  In  1802  it  numbered  not  less  than  68 
ships  of  the  line,  40  frigates,  etc. ;  but  in  1834  it  was  reduced  to 
2  ships  of  the  line,  4  frigates,  and  18  smaller  men  of  war,  and  at 
present  most  of  them  have  become  disqualified  for  service.  This 
being  the  state  of  facts,  the  once  so  important  and  renowned 
navy-departments  (as  they  were  styled)  of  Ferrol,  Cadiz,  and 
Carthagena  have  been  abolished,  and  reduced  to  one  navy  station 
at  Cadiz. 

The  Spanish  orders  of  honor  are  the  following  :  1.  The  order  of 
the  golden  fleece,  instituted  in  1430  by  Philip  the  Bountiful,  duke 
of  Burgundy.*  2.  The  order  of  Maria  Louisa,  instituted  by  the 
Queen  Maria  Louise  (-f-  1819)  only  for  ladies.  3.  The  order  of 
Charles  III,  instituted  by  this  king  in  1771.  4.  The  military 
order  of  St.  Ferdinand,  instituted  by  Ferdinand  VII.  in  1815. 
5.  The  military  order  of  St.  Hermenegild,  instituted  by  Ferdinand 
VII.,  in  1815.  6.  The  so-called  Navy-order  for  distinguished 
seamen,  instituted  in  1816  by  the  same  king.  7.  The  order  of 
St.  Isabella,  from  the  year  1815.  8.  The  military  order  of  Maria 
Louisa  Isabella,  instituted  in  1833  by  Ferdinand  VII.  Besides 
these  there  are  still  to  be  mentioned  the  following  religious  orders 
of  knighthood:  the  orders  of  Calatrava  (instituted  in  1158),  of 
St.  J  ago  de  Composlella  (instituted  in  1 170),  of  Alcantara  (insti- 
tuted in  1177),  and  of  Montesa  (instituted  in  1319). 

*  The  present  kingdom  of  Belgium  and  Holland  constituted  the  ancient 
duchy  of  Burgundy,  whose  only  heiress,  Mary,  was  married  to  Prince  Maxi- 
milian of  Austria,  the  grandfather  of  King  Charles  I.  of  Spain.  Thus  since 
the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  the  duchy  of  Burgundy  was  one  of  the 
constituent  parts  of  the  Spanish  kingdom  until  the  year  1714,  when  the 
remaining  Burgundian  provinces  were  ceded  to  Austria.  For  this  reason,  the 
originally  Burgundian  order  of  the  golden  fleece  has  become  an  Austrian  as 
well  as  a  Spanish  order. 


84  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


History  of  Spain. 


History. — The  aborigines  of  Spain  (which,  in  the  Old  Testament,  e.  g.,  Ezek. 
xxvii.  12,  is  called  Tarshish),  in  as  far  as  they  are  noticed  by  history,  were 
the  Iberians  and  the  Celts  (see  Introduction,  §  12),  both  descendants  of 
Japheth,  and  immigrated  here  at  an  unknown  period.  The  former  prevailed 
in  the  eastern  and  southern,  and  the  hitter  in  the  western  and  northern  part 
of  the  country.  The  Celts  having  in  the  course  of  time  been  intermingled 
with  the  Iberians,  were  since  called  Celtiberians.  But  these  people  lost  their 
political  independence  at  a  very  early  period,  when  the  Phoenicians  came 
hither,  settled  here  (they  founded,  for  instance,  Cadiz),  reaped  great  profit  from, 
the  rich  gold  and  silver  mines  (see  above),  and  forced  the  aborigines  to  work 
them.  Next  to  the  Phoenicians  came  the  Carthaginians,  who  treated  the 
aborigines  like  savages  and  slaves,  as  also  the  Romans  did,  who  since  the 
year  206,  before  the  Christian  era,  became  gradually  possessed  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian settlements  in  Spain,  though  they  did  not  finally  conquer  all  Spain 
anterior  to  the  year  25,  B.  C.  The  whole  Pyrenean  peninsula  became  a, 
Roman  province,  with  Roman  language,  and  Roman  customs  and  manners. 
Before  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Augustus,  the  peninsula  was  divided  into 
Hisponia  citerior,  or  Tarraconensis  (all  the  country  between  the  Pyrenees  and 
the  Ebro  River),  and  Hispania  ulterior,  or  Lusitania  (Portugal),  and  Baetica 
(all  parts  of  Spain  situated  to  the  south  of  the  Ebro  River).  At  the  time  of 
Augustus,  the  province  of  Tarraconensis  comprised  the  whole  northern  and 
north-western  part  of  the  peninsula,  and  Baetica  comprised  the  south-eastern 
part,  or  Andalusia  and  Murcia.  Lusitania  comprised  all  Portugal  with  the 
exception  of  the  provinces  on  the  north  side  of  the  Douro.  At  the  time  of 
Emperor  Constantine,  the  extreme  north-western  part  of  Tarraconensis  was 
called  Gallaecia  (Galicia),  and  the  extreme  south-eastern  part  of  Baetica  was 
called  Carthaginiensis  (Murcia).  Since  the  beginning  of  the  migration  of 
nations,  Germanic  tribes  immigrated  and  settled  in  the  Pyrenean  peninsula 
(see  History  of  Europe,  §§  2  and  3);  at  first  (in  409  and  the  following  years) 
the  Alans,  Sueves,  and  Vandals.  The  Alans  settled  chiefly  in  Lusitania  and 
Carthaginiensis,  the  Sueves  in  Gallaecia,  Baetica,  etc.,  and  the  Vandals  first  in 
the  north  and  subsequently  in  Baetica  (hence  its  name  Vandalitia,  or,  at 
present,  Andalusia).  Yet  in  428  the  Vandals  emigrated  to  Africa  and  con- 
quered its  northern  part,  at  present  called  Barbary.  In  414  the  Visigoths 
invaded  Spain,  subdued  the  Alans  and  Sueves  together  with  the  last  remnnnts 
of  the  Romans,  and  were  in  the  6th  century  masters  of  the  Avhole  peninsula. 
About  the  invasion  of  the  Moors,  the  gradual  foundation  of  Christian  king- 


SPAIN. 


History  of  Spain— House  of  Hapsburgh— of  Bourbon. 


doras,  etc.,  see  History  of  Europe,  §§  10,  14,  and  16,  where  we  left  Spain 
under  the  sway  of  King  Charles  I.,  with  whom  began  the  reign  of  the  house 
of  Hapsburg  in  Spain.  Charles  I.,  who  ascended  the  Spanish  throne  in  1516, 
resigned  in  1556,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Philip  II.,  who  was  the  most 
powerful  king  in  Europe  at  that  period.  He  was  the  ruler  not  only  of  Spain, 
but  likewise  of  the  Netherlands,  of  Naples,  of  the  islands  of  Sicily  and  Sar- 
dinia, of  the  duchy  of  Milan,  of  the  Canarian  and  Philippine  Islands,  and  of 
the  immense  colonies  in  America  and  partly  in  Africa  Since  the  year  1580 
he  became  moreover  possessed  of  Portugal  and  its  colonies  (see  History  of 
Portugal).  Yet  Spain  itself  derived  no  real  benefit  either  from  her  rich 
American  colonies  (for  instead  of  staying  at  home  to  cultivate  the  soil,  the 
inhabitants  crossed  the  ocean  in  search  of  gold  and  silver),  nor  from  the  power 
of  her  king,  who,  by  his  perpetual  wars,  burdened  Spain  with  a  heavy  public 
debt.  Philip  II.  died  in  1598,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Philip  III. 
(1598-1621).  Then  succeeded  Philip  IV.  (1621-1665),  and  Charles  II.  (1665 
-1700).  With  Charles  II.  the  male  line  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  in  Spain, 
became  extinct,  and  now  the  female  line  was  to  succeed.  The  chief  pretenders 
to  the  throne  were  the  French  prince  Philip  of  Anjou  (great-grandson  of 
Philip  IV.),  and  the  Austrian  Archduke  Charles  (subsequently  emperor  of 
Germany),  great-grandson  of  Philip  III.,  both  by  their  grandmothers.  As 
the  parties  did  not  come  to  an  accommodation,  a  war  ensued,  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Spanish  war  of  succession,  which  lasted  from  the  year  1701  to 
1714.  England  and  Holland  partook  in  it  by  the  instigation  of  William  III., 
prepossessed  by  his  fancies  of  European  equilibrium  (see  History  of  Europe, 
§  18),  and  filled  with  personal  hatred  against  Louis  XIV.,  the  grandfather  of 
prince  Philip.  The  German  empire  and  the  duke  of  Savoy  partook  likewise  in 
this  war.  At  last,  in  the  treaties  of  peace  concluded  in  1713  at  Utrecht,  and  in 
1714  at  Rastadt,  matters  were  settled  thus :  the  prince  of  Anjou,  or  Philip  V., 
was  acknowledged  as  king  of  Spain  and  both  Indies  (such  was  the  title  since  the 
possession  of  the  colonies  in  America,  etc.).  Charles,  or  the  house  of  Austria, 
acquired  the  Spanish  possessions  in  the  Netherlands  and  in  Italy  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  island  of  Sardinia,  which  was  ceded  to  the  duke  of  Savoy,  henceforth 
entitled  king  of  Sardinia.  England  became  possessed  of  Gibraltar  and  of  the 
island  of  Minorca  (the  latter  until  the  year  1755),  and  Holland  acquired — noth- 
ing, in  reward  for  all  its  sacrifices  made  to  the  fancies  and  immoderate  ambition 
of  William  III.  With  Philip  V.  (1701-1746)  the  house  of  Bourbon  ascended 
the  throne  of  Spain.     In  1713  he  convocated  the  Spanish  cortes,  or  states 


8G  EUROPti,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

History  of  Spain — Its  Provinces. 

(the  legitimate  representatives  of  the  Spanish  nation),  chiefly  for  the  purpose 
to  fix  the  order  of  succession  permanently.  In  agreement  with  the  king  this 
legislative  body  laid  down  as  a  rule,  that  only  the  male  descendants  of  the 
reigning  family  should  ascend  the  Spanish  throne ;  and  thus  the  so-called  Salic 
law  (which  excludes  all  females  from  the  throne)  became  a  fundamental  law 
of  the  kingdom.  The  successors  of  Philip  V.  were:  Ferdinand  VI.  (1746 
-1759),  Charles  III.  (1759-1788),  Charles  IV.  (1788-1808).  In  1808  Napo- 
leon enticed  both  Charles  IV.  and  his  eldest  son  (subsequently  King  Ferdinand 
VII.)  to  renounce  their  rights  to  the  Spanish  crown  in  favor  of  the  French 
emperor,  who  now  appointed  his  brother  Joseph  king  of  Spain.  Yet  Great 
Britain  intervened,  and  the  ensuing  peninsular  war  ended  in  the  restoration 
of  the  Bourbons  in  Spain,  whither  Ferdinand  VII.  (his  father  having  resigned) 
returned  in  1814.  During  his  reign,  Spain  lost  her  colonies  on  the  American 
continent;  a  far  greater  evil  was,  however,  the  king's  weakness  in  listening  to 
female  intrigues  and  excluding  his  brother  Charles,  the  legitimate  heir  of  the 
throne,  from  the  succession,  in  favor  of  his  daughter  Isabella.  This  act,  as 
arbitrary  as  illegal,  being  in  contradiction  with  the  clear  terms  of  the  funda- 
mental law  (see  above),  would  indeed  have  been  of  little  consequence  but  for 
the  interposition  of  the  French  revolution  of  1830,  and  the  busy  intermeddling 
of  Louis  Philipe  and  Lord  Palmer ston  (the  British  secretary  of  state  for  foreign 
affairs),  who  nourished  in  Spain  the  flames  of  civil  war  for  more  than  six 
years,  and  supported,  by  the  whole  weight  of  their  power  and  influence,  the 
pretensions  of  the  Queen  Regent  Maria  Christiana  (since  the  year  1833,  when 
Ferdinand  VII.  died)  and  her  infant  daughter.  How  matters  went  on  during 
this  period,  is  manifested  by  the  facts  above  stated  under  the  head  of  finances, 
means  of  education,  navy,  etc. 

In  1833  Spain  was  divided  into  48  departments,  and  their 
names  were  derived  from  their  capitals.  Yet  since  the  middle 
ages  Spain  has  been  divided  into  17  provinces,  styled  (with  two 
single  exceptions)  kingdoms  and  principalities ;  and  as  their 
names  continually  occur  in  history  and  other  reading,  we  shall 
retain  them  in  the  following  topographical  descriptions  ;  denoting 
only  the  capitals  of  departments  with  this  sign:  +.  It  may 
still  be  remarked  that  the  1 1  provinces,  beginning  with  New  Cas- 
tile and  ending  with  Murcia,  are  called  the  dominions  of  the 


SPAIN.  87 


Geography— Statistics. 


crown  of  Castile,  and  the  remainder  the  dominions  of  the  crown 
of  Aragoii  (sec  History  of  Europe,  §  16). 

1.  The  kingdom  of  New  Castile,  near  the  centre  of  the  peninsula,  and  sepa- 
rated from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  by  Valencia  and  Andalusia.  It  was 
wrested  in  1085  from  the  Moors  by  Ferdinand  surnamed  the  Holy,  and  con- 
tains the  following  cities  and  towns :  -f-  Madrid,  the  capital  of  all  Spain,  and 
(since  the  year  1560)  royal  residence,  on  the  Manzanares,  a  branch  of  the 
Tagus,  south-westward  and  240  miles  distant  from  Bayonne  (in  France),  is 
situated  on  a  sandy  and  sterile  table-land,  and  numbers  9,000  houses,  and 
according  to  the  census  of  1847,  about  207,000  (exactly,  206,714)  inhabitants. 
The  royal  castle  is  an  extremely  large  and  very  magnificent  building.  There 
are  many  other  noble  edifices,  besides  77  churches.  The  royal  library  num- 
bers 250,000  volumes.  Among  the  beautiful  walks  of  the  city  the  most 
frequented  are  the  celebrated  "  Prado"  and  the  "  Paseo  de  las  delicias/'  At 
the  Prado  is  situated  the  royal  palace  Buen  Retiro  (built  during  the  reign  of 
Philip  IV.),  with  extensive  gardens.  About  7  miles  distant  from  Madrid  is 
situated  the  royal  castle  of  pleasure  el  Pardo  (built  in  the  16th  century) ;  and 
between  4  and  5  miles  distant  from  the  capital  is  another  castle,  called  Villa 
viciosa,  where  Ferdinand  VIL  died  in  1833.  Alcala  de  Henares,  a  town  on 
the  Henares  River,  with  5,000  inhabitants,  is  remarkable  as  the  birth-place  of 
Cervantes,  the  celebrated  Spanish  poet.  The  former  university  of  Alcala 
(see  above)  was  next  to  that  of  Salamanca  the  most  renowned  in  Spain- 
-j-  Toledo,  a  city  on  the  Tagus,  south-south-west  and  27  miles  distant  from 
Madrid,  with  silk  and  sword-blade  manufactories,  and  16,000  inhabitants. 
In  the  middle  ages  Toledo  was  the  largest  city  in  the  Christian  part  of  Spai^ 
and  in  the  14th  century  it  numbered  200,000  inhabitants.  The  magnificent 
cathedral  was  during  several  centuries  a  Moorish  mosque.  The  archbishop 
of  Toledo  had  formerly  an  annual  revenue  of-  300,000  ducats.  Aranjuez,  a 
town  on  the  Tagus,  southward  and  27  miles  distant  from  Madrid,  with  4,000 
inhabitants,  and  with  a  splendid  royal  castle  of  pleasure  (founded  by  Philip 
II.),where  the  court  uses  to  reside  in  the  season  between  Easter  and  Whitsuntide. 
In  the  vicinity  of  Aranjuez  is  situated  the  town  of  Ocana  (with  12,000  inhabi- 
tants) noted  for  the  victory  of  the  French  over  the  Spaniards  in  1809.  Tala- 
vera  de  la  Reyna,  a  town  on  the  Tagus,  south-westward  and  64  miles  distant 
from  Madrid,  with  8,000  inhabitants.  It  was  formerly  renowned  for  its  silk 
manufactories,  and  is  remarkable  for  Wellington's  victory  over  the  French  on 


EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Statistics,  etc.— Old  Castile. 


the  27th  and  28th  of  March,  1809.  -j-  Guadalaxaka,  a  town  on  the  Henares, 
north- westward  and  37  miles  distant  from  Madrid,  with  cloth  manufactories, 
and  7,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  district  are:  Siguenza  (with 
4,000  inhabitants),  and  Brihuega  (with  2,000  inhabitants).  -f~  Cuen^a,  a  town 
on  the  Xucar,  south-south-east  and  83  miles  distant  from  Madrid,  with  9,000 
inhabitants.  Molina  and  Requena,  towns  with  respectively  5,000  and  6,000 
inhabitants.  The  southern  part  of  New  Castile  is  called  La  Mancha,  on  the 
south  bordered  by  Andalusia,  and  on  the  west  by  Estremadura.  It  contains : 
-\-  Ciudad  Real,  capital  of  La  Mancha,  near  the  Guadiana,  southward  and 
92  miles  distant  from  Madrid,  with  the  most  renowned  mule  marts  in  Spain, 
and  8,000  inhabitants.  Almaden,  a  town  near  the  frontier  of  Andalusia, 
with  10,000  inhabitants,  and  a  mining  academy,  is  noted  for  its  rich  quicksil- 
ver mines  (see  above).  Other  towns  of  La  Mancha  are :  Valdepenas  (with 
8,000  inhabitants),  Almagro  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  Alcaraz  (with  3,500 
inhabitants),  Calatrava  and  Manzanares. 

2.  The  kingdom  of  Old  Castile,  on  the  north  side  of  New  Castile,  extend- 
ing northward  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  It  was  originally  a  country  under  the 
sway  of  the  kings  of  Leon,  until  in  1016  it  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  king- 
dom. It  contains :  -\-  Burgos,  fortified  capital  of  Old  Castile,  on  the  Arlan- 
zon  River,  northward  and  138  miles  distant  from  Madrid,  with  a  magnificent 
Gothic  cathedral  (containing  the  sepulchres  of  many  Spanish  kings),  and 
12,000  inhabitants.  At  Burgos  are  still  the  remnants  of  the  house  in  which 
the  famous  Spanish  warrior,  Ruy  Dias  de  Vivar,  surnamed  the  Cid,  was  born 
in  1026.  He  died  in  1099,  and  was  buried  in  the  neighboring  monastery  of 
San  Pedro  de  Cardena.  Other  towns  in  this  district  are :  Aranda  de  JDuero 
and  Laredo.  -{-  Santander,  a  fortified  maritime  town  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay, 
westward  and  115  miles  distant  from  Bayonne  (in  France),  with  a  good  har- 
bor, rather  active  commerce,  and  25,000  inhabitants.  Other,  but  smaller 
neighboring  seaports  are  :  Santana  and  Santillana.  The  town  of  Espinosa 
de  los  Monteros  (with  2,000  inhabitants)  is  remarkable  for  the  victory  of  the 
French  over  the  British  and  Spaniards,  on  the  12th  of  November,  1808. 
Briviesca,  a  fortified  town  with  2,500  inhabitants.  Near  Pancorvo  is  an  im- 
portant mountain  pass  on  the  high-road  between  Burgos  and  Vittoria,  -{-  Lo- 
grono,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Ebro,  eastward  and  70  miles  distant  from 
Burgos,  with  fairs,  and  8,000  inhabitants,  -4-  Calahorra,  a  town  on  the  table- 
land, called  Rioja,  has  4,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  as  the  birth-place  of 
the  ancient  Roman  author  Quintilianus.    Medina  Cell,  a  town  with  1,200  in- 


SPAIN.  89 


Statistics,  etc. — Leon. 


habitants.  -f~  Soria,  a  town  on  the  Duero,  south-eastward  and  78  miles  dis 
tant  from  Burgos,  with  considerable  trade  in  wool,  and  6,000  inhabitants 
Here  or  close  by  stood  the  ancient  town  of  Numantia.  Osma,  a  town  near 
the  Duero,  with  4.000  inhabitants.  -(-  Segovia,  a  town  on  the  Erasma  River, 
southward  and  92  miles  distant  from  Burgos,  with  a  remarkable  old  castle, 
once  the  seat  of  Gothic  and  Moorish  kings,  22  churches,  and  13,000  inhabi- 
tants. Between  Segovia  and  Madrid  is  situated  the  town  of  Sa?i  lldefonso, 
with  4,300  inhabitants,  and  the  royal  castle  La  Granja,  built  in  1716  by  the 
model  of  the  palace  of  Versailles.  In  a  wilderness  of  the  Guadarrama 
Mountains,  23  miles  west-north-west  of  Madrid,  is  situated  the  town  (with 
2,000  inhabitants)  and  celebrated  palace  of  Escurial,  built  in  the  years 
1563-1584,  at  an  expense  of  5,000,000  ducats,  by  order  of  Philip  II.,  in  re- 
membrance of  his  victory  over  the  French  at  St.  Quentin  in  1557.  The  edi- 
fice, half  palace,  half  monastery,  is  740  feet  long,  580  feet  wide  and  60  feet 
high,  and  has  5,000  windows.  Chincfion,  a  town  with  2,000  inhabitants, 
-f-  Avila,  a  town  on  the  Adaja  River,  55  miles  west-north-west  of  Madrid, 
with  a  remarkable  Gothic  cathedral,  and  5,000  inhabitants.  Until  the  year 
1808  was  here  a  university,  founded  in  1482.  Other  towns  of  this  district 
are  :  Piedrahita  and  Arevalo  (with  4,500  inhabitants). 

3.  The  kingdom  of  Leon,  between  Old  Castile  and  Portugal,  and  separated 
from  the  Bay  of  Biscay  by  Asturias.  About  its  history,  see  History  of 
Europe,  §  16.  It  contains  :  -(-Leon,  capital  of  Leon,  170  miles  north-north- 
west of  Madrid,  with  an  ancient  Gothic  cathedral  considered  as  the  finest  in 
all  Spain,  7  other  churches,  and  6,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  dis- 
trict are :  Astorga  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Sahagun  (with  a  formerly  cele- 
brated Benedictine  abbey,  and  4,000  inhabitants),  and  JSembibre  (with  1,600 
inhabitants),  -j-  Palencia,  a  town  on  the  Carrion  River,  south-westward  and 
41  miles  distant  from  Burgos,  with  a  beautiful  cathedral,  and  11,000  inhabi- 
tants. Torquemada  and  Saldaaa,  towns  with  respectively  2,300  and  4,000 
inhabitants,  -(-Valladolid,  a  town  on  the  Pisuerga,  100  miles  north-north- 
west of  Madrid,  with  a  royal  castle,  in  which  Philip  II.  and  several  of  his 
ancestors  were  born,  a  magnificent  cathedral,  a  university  (see  above),  and 
21,000  inhabitants.  At  Valladolid  Columbus  died  in  1506,  and  at  that  period 
its  population  amounted  to  100,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  dis-. 
trict  are:  Medina  del  Rio  seco  (with  8,000  inhabitants,  and  noted  for  the 
battle  on  the  14th  of  August,  1808),  Tudela  (with  2,000  inhabitants,  and  noted 
for  the  battle  on  the  22d  of  November,  1808),  Tordesillas  (with  4,000  inhabi- 


90  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Statistics,  etc.— Asturias— Galicia. 


tants).  and  Simaneas  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  -[-Zamora,  a  fortified  town  on 
the  Dnero,  and  near  the  frontier  of  Portugal,  with  10,000  inhabitants. 
Fermoselle  and  Toro,  towns  on  the  Duero,  with  respectively  3.000  and  8,000 
inhabitants,  -j-  Salamanca,  a  town  on  the  Tonnes  (with  an  ancient  Roman 
bridge),  north-westward  and  115  miles  distant  from  Madrid,  has  since  the 
middle  ages  been  celebrated  for  its  university  (see  ante),  contains  a  re- 
markable cathedral,  24  other  churches,  and  numerous  magnificent  public  edi- 
fices in  general,  but  at  present  only  15,000  inhabitants.  Battle  on  the  21st 
of  July,  1812.  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  a  fortified  town  near  the  frontier  of  Portu- 
gal, with  5,000  inhabitants.  Wellington's  victory  in  1812.  Other  towns  of 
this  district  are ;  Ledesma  (with  2,000),  Bejar  (with  5,000),  and  Alba  de  Tor- 
mes  (with  4,000  inhabitants). 

4.  The  principality  of  Asturias,  along  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  between  Old 
Castile  and  Galicia,  and  on  the  south  bordered  by  Leon.  (About  its  history 
see  History  of  Europe,  §  16.)  The  crown-princes  of  Spain  are,  by  way 
of  eminence,  titled  princes  of  Asturias.  Tins  province  contains  :  -\-  Oviedo, 
the  capital  of  Asturias,  half  way  between  Bilbao  and  Coruna,  with  a  univer- 
sity (see  above),  5  churches  (one  of  which  is  remarkable  for  its  high  steeple), 
and  10,000  inhabitants.  Gijon,  a  maritime  town,  18  miles  north-east  of  Oviedo, 
with  6,000  inhabitants.  Gijon  was  the  primitive  seat  of  Pelayo  (see  History 
of  Europe,  §  10),  whose  successors  were  called  kings  of  Gijon,  until  Alphonso 
the  Chaste  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Oviedo.  Other  towns  of  Asturias 
are :    Villa  viciosa,  Cudillero,  Aviles,  Mures,  Navia,  and  Cangas  de  Onis. 

5.  The  kingdom  of  Galicia,  forming  the  extreme  north-western  part  both 
of  Spain  and  of  the  peninsula.  It  was  at  an  early  period  wrested  from  the 
Moors,  and  in  1060  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom  by  Ferdinand,  king  of 
Castile  and  Leon.  It  contains :  -(-  Corunna,  fortified  capital  of  Galicia  and 
maritime  town,  northward  and  156  miles  distant  from  Oporto,  with  a 
very  spacious  harbor,  packet  lines  to  the  "West  Indies  and  Falmouth,  various 
manufactories,  commerce,  and  23,000  inhabitants.  North-eastward  and  23 
miles  distant  from  Corunna,  is  situated  the  fortified  town  of  Ferrol  (with 
13,000  inhabitants),  formerly  the  principal  station  of  the  Spanish  navy.  St. 
Jago  de  Compostella,  a  town  southward  and  32  miles  distant  from  Corunna, 
with  28,000  inhabitants,  a  university,  numerous  linen  and  other  manufactories, 
and  a  very  large  cathedral,  to  which  since  the  9th  century  innumerable  pil- 
grims have  resorted,  as  containing  the  bones  of  St.  James  the  Less  according 
to    general  belief     Betanzos,   a    maritime   town,  with    2,000    inhabitants. 


SPAIN. 


Statistic:*,  utc.—Kstmnadnra— Andalusia. 


-j-  Lugo,  a  town  near  the  head  of  the  Minho  River,  with  a  remarkable  cathe- 
dral, and  12,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  district  arc :  Mondohedo 
(with  6,000  inhabitants),  Ribadeo  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Viverro  (with 
1,800  inhabitants),  and  Redondela.  ^-Orense,  a  town  on  the  Minho,  with  a 
remarkable  cathedral,  and  5,000  inhabitants.  -|-  Pontevedra,  a  maritime 
town,  with  5,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  district  are :  Tuy  (with 
6,000  inhabitants),  and  Vigo  (with  active  commerce,  and  6,000  inhabitants). 

6.  The  province  of  Estremadura,  between  New  Castile  and  Portugal,  bor- 
dered on  the  south  by  Andalusia.  It  was  conquered  in  713  by  the  Moors, 
and  wrested  from  them  in  the  11th  and  13th  century.  It  contains:  -[-Bada- 
joz,  strongly  fortified  capital  of  Estremadura,  near  the  frontier  of  Portugal, 
eastward  and  138  miles  distant  from  Lisbon,  and  south-westward  and  170  miles 
distant  from  Madrid,  with  13,000  inhabitants.  Olivenca,  a  fortified  town  quite 
near  the  frontier  of  Portugal,  to  which  kingdom  it  belonged  until  the  year  1801, 
when  it  was  ceded  to  Spain  ;  it  numbers  10,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of 
tliis  district  are  :  Xeres  de  los  Cavalier os  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Zafra  (with 
10,000  inhabitants),  Llerena  (with  7,500  inhabitants),  and  Merida  (with  9,000 
inhabitants),  -j-  Caceres,  a  town  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  with  1 0,000 
inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  district  are :  Truxillo  (native  place  of  Pizarro, 
with  4,000  inhabitants),  Coria  (with  4,500  inhabitants),  Alcantara  (with  3,000 
inhabitants),  Ahnaraz  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  and  Plasencia  (115  miles  west- 
south-west  of  Madrid,  with  7,000  inhabitants).  Eastward  and  23  miles  distant 
from  the  last-named  town,  is  the  delightful  valley  of  la  Vera  de  Plasencia,  with 
the  famous  convent  of  San  Geronimo  de  Juste  (founded  in  1410),  where  King 
Charles  I.  died  in  1558. 

7,  8,  and  9.  Andalusia,  comprising  the  southern  part  of  Spain,  and  con- 
taining the  following  three  provinces,  styled  kingdoms,  and  wrested  from  the 
Moors  chiefly  during  the  13th  century: — a.  The  kingdom  of  Seville,  contain- 
ing :  -4-  Seville,  the  capital  of  this  province,  as  well  as  in  some  respects  of 
Andalusia  too,  on  the  Guadalquivir,  46  miles  north-north-east  of  Cadiz,  is  16 
miles  in  circuit,  and  has  13,500  houses,  but  at  present  only  91,000  inhabitants, 
while  under  the  sway  of  the  Moors  it  numbered  500,000  inhabitants.  Seville 
abounds  in  magnificent  ancient  buildings  and  edifices,  and  among  them  are  the 
splendid  cathedral,  the  steeple  named  Giralda  (364  feet  in  height),  an  ancient 
Roman  aqueduct,  an  ancient  palace  of  the  Moorish  kings,  etc.     Other  cities 

^and  towns  ofr  this  district  are :  San  Lucar,  surnamed  de  Barrameda  (seaport 
of  Seville,  with  considerable  commerce  and  20,000  inhabitants),  Utrera  (with 


92  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Statistic?,  etc.— Seville— Cordova. 


11,000  inhabitants),  Carmona  (with  13,000  inhabitants),  Ossuna  (with  15,000 
inhabitants),  and  Fcija  (with  35,000  inhabitants).  -j-Huelva,  a  maritime 
town,  55  miles  west-south-west  of  Sevilla,  with  8,000  inhabitants.  Quite  near 
Huelva  is  situated  the  little  town  and  seaport  of  Palos,  from  which  Columbus 
Failed  on  his  first  voyage  to  America.  Other  towns  of  tliis  district  are :  Niebla 
(with  9,000  inhabitants),  Moguer  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  and  Ayamonte 
(with  6,000  inhabitants).  -[-Cadiz,  a  strongly  fortified  city  and  chief  senport 
of  Spain,  on  the  Isle  of  Leon,  with  70,000  inhabitants.  Cadiz  is  not  only  one 
of  the  oldest  towns  of  Europe  (see  History  of  Spain),  but  since  the  years 
1717  and  1726,  the  centre  of  the  rich  trade  with  America  and  India  (until 
that  period,  Seville  had  been  the  centre).  So  late  as  in  the  year  1 803,  the 
imports  of  Cadiz  were  $61,000,000  in  value.  On  the  other  or  eastern  end  of 
the  named  isle,  is  situated  the  town  of  Isla  de  Leox,  or  San  Fernando,  with 
15,000  inhabitants,  and  in  its  vicinity  the  village  of  Las  Cabezas  de  San  Juan, 
where,  on  the  1st  of  January,  1820,  the  military  revolution,  contrived  by 
Riego,  took  place.  On  the  continental  part  of  this  district  are  situated  the 
following  towns :  Puerto  de  Santa  Maria  (with  20,000  inhabitants),  Puerto 
Real  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  Medina  Sidonia  (with  10,000  inhabitants), 
Chiclana  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  and  Conil  (with  1,500  inhabitants).  Off 
Cape  Trafalgar  (23  miles  south-east  of  Cadiz)  the  British  gained  the  great 
naval  victory  on  the  21st  of  October,  1805,  at  which  the  renowned  admiral 
Lord  Nelson  was  killed.  Between  this  cape  and  Gibraltar  are  situated  the 
towns  of  A Igeziras  (with  15,000  inhabitants),  Tarifa  (with  9,000  inhabitants), 
and  San  Roque  (with  3,000  inhabitants).  Xeres  de  la  Frontera.  a  city 
situated  north-eastward,  and  14  miles  from  Cadiz,  is  noted  for  its  excellent 
wines,  and  has  60,000  inhabitants.  Near  this  city  it  was  where,  in  711,  the 
Visigoths  were  defeated  by  the  Moors  in  a  battle  that  lasted  nine  days. 
Areos  de  la  Frontera,  a  town  14  miles  north-east  of  Xeres  de  la  Frontera, 
12,000  inhabitants.  Zahara,  a  small  town  at  the  head  of  the  Gaudaleta  River, 
and  situated  on  a  rock,  with  houses  cut  out  in  the  rock  b.  The  kingdom  of 
Cordova,  containing :  -f-  Cordova,  capital  of  this  province,  and  once  the 
splendid  residence  of  the  Moorish  caliphs  (see  History  of  Europe,  §§16  and 
17),  at  which  period  its  population  amounted  to  about  1,000,000  inhabitants, 
while  at  present  it  numbers  only  60,000.  The  city  is  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Guadalquivir,  north-eastward  and  120  miles  distant  from  Cadiz, 
and  contains  an  exceedingly  large  and  splendid  cathedral  (cflce  a  Moorish 
mosque),  and,  moreover,  an  ancient  Moorish  palace  of  great  extent.     Cordova 


SPAIN. 
Stat istirs,  etc.— Gibraltar— Granada. 


was  captured  by  the  Christians  in  1236.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are: 
Lucena  (with  12,000  inhabitants),  Montilla  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Bujalance 
(with  9,000  inhabitants),  Baena  (with  4,800  inhabitants),  Castro  del  Rio  (with 
2,000  inhabitants),  Fuente  Ovejuna  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  and  Priego  (with 
6,000  inhabitants),  c.  The  kingdom  of  J aen,  containing :  -j-Jaex,  capital  of 
this  province,  in  a  delightful  country,  southward  and  196  miles  distant  from 
Madrid,  with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  20,000  inhabitants.  Jaen  surren- 
dered to  the  Christians  in  1245.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are:  Andujar 
(with  10,000  inhabitants),  Baeza  (with  12,000  inhabitants),  Ubeda  (with  16,000 
inhabitants),  Alcala  la  Real  (with  9,000  inhabitants),  Martos  (with  14,000 
inhabitants),  Alcaudete  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Linares  (with  5,600  inhabi- 
tants), and  Baylen  (with  2,500  inhabitants).  Near  the  last-named  town,  the 
French  general  Dupont  fell  into  a  narrow  pass  and  saw  himself  obliged  to 
surrender,  with  8,000  men,  to  the  Spaniards,  in  1808.  Carolina  is  the  chief 
town  of  the  German  colonies  in  the  Sierra  Morena,  founded  in  1767  by  the 
Spanish  minister  Olavides,  and  has  2,500  inhabitants,  chiefly  Germans. 

Gibraltar,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Spain,  is  the  strongest  fortified 
town  in  the  world,  with  a  garrison  of  3,000  men,  and  17,000  inhabitants. 
This  place  was  captured  by  the  British  in  1704,  who  have  held  it  ever  since. 

10.  The  kingdom  of  Granada,  frequently  also  called  Upper  Andalusia,  on 
the  west  and  north  bordered  by  Andalusia,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  It  was  conquered  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  in  1492  (see 
History  of  Europe,  §  16),  and  contains:  -f- Granada,  capital  of  this  province, 
and,  until  the  year  1492,  the  residence  of  the  last  Moorish  king  in  Spain,  on  the 
Xenil  River  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  north  eastward  and  46  miles 
distant  from  Malaga,  with  80,000  inhabitants,  a  university,  a  splendid  cathedral 
(containing  the  sepulchres  of  Ferdinand  anlf  Isabella),  22  other  churches,  some 
manufactories,  and  highly  remarkable  edifices  built  by  the  Moors.  Among 
the  latter  ranks  first  the  Alhambra,  the  fortified  castle  of  the  ancient  Moorish 
kings.  Another  Moorish  palace  is  called  Generalife.  Other  towns  of  this 
district  are :  Alhama  (with  6.500  inhabitants),  Guadix  (with  9,000  inhabitants), 
Motril  (with  12,000  inhabitants),  Loxa  (with  14,000  inhabitants),  Baza  (with 
12,000  inhabitants),  and  Uxijar,  the  chief  town  of  the  so-called  Alpujarras, 
with  important  lead  mines.  -4-  Malaga,  a  maritime  town,  north-eastward  and 
69  miles  distant  from  Gibraltar,  is  famous  for  its  wines  and  fruits,  and  contains 
62,000  inhabitants,  who  carry  on  a  very  active  commerce.  Other  towns  of 
this  district  are:  Velez  Malaga  (with  14,000  inhabitants),  Ronda  (with  18,000 


94  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Statistics,  etc.— Murcia,  Aragon,  Catalonia. 

inhabitants),  Antequcra  (with  20,000  inhabitants),  and  Marbella  (with  4,300 
inhabitants).  -{-Almeria,  a  maritime  town,  eastward  and  110  miles  distant 
from  Malaga,  with  20,000  inhabitants.  In  the  14th  century,  Almeria  was  the 
emporium  of  the  kingdom  of  Granada.  Velez  el  Rubio,  a  town  with  12,000 
inhabitants.     Cuevas,  a  small  town. 

11.  The  kingdom  of  Murcia,  between  Andalusia  and  Valencia,  containing: 
-f-  Murcia,  capital  of  this  province,  on  the  Segura,  south-eastward  and  221 
miles  distant  from  Madrid,  with  a  beautiful  Gothic  cathedral,  important  silk 
trade,  and  86,000  inhabitants.  Carthagena,  a  fortified  maritime  town,  and 
formerly  a  station  of  the  Spanish  navy,  with  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  37,000  inhabitants.  Carthagena  was  founded  by  the  Car- 
thaginians about  230  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Lorca,  a  town  in  a 
most  fertile  country,  42  miles  west-north-west  of  Carthagena,  with  copper  and 
lead  mines,  and  25,000  inhabitants.  -J-  Albacete,  a  town  near  the  frontier  of 
New  Castile,  with  important  markets  for  cattle,  and  9,000  inhabitants.  Other 
towns  of  this  district  are:  Chinchilla  (with  11,000  inhabitants),  Villena  (with 
9,000  inhabitants),  and  Almanm  (noted  for  the  victory  gained  by  the  Span, 
iards  over  the  English,  Dutch,  and  Portuguese,  in  1707). 

12.  The  kingdom  of  Aragon,  between  Catalonia  and  both  Castiles,  bordered 
on  the  north  by  the  Pyrenees  (about  its  history,  see  History  of  Europe,  §  16), 
containing :  -\-  Saragossa,  strongly  fortified  capital  of  Aragon,  on  the  Ebro, 
north-eastward  and  184  miles  distant  from  Madrid,  with  a  university,  18 
churches,  thriving  commerce,  and  50,000  inhabitants.  Famous  siege  by  the 
French  in  1808  and  1809.  Other  towns  of  this  district  are:  Borja  (with 
3,200  inhabitants),  Tarrazona  (with  10,000  inhabitants),  Calatayud  (with  9,000 
inhabitants),  Daroca  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Fraga  (with  3,000  inhabi- 
tants).  -[-Teruel,  a  town  on  the  Guadalaviar,  southward  and  83  miles 
distant  from  Saragossa,  with  8,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  district, 
are :  Alcaniz  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Albarracin  (with  2,000  inhabitants), 
Cantavieja  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  Montalban.  -j-Huesca,  a  town  on 
the  Isuela,  37  miles  north-north-east  of  Saragossa,  with  a  secondary  school, 
formerly  a  university  (see  above),  and  10,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of 
this  district  are:  Jaca  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Mequinenza  (with  2,000 
inhabitants),  Monzon  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  Barbastro  (with  6,000  inhabi- 
tants), and  Ainsa. 

13.  The  principality  of  Catalonia,  comprising  the  extreme  north-eastern 
part  of  Spaia     (About  its  history  and  important  commerce  in  the  middle 


SPAIN. 


Statistics,  etc.— Catalonia— Valencia. 


ages,  see  History  of  Europe,  §§16  and  17.)  It  contains:  -j- Barcelona, 
fortified  capital  of  Catalonia,  the  principal  manufacturing  town  in  Spain,  and 
rivalling  Cadiz  in  commerce,  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  about  200 
miles  south-west  of  Marseilles  (in  France),  has  (including  the  suburb  of  Bar- 
cclcmetta)  a  population  of  about  150,000  inhabitants,  numerous  magnificent 
public  edifices,  82  churches,  etc  Northward  and  20  miles  distant  from  Bar- 
celona is  Mo.vtserrat,  a  single  mountain  3,937  feet  high,  was  before  the  last 
civil  war  famous  for  its  hermits  and  the  number  of  pilgrims  who  visited  it. 
Other  towns  of  this  district  are  :  Manresa  (with  9,000  inhabitants),  Martorell 
(with  2,500  inhabitants),  Mataro  (with  13,000  inhabitants),  Igualada  (with 
12,000  inhabitants),  Vique  or  Vich  (with  15,000  inhabitants),  Tarrasa  (with 
4,000  inhabitants),  and  Villafranca  de  Panades  (with  6,000  inhabitants). 
-f-  Tarragona,  a  maritime  town,  46  miles  west-south-west  of  Barcelona,  with 
a  remarkable  cathedral,  many  Roman  antiquities,  and  12,000  inhabitants. 
Other  towns  of  this  district  are :  Reus  (with  25,000  inhabitants,  and  the  sea- 
port of  Salou),  Vails  (with  9,000  inhabitants),  Tortosa  (strongly  fortified,  and 
with  16,000  inhabitants),  and  Villanueva  (with  9,000  inhabitants).  Alf agues 
or  San  Carlo  is  a  sea-port,  -f-  Lerida,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Segre,  and  near 
the  frontier  of  Aragon,  westward  and  73  miles- distant  from  Barcelona,  with 
13,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  district  are:  Balagaer  (with  4,000 
inhabitants),  Cardona  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Cervera  (with  5,000  inhabi- 
tants), Sohona  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Urgel  or  Seu  eT  Urgel  (with  3,200 
inhabitants),  Puycerda  or  Puigcerda  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  Campredon 
(with  1,500  inhabitants),  -p  Gerona,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Ter,  55  miles 
north-north-east  of  Barcelona,  with  a  beautiful  cathedral,  and  6,000  inhabi- 
tants. Figueras,  a  town  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  with  5,000  inhabitants, 
and  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Europe,  called  San  Fernando. 
Other  towns  of  this  district  are :  Rosas  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Arens  de 
Mar  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Castello  de  Ampurias  (now  only  with  1,500, 
but  during  the  sway  of  the  Romans  with  100,000  inhabitants),  Cadaqnes 
(with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  Hostalrich  (with  3,000  inhabitants).  About  the 
little  republic  of  Andorra,  see  under  the  head  of  France. 

14.  The  kingdom  of  Valencia,  between  New  Castile  and  the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea,  on  the  south  bordered  by  Murcia,  and  on  the  north  by  Aragon  and 
Catalonia.  Since  the  year  788  a  Moorish  kingdom,  it  was  conquered  in  1238 
by  the  Christian  king  of  Aragon.  The  Valencians  are  distinguished  by  their 
industry  and  diligence,  and  for  this  reason  Valencia  is  the  best  cultivated 


96  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Statistics,  tic. — Balearic  Islands. 

province  of  Spain.  It  contains :  -f-  Valencia,  the  capital  of  this  province,  on 
the  Guadalaviar  and  quite  near  its  mouth,  south-eastward  and  193  miles 
distant  from  Madrid,  with  a  university  and  numerous  other  literary  institu- 
tions, important  book-trade  and  silk  manufactories,  a  magnificent  cathedral 
and  72  other  churches,  and  66,000  inhabitants.  Its  seaport  is  called  Gran. 
Northward  and  32  miles  distant  from  Valencia  is  situated  Murviedro,  a  town 
with  6,000  inhabitants,  and  in  ancient  ages  famous  by  the  name  of  Sagunt. 
Other  towns  of  this  district  are:  Liria  (with  12,000  inhabitants),  San  Felipe 
(with  15,000  inhabitants,  founded  by  Philip  V.  in  place  of  the  town  of  Xativa, 
which  in  1714  was  demolished),  Carcarente  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  and 
Alcira  (with  9,000  inhabitants).  -4-Castellon  de  la  Plana,  a  maritime 
town,  55  miles  north-north-east  of  Valencia,  with  15,000  inhabitants.*  Near 
the  coast  are  the  uninhabited  isles  of  Columbretes.  Other  towns  of  this  district 
are :  Peniscola  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Vinaroz  (with  9,000  inhabitants), 
Scgorbe  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Cervera  and  Morella.  -f-  Alicante,  a  mari- 
time town,  southward  and  83  miles  distant  from  Valencia,  with  important 
wine-trade  and  salt-works,  and  25,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this 
district  are  :  Orihuela  (with  26,000  inhabitants),  Elche  (with  20,000  inhabi- 
tants), Alcoy  (with  18,000  inhabitants),  Gandia  (with  6,000  inhabitants), 
JDcnia  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Guardamar  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  and 
Bcnidorme  (with  2,500  inhabitants). 

15.  The  kingdom  of  Majorca,  or  the  Balearic  Islands,  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea,  opposite  to  the  coast  of  Valencia.  The  Carthaginians  were  for  a  long 
time  possessed  of  these  islands,  which  subsequently  were  conquered  by  the 
Romans.  In  429  A.  D.  the  Vandals  settled  here,  and  since  the  year  198 
the  Moors  took  possession  of  the  islands,  which  were  wrested  from  them  in 
the  years  1229-1254  by  King  James  I.  of  Aragon.  There  are  altogether  -1 
islands,  and  two  of  them  (Majorca  and  Minorca)  are  emphatically  named  L'a- 
learic,  while  the  two  other  (Ivica  and  Formentera)  are  called  the  Pithyuxicn 
Islands.  The  island  of  Majorca  (area :  1,342  square  miles ;  population :  200,000 
inhabitants)  contains:  -f-  Palma,  fortified  capital,  with  a  secondary  school,  for- 
merly a  university,  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  34,000  inhabitants.  Other 
towns  of  the  island  are:  Alcudia  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  and  Soller  (with 
5,600  inhabitants).  The  island  of  Minorca  (area :  256  square  miles ;  popu- 
lation :  50,000  inhabitants),  belonging  to  the  British  in  the  period  from  the 
year  1708  to  1755  (see  History  of  Spain),  contains:  Mahon,  or  Port  Mahon 
capital  of  the  island,  Avith  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 


SPAIN. 


Statistic--,  etc. — Navarre — Basque  Provinces. 


6,000  inhabitants.  The  former  capital  of  this  island  was  Cuidadela,  with 
2,500  inhabitants.  Besides  Majorca  and  Minorca,  the  Balearic  Islands  com 
prise  the  Isles  of  Cabrera  (a  kind  of  convict  colony),  Foradada,  Pantaleu, 
Dragonera,  and  Colomba.  Of  the  Pithyusian  Islands,  that  of  Ivica  has  an 
area  of  192  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  20,000  inhabitants,  while  the 
other  named  Formentera,  is  43  square  miles  in  extent,  and  numbers  2,000 
inhabitants. 

16.  The  kingdom  of  Navarre,  between  Aragon  and  the  Basque  provinces, 
on  the  north  separated  from  France  by  the  Pyrenees.  About  its  early  his- 
tory, see  History  of  Europe,  §  16 ;  and  it  is  only  to  be  added  here,  that  in 
1234  the  kingdom  of  Navarre  was  inherited  by  the  Count  Theobald  of  Cham- 
pagne, who  entailed  it  upon  his  French  descendants,  until  in  1512  King  Fer- 
dinand of  Aragon  wrested  from  them  the  southern  part  of  it.  It  contains  : 
-f-  Pampeluna,  fortified  capital  of  Navarre,  207  miles  north-north-east  of  Mad- 
rid, with  15,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are:  Fstella  (with 
5,000  inhabitants),  Viana  (with  3,500  inhabitants),  Tudela  (with  8,000  inhab- 
tants),  Olite  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Tafalla  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Nand 
Sanguesa  (with  2,500  inhabitants).  The  valley  of  Roncevalles  in  the  Pyrenees, 
28  miles  north-east  of  Pampeluna,  is  noted  for  the  attack  on  the  Frankish 
warriors  of  Charlemagne  in  800,  and  the  glorious  death  of  Roland. 

17.  The  Basque  Provinces,  along  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and  on  the  other  sides 
surrounded  by  Navarre  and  Old  Castile.  They  entered  into  a  political  con- 
nection with  the  kingdom  of  Castile  by  the  treaties  of  the  year  1202,  with  the 
reservation  of  particular  privileges.  There  are  three  of  them,  viz. : — a.  Biscay, 
containing :  -f-  Bilbao,  fortified  capital  of  Biscay,  on  the  Ybaizabal,  7  miles 
distant  from  its  mouth,  73  miles  west-south-west  of  Bay  on  no  (in  France),  with 
export  of  wool,  and  15,000  inhabitants.  Bilbao's  seaport  is  called  Portugaldc. 
Near  the  little  town  of  Sorromastro,  or  Somorrostro.  are  important  iron  mine^. 
Other  towns  of  Biscay  are :  Orduna  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Durango  (with 
2,800  inhabitants),  and  Bermeo  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  b.  Guipuzcoa,  con 
taining :  -f-  San  Sebastian,  strongly  fortified  capital  of  Guipuzcoa,  on  the  Bay 
of  Biscay,  27  miles  west-sonth-west  of  Bayonne  (in  France),  with  iron  trade, 
and  10,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  Guipuzcoa  are :  Los  Passages  (with 
2,000  inhabitants),  Fuentcrabia  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  Iran  (with  1,100 
inhabitants),  Guetaria  (with  500  inhabitants),  Plasencia  (with  1,300  inhabi- 
tants), Bergara  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Mondragon  (with  2,500  inhabitants), 
Tolosa  (with  4,200  inhabitants),  Alegria,  and  Azpeytia.    The  chief  town  of  a 

5 


98  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Spanish  Colonies. 

little  district  called  Encartationes,  is  Onate  (with  hardware  manufactories, 
and  4,000  inhabitants),  whose  former  university  is  at  present  united  with  that 
of  Valladolid.  c.  Alava,  containing:  Vittoria,  capital  of  Alava,  southward 
and  28  miles  distant  from  Bilboa,  has  12,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its 
sword-blades.  Battle  on  the  21st  of  June,  1813.  Other  towns  of  Alava  are : 
Salvatierra  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  A  nana,  and  Banos  de  Ebro. 

The  Spanish  Colonies,  at  present  reduced  to  an  area  of 
110,760  square  miles  (with  about  4,500,000  inhabitants),  are  the 
following : — 

1.  In  Africa  :  the  so-called  Presidios,  or  four  fortified  towns 
on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  opposite  the  province  of  Granada 
(Ceuta,  Pefion  de  Velez,  Alhucemas,  and  Melilla) ;  the  Canary 
Islands,  and  two  islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 

2.  In  America  :  the  West  Indian  islands  of  Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico. 

3.  In  Asia  :  the  greatest  part  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 

4.  In  Polynesia  :  the  Ladrone,  or  Marianne  Islands. 

In  the  period  from  the  year  1580  to  1640.  when  the  immense 
Spanish  dominions  on  the  American  continent  and  the  Portu- 
guese colonies  were  united,  the  total  extent  of  the  Spanish  pos- 
sessions amounted  to  9,239,855  square  miles. 


ITALY 


:  119,706  square  miles. 
Population  :  24,573,100  inhabitants. 

Italy  forms  a  great  peninsula  on  the  south  of  Europe,  extend- 
ing into  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  is  fancied  to  have  the  shape 
of  a  boot,  the  island' of  Sicily  lying  at  the  toe. 

Of  the  above-stated  area  and  population,  the  Italian  continent 
and  its  smaller  isles  comprise  99,652  square  miles,  and  21,785,100 
inhabitants,  while  the  islands  of  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Malta, 
comprise  20,054  square  miles,  and  2,788,000  inhabitants.  In  a 
political  sense,  the  island  of  Corsica  forms  a  constituent  part  of 
France,  and  thus  it  can  only  in  a  geographical  sense  be  considered 
as  belonging  to  Italy.  Its  area  (3,791  square  miles)  is  for  this 
reason  added  to  that  of  the  French  continent. 

Of  those  Alps  (see  Introduction,  §  7)  which  separate  Italy 
from  other  countries,  the  Maritime  and  the  Cottian  Alps  form 
the  boundary  towards  France,  the  Pennine  and  the  Lepontic  Alps 
towards  Switzerland,  and  the  Rhaetic  Alps  towards  Germany  ; 
while  the  Gray  Alps  belong  exclusively  to  Italy.  About  the 
Apennines,  see  Introduction,  §  7. 

About  the  rivers  and  lakes  of  Italy,  see  Introduction,  §§  9  and 
10 ;  the  seas,  gulfs,  and  straits,  washing  the  shores  of  Italy,  are 
noted  under  §  8. 

The  climate  is  generally  mild  and  delightful ;  and  even  in  the 
northern  parts  of  Italy,  the  short  winter  is  of  great  mildness. 


0 

100  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Italian  Scenery— Productions— Manufactures. 


Besides  this,  Italy  is  noted  for  the  beauty,  diversity,  and  romantic 
character  of  its  scenery.  Nevertheless,  the  country  has  in  this 
respect  its  unfavorable  side  as  well  as  other  countries.  Thus,  for 
instance,  the  south  wind  proves  often  to  be  exceedingly  hot  and 
enfeebling,  and  is  in  this  case  called  Sirocco;  and  the  coast 
between  Leghorn  and  Naples  (likewise  the  country  near  the 
mouths  of  the  Po)  suffers  much  from  malaria,  or  the  bad  air  of 
the  marshes. 

With  respect  to  natural  productions,  Italy  is  very  poor  in  min- 
erals, especially  in  metals,  with  the  exception  of  iron  (its  annual 
produce  is  about  150,000  quintals),  and  some  lead  (2,000  quiutals). 
Yet  Italy  is  noted  for  its  excellent  marble  of  Carrara  (in  the 
duchy  of  Modena),  and  the  island  of  Siciry  abounds  in  sulphur. 
Moreover,  great  quantities  of  lava  and  pumice  are  exported  from 
Naples.  Chief  products  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  are :  rice  (in 
Lombardy),  maize  and  wheat  (chiefly  in  Upper  Italy  and  Tuscany), 
wine  (in  all  parts  of  the  country ;  yet  the  best  sorts  are  those 
known  by  the  name  of  Lachrymae  Christi,  Monte  Pulciano,  Monte 
Fiascone,  Vino  Santo,  etc.),  olive  oil,  and  fruits  of  southern 
Europe.  Naples  has  the  finest  breed  of  horses;  in  many  of  the 
mountainous  parts  of  Italy  are  mules,  and  in  the  States  of  the 
Church  and  Tuscany,  buffaloes  are  reared.  But,  in  general,  the 
rearing  of  cattle  and  sheep  is  of  no  great  importance.  As  nox- 
ious animals,  maybe  mentioned, vipers,  tarantulas, and  scorpions; 
while,  the  silk-worm,  kept  in  great  number  throughout  Italy,  is 
of  substantial  benefit  to  the  country.  Agriculture  flourishes  in 
Lombardy  and  Tuscany. 

During  the  middle  ages,  Italy  excelled  in  various  manufactures, 
which  are  still  important,  though  not  so  much  so  as  formerly. 
The  kingdom  of  Lombardy  and  Venice  ranks  first  in  manufac- 
tures, and  those  of  other  Italian  countries  are  at  least  not  in  a 
backward  state.     Thus  may  be  mentioned  the  manufacture  of 


ITALY.  101 


Italian  Commerce — Education—  Rrligion. 


silks  at  Turin,  Genoa,  Lucca,  Naples,  Palermo,  Ancona,  Florence, 
and  Bologna  ;  of  feather  gloves  at  Naples,  Genoa,  Rome,  and  Lucca ; 
of  paper  at  Lucca,  Genoa,  Turin,  Pescia,  etc. ;  of  pergamen  at 
Rome,  in  Piedmont,  etc. ;  of  artificial  flowers  at  Genoa,  Turin, 
Bologna.  Rome,  etc. ;  of  straw  hats,  in  Tuscany ;  and  of  catguts 
for  musical  instruments,  at  Rome,  Naples,  etc.      » 

The  Italian  commerce  is  very  considerable,  though  chiefly  re- 
stricted to  the  intercourse  with  the  Levant.  The  principal  sea- 
ports and  first  commercial  cities  of  Italy,  are  Leghorn  and  Genoa ; 
next  to  them  are  to  be  mentioned,  Ancona,  Naples,  Messina,Venice, 
Civita  Vecchia,  Gallipoli,  etc.  The  most  important  inland  trade  is 
carried  on  by  Milan,  Turin,  Verona,  Alessandria,  Florence,  Rome, 
Lucca,  Modena,  and  Parma.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are 
silk,  olive  oil,  oranges  and  other  fruits,  and  marble;  while  tropical 
produce,  corn,  British,  French,  and  German  manufactures,  fancy 
articles,  etc.,  are  chiefly  imported. 

In  the  means  of  education,  Lombardy  and  Venice,  Tuscany  and 
Parma,  surpass  by  far  the  other  Italian  countries,  where  the  lower 
classes  are,  for  the  most  part,  ignorant,  and  averse  to  improve- 
ment. Nevertheless  there  are  throughout  Italy  learned  men  to 
be  found,  who  are  distinguished  for  their  attainments  in  literature 
and  science.  In  music,  and  perhaps  even  in  sculpture,  the  Italians 
excel  most  of  the  other  European  nations. 

The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  established  religion  in  all  the 
Italian  states ;  although  others  are  at  present,  and  some  have 
long  been,  tolerated.  The  Waldenses,  in  Piedmont,  who  have 
almost  the  same  religious  faith  as  the  Moravian  brethren,  do, 
since  the  year  1843,  enjoy  the  same  political  privileges  as 
their  catholic  fellow-citizens  ;  while  the  Armenians,  Greeks,  Mo- 
hammedans, and  Jews,  in  the  commercial  cities,  have  free  exercise 
of  religion.  During  the  wars  and  differences  between  the  Em- 
peror Charles  V.  and  the  Pope,  in  the  16th  century,  the  Refor- 


102  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

History  of  Italy. 

mation  made  such  progress  in  Italy,  that  but  for  the  subsequent 
rigorous  and  bloody  proceeding  of  the  inquisition,  perhaps  the 
majority  of  the  Italians  would  have  embraced  the  Protestant 
faith. 

History  of  Italy. — The  aborigines  of  Italy,  in  as  far  as  history  has  noticed 
them  were  the  Umbrians,  Siculians,  Sabines,  Volsci,  Ausonians,  Samnites, 
etc.  At  a  very  early  period  foreign  immigrants  joined  them,  for  instance, 
Jllyrians,  Pelasgians,  Celtes,  and  Venetes  ;  and  from  their  mixture  arose  vari- 
ous other  people,  as  the  Etruscans,  Latins,  Campanians,  etc.  In  the  period 
between  the  years  1000  and  700  B.  C,  many  of  the  ancient  Greeks  settled  in 
the  southern  parts  of  the  Italian  peninsula,  and  founded  there  the  cities  of  Ta- 
rant,  Sybaris,  Croton,  Brundusium,  Naples,  Reggio,  etc.  After  that  time  the 
south  of  Italy  was  called  Great- Greece.  Anterior  to  the  first  settlement  of 
the  Greeks,  Aeneas,  a  Trojan  prince,  shall  have  immigrated  into  Latium  with 
many  of  his  fugitive  countrymen,  and  their  descendants  founded  Rome  in 
754  A.  C.  In  the  beginning  the  Romans  were  ruled  by  kings  in  the  following 
succession:  Romulus  (754-715),  Numa  Pompilius  (715-672),  Tullus  Hostilius 
(672-640),  Ancus  Martius  (640-616),  Tarquinius  Priscus  (616-578),  Servius 
Tullius  (578-534),  and  Tarquinius  Superbus  (534-510).  The  monarchic  form 
of  government  having  been  abolished  in  510  B.  C,  Rome  became  a  republic 
with  aristocratic  forms  of  government,  which  lasted  until  the  year  45  B.  0, 
when  Julius  Caesar  was  appointed  dictator  for  lifetime  and  assumed  the  title 
of  imperator.  The  first  actual  Roman  emperor  was  Octavius  or  Augustus, 
who  after  a  reign  of  44  years  died  in  14  A.  D.;  and  the  last  Roman  emperor 
was  Romulus  Augustulus,  who  in  476  A.  D.  was  dethroned  by  Odoacer,  the 
leader  of  a  Germanic  tribe  called  the  Herull  About  the  subsequent  politi- 
cal fate  of  Italy,  see  History  of  Europe,  §§  6,  7,  9,  and  14.  Since  the  con- 
quest of  the  Lombardian  kingdom  of  Italy  by  Charlemagne,  the  greatest 
part  of  Italy  was  under  the  sway  of  the  Frankish,  and  since  the  end  of  the 
9th  century  under  that  of  the  German  kings  and  emperors  (see  History  of 
Europe,  §  14  at  its  end).  But  as  soon  as  the  latter  began  to  yield  to  the 
pretensions  of  the  popes,  many  parts  of  the  country  became  independent,  as 
republics  or  as  duchies,  etc.,  while  in  Lower  Italy  the  Normans  founded  the 
kingdom  of  Naples.  In  the  last  three  centuries  most  of  the  Italian  states 
were  the  subject  of  a  quarrel  between  Austria,  France,  and  Spain,  and  the 
wars  subsequent  to  the  first  French  revolution   brought  on  new  political 


ITALY.  103 


Divisions  of  Italy — Sardinia. 


changes  there.     But  we  must  defer  the  further  particulars  to  the  history  of 
each  separate  Italian  state. 

Italy  comprises  the  following  states  : — 

In  Upper  Italy  : 

1.  The  Kingdom  of  Sardinia. 

2.  The  Kingdom  of  Lombardy  and  Venice. 

3.  The  Duchy  of  Parma. 

4.  The  Duchy  of  Modena. 

In  Central  Italy : 

5.  The  Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany 

6.  The  Slates  of  the  Church. 

7.  The  Republic  of  San  Marino. 

In  Lower  Italy  : 

8.  The  Kingdom  of  Naples.* 


I.  THE  KINGDOM  OF  SARDINIA. 

Area  :  29,245  square  miles. 
Population  :  5,292,000  inhabitants. 

Until  the  peace  of  Utrecht  (in  1713)  this  state  was  known  by 
the  name  of  the  duchy  of  Savoy.  Since  that  time  and  at  present 
it  embraces  the  western  section  of  Upper  Italy,  together  with 
the  large  island  of  Sardinia. 

*  Besides  these  states,  the  geographical  description  of  Italy  must  necessa- 
rily embrace  that  of  the  really  Italian  island  of  Malta  also. 


104  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Sardinia:    Geographical  Description. 

According  to  the  census  of  1844,  the  population  of  the  whole 
kingdom  amounted  to  5,108,601  inhabitants;  but  since  it  has 
increased  to  the  above-stated  number.  With  the  exception  of 
about  22,000  Waldenses  (see  above)  and  of  8,000  Jews,  all  inhab- 
itants are  Catholics,  under  the  church  authority  of  7  archbishops 
and  34  bishops.  There  are  still  334  monasteries  and  95  nunne- 
ries in  this  kingdom. 

The  north-west  part  of  continental  Sardinia  comprises  the 
highest  branches  and  summits  of  the  Alps  (see  above,  and  Intro- 
duction, §  7),  while  the  Ligurian  Apennines  run  through  its 
southern  part. 

The  chief  river  is  the  Po  ;  and  one  of  its  tributaries,  the  Ticino 
(see  Introduction,  §  10),  forms  the  boundary  on  the  side  of  Lom- 
bardy  and  Venice. 

Of  the  continental  provinces.  Savoy  is  thoroughly  mountainous, 
and  for  this  reason  not  much  adapted  to  agriculture.  Piedmont 
and  the  adjacent  districts  are  for  the  most  part  level,  and  at  the 
same  time  fertile  and  well  cultivated.  Genoa  and  Nice,  shelt  red 
by  the  Apennines  against  the  cold  northerly  winds,  are  noted  for 
the  mildness  of  the  climate,  and  abound  in  fruits  of  southern 
Europe.  Although  in  Savoy  the  rearing  of  cattle,  and  in  Pied- 
mont, etc.,  the  agriculture  is  in  a  high  state  of  prosperity,  yet 
the  chief  staple  of  the  kingdom  is  only  silk.  Other  articles  of 
export  are  rice,  olive  oil,  cattle,  and  hemp.  About  the  manufac- 
tures, see  above. 

There  are  4  universities  in  the  kingdom,  viz.:  at  Turin  (founded 
in  1412,  and  in  1842  frequented  by  1,250  students),  at  Genoa 
(founded  in  1812,  and  in  1842  with  610  students),  at  Cagliari 
(founded  in  1720,  renewed  in  1764,  and  frequented  in  1842  by 
499  students),  and  at  Sassari  (founded  in  1766,  and  in  1842  with 
240  students).  Besides  these  there  are  85  colleges  and  39  semi- 
naries.    The  common  schools  are  still  in  a  backward  state. 


ITALY.  105 


Sardinia:    Government,  etc.— History. 


Until  the  beginning  of  the  last  revolution  in  Italy  the  power 
of  the  king  (at  present  Victor  Emanuel,  born  1820,  March  14) 
in  most  of  the  provinces  was  absolute  ;  and  in  Genoa  and  the 
island  of  Sardinia  more  or  less  limited. 

The  annual  revenue  of  the  state  is  upon  an  average  79,000,000 
lire  (or  francs),  and  the  expenditure  about  77,500,000  lire.  The 
public  debt  amounts  to  nearly  150,000,000  lire,  about  $30,000,000. 

The  army  numbers  on  the  peace  footing  34,500,  and  on  the 
war  footing  135,300  men.  The  navy  numbers  5  large  frig- 
ates, 2  sloops  of  war,  2  brigs,  4  schooners,  12  gun-boats,  and  3 
steamers. 

The  orders  of  honor  of  Sardinia  are  the  following:  1.  The 
order  of  St.  Annunciata,  in  one  class,  instituted  in  1362,  and  re- 
newed in  1518  and  1720.  2.  The  order  of  St.  Mauritius  and 
Lazarus,  in  3  classes,  instituted  in    1434,  and  altered  in  1527. 

3.  The  military  order  of  Savoy,  in  4  classes,  instituted  in  1815. 

4.  The  order  of  merit,  from  the  year  1831.  5.  The  order  or  cross 
of  loyalty,  instituted  in  1814.  The  royal  title  is:  "  King  of 
Sardinia,  Cyprus,  and  Jerusalem,  Duke  of  Savoy,  Genoa,  etc., 
Prince  of  Piedmont,  Margrave  of  Italy,"  etc. 

History. — The  ancestral  seat  of  the  Sardinian  monarchs  is  Savoy,  which 
since  the  year  879  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Arelat  (see  under  France), 
and  whose  governor,  Berold  or  Beroald,  made  himself  independent  in  1016, 
and  was  the  first  count  of  Savoy.  His  descendants  acquired  in  the  course  of 
time,  partly  by  marriage,  partly  by  purchase,  Piedmont,  Asti,  and  Nice.  In 
1416  Count  Amadeus  VIII.  was  by  the  German  emperor  Sigismund  raised  to 
the  rank  of  a  duke  of  Savoy.  In  1438  the  heiress  of  the  kingdom  of  Cyprus 
(established  at  the  end  of  the  12th  century)  bequeathed  that  island  to  her 
nephew,  Charles  I.  duke  of  Savoy,  hence  the  claims  of  this  house  upon  the 
above-stated  title.  In  the  history  of  Spain  it  has  already  been  stated  that 
the  duke  of  Savoy  (at  that  period  Victor  Amadeus  II.,  whose  great-grand- 
mother was  the  daughter  of  King  Philip  II.  of  Spain)  partook  in  the  war  of 
ruccession.  As  confederate  of  Austria  in  this  war,  he  acquired  the  duchy  of 
•  5* 


106  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Sardinia:    Geographical  Division — Piedmont. 

Montferrat  and  part  of  the  duchy  of  Milan,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in 
1713,  the  island  of  Sicily,  which  he  however  in  1720  ceded  to  Austria,  that 
indemnified  him  by  the  island  of  Sardinia.  Since  that  time  the  dukes  of 
Savoy  transformed  this  title  into  that  of  kings  of  Sardinia.  In  1792  the 
French  invaded  the  continental  part  of  the  kingdom,  and  incorporated  first 
Savoy  and  Nice,  and  subsequently  all  Sardinian  provinces  on  the  continent, 
with  France.  Thus  the  whole  kingdom  was  reduced  to  the  island  of  Sar- 
dinia; but  in  1814  the  king  was  not  only  reinstated  into  the  possession  of  his 
dominions,  but  amply  indemnified  by  the  annexation  of  the  former  republic 
of  Genoa.  In  1831  the  elder  branch  of  the  house  of  Savoy  became  extinct, 
and  Charles  Albert  of  the  collateral  line  of  Savoy-  Carignan  (whose  ancestor 
was  a  younger  son  of  the  above-named  Duke  Emanuel)  ascended  the  throne. 
But  the  reverses  he  met  with  in  the  war  against  Austria  in  1849,  induced 
him  to  abdicate,  and  he  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  the  now  reigning 
king  Victor  Emanuel. 


The  whole  kingdom  is  divided  into  10  counties,  or  general 
intendancies,  as  they  are  styled  (of  Turin,  Cuneo,  Alessandria, 
Aosta,  Novara,  Savoy,  Nice,  Genoa,  Cagliari,  and  Sassari),  which 
are  subdivided  into  48  districts.  But  in  the  following  topog- 
raphy, we  shall  retain  the  historical  division  into  the  provinces 
of  Piedmont,  Savoy,  Nice,  etc.,  as  these  names  are  more  in 
use.  Although  Savoy  is  the  ancestral  seat,  we  must  begin  with 
Piedmont,  as  containing  the  metropolis  and  royal  residence. 

1.  The  principality  of  Piedmont,  of  which  the  counts  of  Savoy  became 
possessed  in  the  11th  and  12th  century,  contains:  Turin,  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom  and  royal  residence,  on  the  Po,  73  miles  west-south-west  of  Milan, 
and  north-westward  and  70  miles  distant  from  Genoa,  is  the  most  regularly 
built  of  all  the  Italian  cities,  and  adorned  with  numerous  magnificent  public 
edifices  and  palaces,  and  has  135,000  inhabitants.  It  contains  110  churches 
and  chapels,  a  university  (see  p.  104),  and  many  other  literary  institutions, 
and  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  silk.  In  the  beautiful  environs  of  Turin, 
are  the  royal  country-seats  and  palaces  of  Stupinigi  (built  in  1740,  and  one 
of  the  most  splendid  palaces  in  Europe),  of  Moncalieri,  or  Montecalieri  (near 


ITALY.  107 


Sardinia:    Statistics  of  Piedmont. 


the  town  of  the  same  name,  with  7,000  inhabitants),  of  La  Veneria  (near  the 
town  of  the  same  name,  with  3,000  inhabitants,  and  a  fine  royal  stud),  and  of 
Rivoli  (near  the  town  of  the  same  name,  with  6,000  inhabitants).  La  Superga 
is  a  magnificent  church  and  convent,  built  in  the  years  1715-1731.  Carignan, 
or  Carignano,  a  town  on  the  Po,  southward  and  1 1  miles  distant  from  Turin, 
Is  the  ancestral  seat  of  the  reigning  royal  family,  and  has  8,500  inhabitants. 
Chieri,  a  town  in  the  vicinity  of  Turin,  has  14,000  inhabitants,  and  was  in  the 
middle  ages  a  republic  by  the  name  of  Cairo.  Other  towns  of  this  district 
are:  Carmagnola  (with  12,000  inhabitants),  Chivasso  (with  7,000  inhabitants), 
Cirie  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Caselle  (with  4,500  inhabitants),  San  Maurizio 
(with  3,000  inhabitants),  Lanzo  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Viu  (with  4,600 
inhabitants),  Usseglio  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Rivarolo  (with  6,000  inhabi- 
tants), and  Rivara  (with  1,700  inhabitants).  Susa,  in  the  middle  ages,  chief 
town  of  a  margraviate  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Dora  Riparia,  westward 
and  30  miles  distant  from  Turin,  with  3,500  inhabitants,  and  the  remarkable 
remains  of  the  strong  fortress  of  Brunetta,  demolished  in  1797.  Other  towns 
of  this  district  are:  Exilles  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  San  Ambrogio  (with 
2,000  inhabitants),  Giaveno  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  and  Avigliana  (with 
3,000  inhabitants).  Pinerolo,  or  Pignerol,  a  town  on  the  Clusone,  south- 
westward  and  25  miles  distant  from  Turin,  with  a  beautiful  cathedral,  and 
14,000  inhabitants.  Pinerolo,  Fenestrelle  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Oulx  (with 
1,000  inhabitants),  and  Cesana  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  together  with  the 
valley  of  Clusone,  belonged  to  France  in  the  period  from  the  year  1631tol7l3. 
Other  towns  of  this  district  are :  Cavoux  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Cumiana 
(with  3,500  inhabitants),  Vigone  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  and  Villafranca  di 
Piemonte  (with  8,000  inhabitants).  The  valleys  of  Lucerna,  Peroso,  and  San 
Martino,  are  the  seat  of  the  above-mentioned  Waldenses,  with  13  churches. 
Saluzzo,  formerly  the  chief  town  of  a  margraviate  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
Po,  32  miles  south-south-west  of  Turin,  with  an  old  castle  (once  the  residence 
of  the  renowned  margraves  of  Saluzzo),  a  splendid  cathedral,  and  15,000 
inhabitants.  Quite  near  is  situated  the  magnificent  abbey  of  Staffarda 
(founded  in  1135  by  Manfredo  L,  margrave  of  Saluzzo,  and  built  in  the  Gothic 
style).  Victory  gained  by  the  French  marshal  Catinat,  in  1690.  Other  towns 
of  this  district  are :  Savigliano  (with  1 6,500  inhabitants),  Racconigi  (with 
10,500  inhabitants),  and  Barge  (with  7,000  inhabitants).  Cuneo,  or  Coni,  a 
town  at  the  junction  of  the  Gesso  and  the  Hura,  92  miles  south-south-west  of 
Turin,  with  20,000  inhabitants.     Other  towns  of  this  district  are :  Busca  (with 


108  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Sardinia:    Statistics  of  Piedmont. 

8,000  inhabitants),  Dronero  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  Fossano  (with  13,000 
inhabitants),  Vinadeo  (with  2,600  inhabitants),  Demonte  (with  7,000  inhabi- 
tants), Chiusa  or  La  Chiusa  (with  6,500  inhabitants),  Valdieri  (with  2,000 
inhabitants),  and  Boves  (with  8,000  inhabitants).  Mondovi,  a  town  on  the 
Ellero,  southward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Turin,  with  16,500  inhabitants. 
Victory  gained  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  on  the  22d  of  April,  1 796.  A  short  time 
before,  Bonaparte  had  gained  another  victory  at  Millesimo  (a  town,  eastward 
and  18  miles  distant  from  Mondovi,  with  1,300  inhabitants).  Other  towns  of 
this  district  are :  Ceva  (with  3,500  inhabitants),  Bene  (with  6,000  inhabitants), 
and  Cherasco  (with  12,500  inhabitants).  Alba,  a  town  on  the  Tanaro,  south- 
eastward and  32  miles  distant  from  Turin,  with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and 
8,000  inhabitants.  Bra,  a  town  on  the  Hura,  with  12,000  inhabitants. 
Govone,  a  town  on  the  Tanaro,  with  2,500  inhabitants.  Polenzo,  a  village 
with  a  Gothic  castle  and  beautiful  park.  Another  village  with  an  ancient 
castle,  is  Barolo.  Asti,  once  the  chief  town  of  the  county  of  Asti,  of  which  the 
dukes  of  Savoy  became  possessed  in  1531,  with  a  magnificent  Gothic  cathe- 
dral, and  24,000  inhabitants.  Cocconato  and  San  Damiano,  towns  with 
respectively  3,500  and  7,000  inhabitants.  Ivrea,  a  town  on  the  Doria  Baltea, 
northward  and  32  miles  distant  from  Turin,  with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and 
8,500  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  district  are :  Locana  (with  4,000  in- 
habitants), Aglie  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Cuorgne  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
Ponte  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Castellamonte  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Borgo- 
masino  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Caluso  (with  5,500  inhabitants),  and  San 
Giorgio  (with  4,000  inhabitants).  Vercelli,  once  the  chief  town  of  a  Lord- 
ship belonging  to  the  famous  barons  of  Visconti,  and  since  the  year  1427 
belonging  to  the  house  of  Savoy  (the  Dukes  Amadeus  IX.  and  Charles  III. 
resided  here  towards  the  end  of  the  15th,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
century),  is  situated  on  the  Sesia,  39  miles  east-north-east  of  Turin,  and  con- 
tains many  remarkable  Gothic  edifices,  and  19,500  inhabitants.  Other  towns 
of  this  district  are :  Santhia,  or  St.  Ya  (with  3,500  inhabitants),  Crescentino 
(with  4,400  inhabitants),  and  Trino  (with  7,000  inhabitants).  Biella,  a  town 
41  miles  north-north-east  of  Turin,  with  8,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of 
this  district  are :  Oropa  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Andorno  (with  3,000  inhabi- 
tants), Occhieppo  superiore  (with  1,700  inhabitants),  Croce  Mosso  (with  1,600 
inhabitants),  and  Pollove  (with  1,500  inhabitants).  Masserano,  a  little  prin- 
cipality belonging  to  the  barons  of  Ferreri,  under  the  sovereignty  of  Sardinia. 
Aosta,  a  town,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  St.  Bernard,  50  mi|es  north-north-west 


ITALY.  109 

Sardinia:  Statistics  of  Savoy. 

of  Turin,  with  7,000  inhabitants.  St.  Vincenzo,  a  town,  with  mineral  springs, 
and  2,000  inhabitants.  Chattillon,  a  town,  with  iron  works,  and  1,500  inhabi- 
tants. Cormaggiore  (in  French,  Courmayeur),  a  village  between  the  Ber- 
•nardins,  with  frequented  mineral  springs,  and  1,200  inhabitants.  Bardo,  or 
Bard,  a  fortress  between  Aosto  and  Ivrea,  dominating  the  road  over  the  Great 
St.  Bernard,  and  therefore  presenting  the  last  serious  obstacle  to  Bonaparte, 
when  in  1800  he  crossed  the  Alps  with  his  army. 

2.  The  duchy  of  Savoy,  between  Piedmont  and  France,  on  the  north  bor- 
dered by  the  lake  of  Geneva  (its  population  was  606,396  inhabitants,  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1844;  about  its  history,  see  p.  105) ;  containing:  Ch am- 
ber y,  capital  of  Savoy,  at  9  miles  distance  from  the  French  frontier,  46  miles 
south-south-west  of  Geneva  and  83  miles  west-north-west  of  Turin,  with  an 
ancient  castle  once  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Savoy,  active  trade  with 
Lyons,  and  18,500  inhabitants.  Not  far  off  is  situated,  in  a  delightful  valley, 
the  town  of  Aix,  noted  (even  from  the  days  of  the  Romans)  for  its  mineral 
springs,  and  with  3,200  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  district  are  :  Alta 
Comba,  in  French  Haute  Combe  (with  a  renowned  abbey  from  the  year  1125, 
and  with  1.600  inhabitants),  Echelles  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Mommeliano, 
in  French  Montmelian  (with  1.300  inhabitants),  Rumilly  (with  4,500  inhabi- 
tants), St.  Pierre  d'Albigny  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Yenne  (with  3,500  in- 
habitants), Aillon  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  A  rvillers  (with  1,500  inhabitants), 
Ugine  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  and  Aigues  belles  (with  1,000  inhabitants). 
The  small  towns  of  Conjlans  and  Hopital,  on  the  Isere,  are  at  present  united 
by  the  name  of  Albertville,  and  have  together  3,500  inhabitants.  Pont 
Beauvoisin,  a  town  on  the  Isere,  with  1,500  inhabitants,  belongs  with  its 
western  half  to  France,  and  with  its  eastern  to  Savoy.  Thonon,  formerly 
the  capital  of  the  ancient  duchy  of  Ciablese  or  Chablais,  on  the  lake  of  Ge- 
neva, north-eastward  and  21  miles  distant  from  Geneva,  with  4,20(5  inhabi- 
tants. Other  towns  of  this  district  are :  Evian  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  St. 
Jean  d'Aulps  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  and  Abundance  (with  1,800  inhabi- 
tants). Annecy,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  ancient  duchy  of  Genevese,  or 
Genevois  (of  which  the  dukes  of  Savoy  became  possessed,  in  1401),  on  the 
lake  of  Annecy,  southward  and  21  miles  distant  from  Geneva,  with  9,000 
inhabitants.  Faverges,  a  town,  with  an  important  silk  manufactory,  and  3,000 
inhabitants.  Bonneville,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  ancient  Lordship  of 
Faucigny,  or  Fossigny,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Bonne  and  Arve,  south-east- 
ward and  14  miles  distant  from  Geneva,  with  1,300  inhabitants.     Cluse,  or 


110  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

Sardinia:  Statistics  of  Nice — Monaco — Montfcrrat. 

Cluses,  a  town  on  the  Arve,  with  2,000  inhabitants.  Sallanche,  or  Sallenche, 
a  town  on  the  Arve,  with  1,800  inhabitants.  Chamouny,  a  village  situated  in 
the  romantic  valley  of  the  same  name,  with  1,700  inhabitants.  Tanninges, 
a  town  with  3,000  inhabitants.  St.  Gervais,  or  San  Gervasio,  a  village  at 
the  foot  of  Mont  Blanc,  with  mineral  springs,  and  2,000  inhabitants. 
Montiers,  or  Monstiers,  surnamed  en  Tarentaise,  a  town  on  the  Isere,  30 
miles  east-south-east  of  Chambery,  with  2,800  inhabitants.  Aime,  a  town 
with  900  inhabitants.  San  Giovanni,  or  St.  Jean  de  Maurienne,  a  town  28 
miles  south-east  of  Chambery,  with  frequented  mineral  springs,  and  3,000 
inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  district  are:  Lans-le-Bourg  (with  1,500 
inhabitants),  Modane  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  and  Termignon  (with  1,800 
inhabitants). 

3.  The  county  of  Nice  (area:  1,448  square  miles;  population:  247,483  in- 
habitants, according  to  the  census  of  1844),  along  the  coast  and  on  the  French 
border,  once  belonging  to  Provence,  but  since  the  year  1388,  to  the  house  of 
Savoy.  It  contains :  Nice,  a  maritime  town  and  the  capital  of  the  county, 
much  frequented  by  the  English,  Germans,  and  others,  on  account  of  its  salu- 
brious air,  with  37,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  the  county  are :  Villafranca 
(with  3,000  inhabitants),  Sospello  (with  9,000  inhabitants),  Turbia  (with  800 
inhabitants),  Tenda  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Briga  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
and  Oneglia  (with  5,000  inhabitants). 

The  principality  of  Monaco  (area:  53  square  miles;  population:  7,000 
inhabitants),  surrounded  by  the  county  of  Nice,  is  independent  in  its  local 
affairs,  but  in  other  respects  under  the  protection  and  supremacy  of  Sardinia, 
It  yields  an  annual  revenue  of  100,000  francs  to  the  prince  of  Monaco  (at 
present  Florestan  I.,  belonging  to  the  family  of  Grimaldi),  and  contains  the 
following  towns :  Monaco  (the  capital  with  1,200  inhabitants),  Mentone  (with 
3,000  inhabitants),  and  Rocca  bruna. 

4.  The  duchy  of  Montferrat  (area :  1,065  square  miles ;  population :  170,000 
inhabitants),  situated  between  Turin  and  Genoa.  Montferrat  was  originally  a 
margraviate,  and  in  890  it  was  ruled  by  the  margrave  William,  whose  male 
line  became  extinct  in  1305.  The  heiress  of  the  margraviate,  Iolantha,  was 
married,  in  1330,  with  a  prince  of  Savoy,  and  by  the  right  of  succession,  the 
house  of  Savoy  became  possessed  of  the  margraviate,  or  duchy,  in  the  years  1627 
and  1703.  It  contains:  Casale,  capital  of  Montferrat,  on  the  Po,  eastward 
and  37  miles  distant  from  Turin,  with  several  remarkable  palaces,  and  a 
cathedral,  and  20,000  inhabitants.     Acqui,  a  town  on  the  Bormida,  with  8,500 


ITALY.  in 


Sardinia:  Statistics  of  Duchy  of  Milan,  etc. 


inhabitants.  The  little  town  of  Cucarro  is  considered  as  the  actual  birth-place 
of  Columbus,  who,  according  to  recent  investigators,  was  born  here  in  1442 ; 
while  others  are  of  the  opinion  that  he  was  born  in  Cogoleto  (see  under  duchy 
of  Genoa).     Nizza  delta  Paglia,  a  town  on  the  Belbo,  with  5,000  inhabitants. 

5.  The  Sardinian  portion  of  the  duchy  of  Milan  (see  history  of  this  duchy 
in  the  description  of  the  Austrian  empire),  containing :  Alessandkia,  sur- 
named  delta  Paglia,  a  city  on  the  Tanaro,  eastward  and  46  miles  distant  from 
Turin,  and  northward  and  42  miles  distant  from  Genoa,  with  several  literary 
institutions,  frequented  fairs,  and  46,000  inhabitants.  In  the  vicinity  is  situated 
the  village  of  Marengo,  noted  for  the  battle  of  the  14th  of  June,  1800. 
Bosco,  a  great  village,  with  3,000  inhabitants,  and  a  magnificent  abbey, 
founded  in  the  16th  century.  Valenza,  a  town  on  the  Po,  with  7,000  inhab- 
itants. Lumello  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Mortara  (with  4,200  inhabi- 
tants), and  Vigevano  (with  12,000  inhabitants).  Novara,  a  town  on  the 
Agogna,  north-eastward  and  55  miles  distant  from  Turin,  with  a  magnificent 
cathedral,  several  literary  institutions  and  societies,  and  15,000  inhabitants. 
Other  towns  of  this  district  are :  Oleggio  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  Borgomanero 
(with  7,000  inhabitants),  Maggiora  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Borgosesia  (with 
3,000  inhabitants),  and  Varallo  (with  3,000  inhabitants).  Near  the  village  of 
Alagna,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Rosa,  are  important  copper  mines.  On  the 
Lake  Maggiore  is  situated  the  town  of  Arona,  with  65,000  inhabitants,  noted 
for  a  colossal  statue  of  Charles  Borromeo,  born  in  1538  at  Arona,  and  distin- 
guished for  his  works  of  Christian  charity.  He  was  cardinal  and  archbishop 
of  Milan,  where  he  died  in  1584.  Near  Arona,  and  in  the  Lake  Maggiore, 
are  the  Borromean  Isles  (Isola  del  Pescatori,  Isola  bella,  and  Isola  madre), 
with  beautiful  gardens,  belonging  to  the  family  of  Borromeo.  Pallanza  (with 
1,600  inhabitants),  Intra  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  and  Canobbio  (with  2,000 
inhabitants),  towns  on  the  Lake  Maggiore.  Other  towns  of  this  district  are : 
Pomodossola,  or  Domo  d'Ossola  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  and  Vogogna  (with 
1,500  inhabitants).  Tortona,  a  town  on  the  Scrivia,  eastward  and  9  miles 
distant  from  Alessandria,  with  9,000  inhabitants.  Serravalle,  a  town,  with 
2,400  inhabitants.  Bobbio,  a  town  on  the  Trebbia,  and  near  the  frontier  of 
the  duchy  of  Parma,  with  5,000  inhabitants.  Voghera,  a  town  18  miles 
east-north-east  of  Alessandria,  with  12,000  inhabitants. 

6.  The  former  republic  (at  present  styled  duchy)  of  Genoa  (area :  2,343 
square  miles ;  population,  according  to  the  census  of  1844:  705,708  inhabi- 
tants).   The  city  of  Genoa  was  already  in  the  days  of  the  ancient  Romans 


112  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Sardinia:  Duchy  of  Genoa— History  and  Statistics. 


noted  for  its  extensive  commerce.  In  the  period  of  the  migration  of  nations 
it  came  under  the  sway  of  the  Ostrogoths,  and  since  changed  hands,  until  in 
the  middle  ages  it  threw  off  obedience  to  the  German  emperors,  and  became 
independent,  with  republican  forms  of  government  like  those  of  Venice.  So 
early  as  the  year  806  it  had  conquered  the  island  of  Corsica,  which  it  kept 
first  until  the  11th,  and  then,  since  the  year  1284,  until  the  latter  half  of  the 
18th  century,  when  the  island  was  ceded  to  France.  About  the  higluy-un- 
portant  and  extensive  commerce  of  Genoa  in  the  middle  ages,  see  History 
of  Europe,  §  17.  Since  the  year  1464,  Genoa,  with  its  territory,  was  consid- 
ered as  part  of  the  duchy  of  Milan.  It  was  conquered  by  King  Francis  I.  of 
France,  and  again  by  Charles  V.  emperor  of  Germany.  At  last,  in  1528,  it  re- 
acquired its  independence,  which  it  maintained  until  the  wars  brought  on  by 
the  French  revolution.  In  1797,  it  was  transformed  into  "a  Ligurian  Republic  ; 
in  1805,  incorporated  into  the  French  empire;  and  in  1815,  into  the  kingdom 
of  Sardinia.  The  duchy  of  Genoa  contains  the  following  cities  and  towns : 
Genoa,  fortified  capital  of  the  duchy  and  chief  seaport  of  Sardinia,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Genoa,  with  120,000  inhabitants.  It  is  built  on  the  declivity  of  a 
mountain  which  half  encircles  its  harbor,  and  is  surnamed  the  Superb  on 
account  of  its  numerous  and  magnificent  palaces  and  other  edifices,  among 
which  are  more  than  100  churches.  Besides  a  university  (see  p.  104),  there 
are  many  other  scientific  and  literary  institutions.  (About  the  birth-place  of 
Columbus,  see  Cucarro,  p.  Ill,  and  Cogoleto,  p.  113.)  The  shore  to  the  right 
and  to  the  left  of  the  city,  is  covered  with  numerous  and  splendid  villas.  As 
Genoa's  suburb  is  considered  the  neighboring  town  of  San  Piar  d'Arena,  or 
San  Pietro  d'Arena,  with  many  villas  and  magnificent  palaces,  and  7,000 
inhabitants.  Westward  and  23  miles  distant  from  Genoa,  is  situated  the 
village  of  Montenotte,  noted  for  the  victory  gained  by  Bonaparte  on  the  14th 
of  April,  1796.  Other  remarkable  villages  in  the  vicinity  of  Genoa  are : 
Arenzano,  San  Cipriano,  La  Foce,  and  Sort.  Voltri,  a  maritime  town,  with 
docks,  paper  manufactories,  and  8,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  dis- 
trict are :  Cornigliano  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Sestri  di  Ponente  (with  6,000 
inhabitants),  Pra,  or  Pria  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Pegli  (with  4,000  inhabi- 
tants), Camogli  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Nervi,  Torriglia,  and  Mele.  Novi,  a 
town  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  23  miles  north-north-east  of  Genoa,  with 
many  palace-like  houses  and  villas  of  the  Genoese,  and  10,800  inhabitants. 
Savona,  a  maritime  town,  20  miles  west-south-west  of  Genoa,  with  17,000 
inhabitants.     Pope  Pius  VIL  lived  here  forcedly,  in  the  years  1809-1812. 


ITALY.  ns 


Sardinia:  Statistics— Island  of  Sardinia. 


Cogoleto,  a  village  on  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  with  1,000  inliabitants,  is  considered 
as  the  birth-place  of  Columbus,  according  to  the  prevailing  opinion,  while 
others  consider  Cucarro  (see  p.  Ill)  as  his  birth-place.  Other  towns  of  this 
district  are:  Vado  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  A Ibizola  (with  1,300  inhabitants), 
Varazze  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  and  Noli  (with  2,000  inhabitants).  Albenga, 
a  maritime  town,  south-westward  and  32  miles  from  Savona,  with  4,000  inhab- 
itants. Other  towns  of  this  district  are :  Alassio  (with  6,000  inhabitants), 
Langueglia,  or  Laigueglia  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  Loano  (with  3,000  inhabi- 
tants), Finale  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  and  Varigotti  (with  1,500  inhabitants). 
Porto  Mauritio,  or  Porto  San  Maurizio,  a  maritime  town,  south-westward 
and  37  miles  distant  from  Savona,  with  5,700  inhabitants.  San  Remo,  a 
maritime  town,  north-eastward  and  28  miles  distant  from  Nice,  with  12,000 
inhabitants.  It  is  said,  in  praise  of  this  town,  that  within  the  memory  of 
man,  a  murder  has  never  happened  there.  Another  maritime  town  is  Venti- 
miglia,  or  Vinthniglia,  with  5,500  inhabitants.  Chiavari,  a  maritime  town, 
eastward  and  23  miles  distant  from  Genoa,  with  11,000  inhabitants.  Other 
towns  of  this  district  are :  Rapallo  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Lavagna  (with 
2,500  inhabitants),  Sestri  di  Levante  (with  2,000  inliabitants),  Borzonasca 
(with  5,000  inhabitants),  and  Varese  (with  6,000  inhabitants).  Spezia,  or 
Spezzia,  a  maritime  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Spezia,  between  Genoa  and  Leghorn, 
with  a  fine  harbor,  and  10,000  inhabitants.  In  and  near  the  Gulf  of  Spezia, 
are  situated  the  small  isles  of  Palmaria,  Tino  (with  a  light -house),  and  Tinello. 
Of  greater  extent  is  the  island  of  Capraja,  between  Corsica  and  Leghorn, 
with  3,660  inhabitants,  according  to  the  census  of  1844.  In  the  district  of 
Spezia,  are  still  the  following  towns  to  be  mentioned  :  Portovenere  (with  2,000 
inhabitants),  Lerici  (with  4,700  inhabitants),  Levanto  (with  4,000  inhabitants), 
Sarzana  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  and  Monterosso  (with  1,000  inhabitants). 

7.  The  island  of  Sardinia  (area:  9,287  square  miles;  population:  598,000 
inhabitants),  next  to  Sicily  the  largest  island  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  situ- 
ated in  the  latitude  of  Naples.  The  soil  of  the  low  country  is  generally 
very  fertile  in  grain,  of  which  great  quantities  axe  exported,  chiefly  to 
Algiers.  The  rearing  of  cattle  is  also  very  considerable.  In  the  mountainous 
districts  lives  the  muffion,  bearing  a  great  resemblance  to  the  Rocky  Mountain 
sheep.  The  aborigines  of  the  island  of  Sardinia  were  Iberians  (see  Introduc- 
tion, §  12),  and  in  the  course  of  time,  Greek  and  Carthaginian  immigrants 
settled  here.  The  Romans  conquered  the  island  in  238  B.  C,  and  in  720  A.D., 
it  came  under  the  sway  of  the  Arabs,  in  1050  under  that  of  the  Pi 


114  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Island  of  Sardinia— Statistics. 

In  1324  the  king  of  Aragon  became  possessed  of  it,  and  since  that  period  the 
island  continued  to  be  under  Spanish  sovereignty,  until  in  1714  it  was  ceded 
to  Austria,  and  in  1720  ceded  to  the  duke  of  Savoy,  in  exchange  for  Sicily 
(see  ante).  With  regard  to  the  administration,  the  island  is  divided  into 
two  divisions,  or  provinces,  which  are  subdivided  into  eleven  districts ;  and  it 
contains :  Cagliari,  fortified  capital  of  the  island,  on  the  gulf  of  the  same 
name,  with  a  university  (see  above),  38  churches,  20  convents,  ship  docks, 
active  commerce,  salt  works,  and  30,000  inhabitants.  Quarto,  a  town,  with 
5,800  inhabitants.  Here,  and  in  the  neighborhood,  the  female  sex  is  distin- 
guished for  its  beauty.  Busachi,  chief  town  of  a  district,  with  1,800  inhabi- 
tants. Other  towns  of  this  district  are :  Oristano  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  and 
Ales  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  while  Cabras  (with  8,500  inhabitants),  Panlila- 
tino  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Sorgono  (with  1,300  inhabitants),  and  Aritzu,  are 
more  or  less  remarkable  villages.  The  district  of  Iglesias  contains  the  fol- 
lowing towns:  Iglesias  (chief  town,  with  a  fine  cathedral,  and  8,500  inhabi- 
tants), Villacidro  (with  5,800  inhabitants),  Guspini  (with  lead  mines,  and 
3,000  inhabitants),  and  Carloforte  (on  the  isle  of  San  Pietro,  near  the  south- 
west coast,  with  2,300  inhabitants).  Isili,  chief  town  of  a  district,  with  2,200 
inhabitants.  Nurri  and  Sardara,  villages,  with  respectively  2,000  and  1,700 
inhabitants.  Lanusei,  chief  town  of  the  district  of  Ogliastra,  with  1,700  in- 
habitants. Tortoli  and  Bavi,  towns,  with  respectively  1,300  and  1,200  inhab- 
itants. Nuoro,  chief  town  of  a  district,  with  3,600  inhabitants.  Orosei, 
Fonni,  and  Posada,  towns,  with  respectively  2,000,  2,800,  and  2,500  inhabi- 
tants. Montesanto,  Orgosola,  and  Siniscola,  are  mountain  villages,  whose 
inhabitants  are  notorious  for  their  wild  manners.  Dorgali,  a  village,  with 
2,900  inhabitants,  and  noted  for  its  manufactory  of  arms.  The  fair  sex  of  the 
village  of  Benetutti  are  distinguished  for  their  beauty.  Sassari,  the  second 
city  on  the  island,  near  its  northern  coast,  with  25  churches,  13  convents,  a 
university  (see  above),  and  23,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  district 
are :  Osilo  (with  4,800  inhabitants),  Sorso  (with  4,300  inhabitants),  Castel 
Sardo  (with  2,100  inhabitants),  and  Porto  Torres  (with  800  inhabitants). 
Alghieri,  or  Alghero,  a  town,  with  8,000  inhabitants.  Cuglieri  (with  3,900 
inhabitants),  and  Bosa  (with  a  magnificent  cathedral,  and  6,000  inhabitants), 
towns.  Ozieri  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  Oschiri  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  and 
Pattada  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  towns.  Tempio,  chief  town  of  the  district 
of  Gallura,  with  9,500  inhabitants.  To  this  district  belong,  moreover,  the 
town  of  Terranova  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  and  the  isles  of  Tavolara  or 
Bucina,  Moddalena,  and  Caprera. 


ITALY  us 

Duchy  of  Parma. 


IL— THE  KINGDOM  OF  LOMBARDY  AND  VENICE. 

Area:  17,594  square  miles. 
Population  :  5,068,000  inhabitants. 

This  kingdom  will  be  described  together  with  the  Austrian 
empire. 


III.— THE  DUCHY  OF  PARMA. 

Area  :  2,279  square  miles. 
Population  :  479,900  inhabitants. 

It  is  situated  between  the  duchy  of  Modena  and  the  conti- 
nental part  of  Sardinia,  and  on  the  north  separated  from  Lom- 
bardy  by  the  Po. 

The  soil  is  generally  very  fertile,  and  agriculture  in  a  rather 
high  state  of  improvement.  Yet  the  commerce  and  manufactures 
are  of  no  great  importance. 

The  clergy  are  charged  with  the  care  of  the  schools.  Most  of 
the  teachers  are  monks,  and  the  schools  for  girls  are  under  the 
direction  of  nuns.  There  was  a  university  in  the  capital,  founded 
in  1422,  but  it  was  abolished  in  1832  and  transformed  into  two 
higher  special  schools.  The  higher  catholic  clergy  consist  of  7 
bishops.     There  are  still  21  convents  in  the  country. 

The  public  revenue  was  of  late  about  7,200,000  lire  (or  francs), 
and  the  expenditure  little  more  than  6,000,000  lire.  The  public 
debt  amounted  to  7,600,000  lire,  or  $1,428,800,  in  1840.  The 
military  numbers  about  800  men.     There  is  an  order  of  honor, 


116  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Duchy  of  Pa-ma. 

called  the  Constantinian  order  of  St.  George,  originally  instituted 
by  the  Greek  emperor  Isaac,  in  1190,  and  in  1699  sold  to  the 
Duke  Francis  I.  of  Parma.  In  1815,  it  was  renewed  by  the  late 
Duchess  Maria  Louisa. 

History. — The  country  embraces  3  duchies,  viz. :  of  Parma,  Piacenza,  and 
Guastalla,  of  which  the  two  first-named  were  always  united,  while  Gruastalla 
was  not  added  to  them  until  the  year  1748.  The  cities  of  Parma  and  Pia- 
cenza shared  the  fate  of  Upper  and  Middle  Italy  after  the  fall  of  the  Western 
Empire,  until  in  1183  they  succeeded  in  becoming  independent,  with  repub- 
lican forms  of  government.  Yet  in  the  next  century  they  were  unable  to 
maintain  their  independence,  and  they  were  ruled  alternately  by  the  Visconti, 
Este,  Sforzas,  and  other  dynasties,  until  in  1514  the  apostolical  see  became 
possessed  of  them.  Pope  Paul  III.  raised  Parma  and  Piacenza  to  the  rank 
of  duchies,  and  invested  with  them  his  natural  son,  Peter  Aloys  Farnese 
(father  of  the  great  warrior,  Alexander  of  Farnese),  in  1543.  In  1131  the 
male  line  of  the  house  of  Farnese  became  extinct.  Philip  V.  of  Spain  was 
married  to  a  princess  of  Parma,  and  for  this  reason  his  son,  Don  Carlos 
became  possessed  of  the  duchies,  which  since  (with  the  exception  of  a  short 
interval)  were  ruled  by  Spanish  Princes.  First  in  1802,  and  formally  in 
1805,  the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Piacenza  were  incorporated  into  the  French 
empire ;  while  the  prince  Borghese,  Napoleon's  brother-in-law,  was  invested 
with  the  duchy  of  Guastalla.  In  1815,  according  to  the  determination  of 
the  congress  of  Vienna,  the  former  empress  of  France,  Maria  Louisa,  became 
possessed  of  these  three  duchies  for  lifetime.  She  died  on  the  18th  of  Decem- 
ber, 1847,  and  the  duchies  now  devolved  upon  the  legitimate  heir,  the  Spanish 
prince,  Charles,  until  then  (since  the  year  1824)  duke  of  Lucca,  which  latter 
duchy  is  since  annexed  to  the  grand-duchy  of  Tuscany. 

The  whole  country  is  divided  into  the  5  districts  of  Parma, 
Piacenza,  Borgo  Sandonnino,  Borgo  Taro,  and  Guastalla.  Yet 
in  the  description  we  shall  retain  the  historical  division  of  the 
duchies  of  Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Guastalla. 

(a.)  The  duchy  of  Parma,  embracing  the  eastern  half  of  the  state,  and  con- 
taining:   Parma,  the  metropolis    and  ducal  residence,  north-westward  and 


ITALY.  H7 


Duchy  of  Parm.i :   Duchy  of  Modena. 


81  miles  distant  from  Modena,  and  northward  and  92  miles  distant  from 
Leghorn,  with  an  extensive  ducal  castle,  several  remarkable  churches,  many 
literary  institutions,  and  41,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  duchy  are : 
Coforno  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  Fornovo  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  and  Sala 
(with  an  ancient  ducal  castle).  The  ducal  park  at  the  village  of  Castelguelfo 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  Italy. 

(6.)  The  duchy  of  Piacenza,  embracing  the  western  half  of  the  state,  and 
containing :  Piacenza  (in  French,  Plaisance),  the  capital  of  this  duchy,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Po,  north-westward  and  36  miles  distant  from  Parma, 
with  a  beautiful  cathedral  and  30,000  inhabitants.  Austria  exercises  the 
stipulated  right  of  garrisoning  the  citadel  of  Piacenza.  In  the  vicinity  is  the 
field  of  battle  on  the  Trebia,  where  in  217  B.  O,  Hannibal  defeated  the 
Romans.  Other  towns  of  this  duchy  are :  Borgo  Sandonni.no  (with  4,000 
inhabitants),  and  Borgo  Taro  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  and  Fiorenznola  (with 
3,300  inhabitants). 

(c.)  The  duchy  of  Guastalla  (area :  85  square  miles;  population:  33,500 
inhabitants),  about  18  miles  north-east  of  the  city  of  Parma.  Its  ancient 
dukes  belonged  to  the  house  of  Mantua,  and  became  extinct  in  1746.  The 
duchy  as  an  imperial  fee  escheated  now  to  the  German  emperor,  who  in 
1748  ceded  it  to  the  Spanish  prince  Don  Carlos  (see  above).  It  contains: 
Guastalla,  capital  of  this  duchy,  on  the  Po,  with  a  magnificent  cathedral,  and 
6,000  inhabitants.  Besides  this  are  to  be  remarked  the  villages  of  Baccanello, 
San  Giorgio,  San  Rocco,  and  Brocada. 


IV.— THE  DUCHY  OF  MODENA. 

Area  :  2,109  square  miles. 
Population  :  490,000  inhabitants. 

It  is  situated  between  Parma  and  the  northern  extremity  of 
the  popedom,  has  a  fertile  soil,  and  is  noted  for  its  fine  Carrara 
marble.     The  manufacturing  industry  is  of  no  great  importance. 


118  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Duchy  of  Modena. 


There  was  in  the  capital  a  university,  which,  however,  in  1832, 
was  transformed  into  three  higher  schools.  The  higher  catholic 
clergy  consist  of  6  bishops.  There  are  still  14  monasteries 
and  9  nunneries  in  the  country. 

The  public  revenue  was  of  late  about  $540,000,  and  the  public 
debt  amounted  only  to  $252,000.  The  army,  on  the  peace  foot- 
ing, numbers  1,860  men. 

History. — Modena  became  in  the  middle  ages  a  fee  of  the  German  empire, 
and  in  the  14th  century  the  renowned  house  of  Este  was  invested  with  it. 
This  house,  whose  ancestral  seat  of  the  same  name  is  situated  in  the  kingdom 
of  Lombardy  Venice,  belonged  to  the  most  ancient  families  of  Italy,  anil  its 
ancestor  was  the  margrave  Albert  of  Este,  who  lived  about  the  year  960, 
and  was  possessed  of  great  estates  in  Lombardy.  His  great-grandson, 
Albert  Azzo  II.,  went  to  Germany  and  inherited  there,  by  his  wife,  the  large 
possessions  of  the  Guelphs  ;  while  the  collateral  degrees  of  kindred  remained 
in  Italy.  To  these  belonged  margrave  Borso,  who  in  1452,  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  a  duke  of  Modena  and  Reggio.  In  1806  the  male  line  of  the  house 
of  Este  became  extinct,  and  the  heiress  of  the  duchy  being  married  to  the 
Austrian  archduke  Ferdinand,  the  reigning  dynasty  was  henceforth  called 
Austria-Este.  His  grandson  Francis  V.  (born  in  1819)  is  the  reigning  duke 
since  1846. 

The  whole  duchy  is  divided  into  the  six  provinces  of  Modena, 
Reggio,  Garfagna,  Massa-Carrara,  Lunigiana,  and  Frignano.  Yet 
we  shall,  in  the  topography,  follow  the  historical  division  into  the 
duchies  and  principalities  of  Modena,  Reggio,  Correggio,  Miran- 
dola,  Novellara,  and  Massa-Carrara. 

Modena,  capital  of  the  whole  country  and  residence  of  the  duke,  on  a  canal 
that  unites  the  Panaro  with  the  Secchia,  south-eastward  and  32  miles  distant 
from  Parma,  and  60  miles  north-north-west  of  Florence,  with  a  magnificent 
palace  of  the  duke,  numerous  churches  (the  high  steeple  of  the  cathedral  is 
known  by  the  name  of  Guirlandina),  and  28,000  inhabitants  (inclusive  1,500 
Jews).     Other  towns  of  this  district  are :  Sassuolo  (with  8,000  inhabitants), 


ITALY.  H9 


Duchy  of  Modena. 


Finale  (with  6,500  inhabitants),  Frignano  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Pavullo 
(with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  Acquaria  (with  hot  springs).  Cartelnuovo  di 
Garfagna,  a  town  on  the  Serchio,  with  3,000  inhabitants,  was  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  Lordship  of  Garfagna,  which  previously  was  annexed  to 
Bologna.  Carpi,  a  town  situated  northward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Modena, 
has  5,000  inhabitants,  and  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  principality  of  Carpi, 
that  in  1530  was  ceded  to  Modena  by  the  house  of  Pico,  for  the  sum  of  100,000 
ducats.  Rkggio,  the  capital  of  the  ancient  duchy  of  Reggio,  which  has  always 
been  united  with  the  duchy  of  Modena,  is  situated  between  the  cities  of 
Modena  and  Parma,  and  has  23  churches,  several  convents,  and  19,000  inhab- 
itants. The  renowned  poet  Ariosto,  was  born  here  in  1474.  In  the  vicinity 
of  this  city,  are  to  be  found  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  castle  of  Canossa,  where 
the  German  emperor  Henry  IV.  humbled  himself  before  the  Pope  Gregory 
VII.,  in  1077.  Brescello,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Po,  with  2,000  inhabitants. 
The  province  of  Lunigiana  contains  the  towns  of  Aulla  (with  1,800  inhabi- 
tants), and  Fosdinovo  (with  2,000  inhabitants).  Correggio,  ancient  capital 
of  a  principality  of  the  same  name,  which  in  1635  was  annexed  to  Modena, 
near  the  Po,  with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  5,000  inhabitants.  The  great 
painter  Antonio  Allegzi,  generally  known  by  the  name  of  Correggio,  was  born 
here.  Mirandola,  ancient  capital  of  a  duchy  of  the  same  name,  which  in 
1711  was  annexed  to  Modena,  on  the  Burana,  with  5,500  inhabitants.  Con- 
cordia, a  town  on  the  Secchia,  with  3,500  inhabitants.  Novellara,  ancient 
capital  of  a  principality  of  the  same  name,  with  which  the  duke  of  Modena 
was  invested  in  1737,  20  miles  north-north-west  of  Modena,  with  5,000  inhab- 
itants. The  duchy  of  Massa- Carrara,  bordering  on  the  sea,  and  having  an 
area  of  95  square  miles,  with  more  than  30,000  inhabitants,  was  annexed  to 
the  duchy  of  Modena  in  1741,  by  marriage  of  its  heiress  with  the  hereditary 
prince  of  Modena.  It  contains :  Massa,  a  city  on  the  Frigido,  and  near  the 
western  coast  of  the  Italian  peninsula,  with  10,000  inhabitants,  and  active 
commerce  in  olive  oil  and  marble.  In  its  vicinity  is  situated  the  town  of 
Carrara,  with  8,500  inhabitants,  an  academy  of  sculptors,  and  numerous 
workshops,  where  more  than  400  artists  are  engaged  in  sculptural  works. 
About  100  vessels  are  annually  employed  in  exporting  the  marble  of  Carrara, 
Lavenza,  a  maritime  town,  with  1,300  inhabitants. 


120  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Grand-Duchy  of  Tuscany. 


V.— THE  GRAND-DUCHY  OF  TUSCANY. 

Area  :  8,844  square  miles. 
Population:  1,752,000  inhabitants. 

This  state,  comprising  the  north-western  part  of  Middle  Italy, 
consists,  since  the  year  1847,  of  Tuscany  Proper  (8,418  square 
miles,  and  1,570,000  inhabitants),  and  the  Duchy  of  Lucca  (426 
square  miles,  and  182,000  inhabitants),  which  latter,  according 
to  the  determinations  of  the  congress  at  Vienna  in  1815,  was 
annexed  to  the  grand-duchy  as  soon  as  the  duchess  of  Parma 
died,  and  the  duke  of  Lucca  became  her  successor  (compare  the 
History  of  Parma). 

The  Etruscan  Apennines  extend  across  the  north-eastern  part 
•  of  the  country.  The  principal  river  of  Tuscany  is  the  Arno, 
while  the  Tiber  has  its  sources  here.  Besides  these,  the  Ombrone 
in  Tuscany,  and  the  Serchio  in  Lucca,  may  be  mentioned. 

The  soil  is  for  the  greatest  part  very  fertile,  although  marshy 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Arno,  and  along  the  coast,  down  to  the 
frontier  of  the  States  of  the  Church.  These  marshes  are  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Maremma. 

Agriculture  flourishes  in  Tuscany  proper,  as  well  as  in  Lucca, 
and  has  attained  here  a  high  state  of  improvement.  Besides  the 
silk  manufactures  at  Florence,  Tuscany  is  renowned  for  its  fine 
straw  hats,  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Arno  thousands  of  country 
girls  are  engaged  in  plaiting  straw.  The  manufactures  in  Lucca 
are  various,  and  embrace  chiefly  silk,  cotton,  and  woollen  goods. 
With  regard  to  the  commerce,  Leghorn  may  be  considered  as  the 
chief  seaport  of  the  Italian  peninsula,  and  besides  this,  the 
inland  trade  of  Florence  is  also  very  important. 

With  regard  to  the  means  of  education,  there  are  3  universi- 


ITALY.  121 

Tuscany:    Education— Rv venu? — Army,  etc. 


ties  in  Tuscany,  viz. :  at  Pisa  (founded  in  1338,  and  in  1841 
frequented  by  580  students),  at  Siena  (founded  in  1351,  and  in 
1841  with  257  students),  and  at  Florence  (founded  in  1438,  and 
in  1841  with  218  students).  Moreover,  there  are  4  colleges  for 
the  sons  of  nobles,  16  gymnasiums,  and  16  seminaries  (see  the  ex- 
planatory note  at  the  introduction  to  Portugal).  The  common 
schools  are  numerous  in  Tuscany  proper,  as  well  as  in  Lucca. 

At  the  head  of  the  Catholic  clergy  are  4  archbishops  (one  of 
them  in  Lucca)  and  16  bishops.  In  1840  Tuscany  numbered 
still  133  monasteries  (with  2,540  monks)  and  69  nunneries  (with 
3,907  nuns).  In  the  duchy  of  Lucca  the  number  of  convents 
amounted  to  23. 

Until  the  last  revolutions  in  Italy,  which  commenced  in  1847, 
the  Tuscan  government  was  absolute,  but  is  now  limited. 

The  amount  of  the  revenue,  and  of  the  expenditure,  for  the 
last  year  has  been  about  $5,000,000  annually.  In  1836  the 
revenue  of  Tuscany  was  exactly  25,104,898  lire,  and  the  expen- 
diture only  23,078,029  lire  (or  francs).  Since  1829,  Tuscany  is 
without  any  public  debt.  In  the  duchy  of  Lucca,  whose  public 
debt  amounted  to  about  500,000  lire,  the  public  revenue  was  of 
late  3.700,000  lire  (or  francs),  and  the  expenditure  somewhat 
less. 

The  Tuscan  army  numbers  on  the  peace  footing  5,500  men. 
(The  military  of  Lucca  consisted  of  700  men.)  There  are  also 
some  vessels  of  war,  consisting  of  4  schooners  (one  of  them  be- 
longed to  the  duchy  of  Lucca)  and  some  gun-boats. 

The  Tuscanese  orders  of  honor  are  the  following : — 1.  The 
order  of  St.  Stephen,  instituted  in  1562,  and  renewed  in  1817, 
in  4  classes.  2.  The  order  of  St.  Joseph,  instituted  in  1807,  at 
Wurtzburg  (see  below),  and  renewed  in  1817  for  Tuscany,  in  3 
classes.  3.  The  order  of  the  white  cross,  instituted  in  1814.  (The 
duke  of  Lucca  had  instituted  the  or  ler  of  St.  Louis,  in  3  classes.) 


122  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Tuscany:    History. 


History. — The  present  grand-duchy  of  Tuscany  comprises  for  the  greatest 
part  the  ancient  Etruria,  or  the  land  of  the  Etruscans,  which  in  284  A.  C.  was 
conquered  by  the  Romans,  and,  after  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire,  came 
under  the  sway  first  of  the  Lombards,  and  then  of  the  Franks.  Charlemagne 
appointed  margraves  as  governors  of  Tuscia  (as  the  country  now  was  named), 
who  in  the  course  of  time  became  independent,  but  without  being  able  to 
retain  the  whole  of  the  country.  For  Florence,  Pisa,  Siena,  etc.,  became  free 
cities  or  republics  in  the  13th  century.  (See  History  of  Europe,  §  17,  d,  h, 
and  i.)  Pisa  was  for  a  long  time  the  most  powerful  among  them,  but  was 
subdued,  first  in  1407,  then  in  1509  by  Florence,  that  in  1286  had  purchased 
its  independence  from  the  emperor  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg  at  the  sum  of 
600,000  gold  florins.  Among  the  eminent  families  of  Florence  were  the 
Medici,  renowned  for  their  attainments  and  riches,  who  became  at  last  (espe- 
cially since  the  year  1434)  the  rulers  of  the  republic.  To  Alexander  of 
Medici  was  the  ducal  title  conferred  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  1531,  and 
to  his  son  and  successor  Cosimo  I.  the  title  of  a  grand-duke  by  the  pope  in 
1569.  In  1554  Spain  had  taken  possession  of  the  republic  of  Siena,  which 
for  the  greatest  part  was  ceded  to  Cosmo  I.  in  1557.  In  this  way  the  former 
republic  of  Florence  was  enlarged  to  a  grand-duchy  of  Tuscany.  With  John 
Gaston  the  race  of  the  Medici  became  extinct  in  1737.  and  now,  according  to 
former  stipulations,  the  duke  Francis  Stephen  of  Lorraine  (married  to  the 
renowned  Maria  Theresa,  heiress  of  Austria)  ascended  the  throne.  He  was 
subsequently  elected  emperor  of  Germany,  and  died  in  1765.  Hi3  successor 
in  Tuscany  was  first  his  son  Leopold,  and  then  (in  1790)  his  grandson  Ferdi- 
nand HI.  In  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  at  Luneville  in  1801,  it  was 
stipulated  that  the  hereditary  prince  of  Parma  should  become  possessed  of 
Tuscany  by  the  name  of  a  kingdom  of  Etruria,  in  return  for  which  the  grand- 
duke  Ferdinand  III.  was  indemnified  first  by  the  archbishopric  of  Salzburg, 
and  in  1805  by  the  grand-duchy  of  Wurtzburg  (see  introduction  to  Germany). 
Tuscany,  or  Etruria  (as  it  was  then  called),  was  in  1807  annexed  to  the 
French  empire,  of  which  it  formed  a  constituent  until  1814,  when  Ferdinand 
III.  was  reinstated.  He  died  in  1824,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  still 
reigning  grand-duke  Leopold  II.  (born  in  1797).  In  1849  he  was  obliged  to 
leave  the  country  on  account  of  a  revolution  which  had  the  tendency  to 
transform  the  grand-duchy  into  a  republic.  But  an  Austrian  army  entered 
the  country  and  defeated  the  republicans,  whereupon  the  grand-duke  returned 


ITALY.  123 


Tuscany:   Geographical  Divisions. 


to  Florence.     About  the  annexation  of  the  duchy  of  Lucca,  see  above,  and 
the  History  of  Parma. 

Tuscany  proper  is  divided  into  the  5  compartimenti  or  prov- 
inces of  Florence,  Pisa,  Siena,  Arezzo,  and  Grossetto,  which  are 
subdivided  into  Territorii  coraunitativi,  or  townships.  Part  of  the 
compartimenti  of  Pisa  and  Grossetto  consists  of  the  Stato  degli 
Presidii,  or  the  former  territory  of  the  ancient  republic  of  Siena, 
which  not  before  the  year  1815  was  annexed  to  the  grand-duchy. 
For  this  reason  we  shall  first  give  the  topography  of  Tuscany 
proper,  and  then  describe  the  Stato  degli  Presidii,  and  finally 
the  duchy  of  Lucca. 

1.  Tuscany  proper  contains :  Florence,  the  capital  of  the  grand-duchy5 
and  residence  of  the  grand-duke,  on  the  Arno,  westward  and  115  miles  dis- 
tant from  Ancona,  and  50  east-north-east  of  Leghorn,  with  105,000  inhabi- 
tants. Florence,  one  of  the  finest  cities  of  Europe,  is  noted  for  its  churches, 
palaces,  galleries,  and  libraries.  The  most  magnificent  among  the  172 
churches  is  the  cathedral,  which  was  reared  in  the  period  from  the  year  1294 
to  1448,  and  whose  beautiful  cupola  rises  to  the  height  of  400  feet.  The 
palace  Pitti,  the  usual  residence  of  the  grand-dukes,  contains  900  apartments. 
Another  palace,  reared  by  Cosmo  I.,  contains,  besides  the  so-called  Maglia- 
becchian  library,  the  celebrated  Florentine  gallery  of  sculpture,  paintings,  and 
other  works  of  art.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  city  are  situated  the  beautiful  Villa 
Demidof  (belonging  to  the  Russian  count  Demidof),  and  the  grand-ducal 
mansions  of  Poggio  Imperiale,  Poggio  a  Cajano,  Pratolino,  and  Castello.  On 
the  Stella,  23  miles  north-west  of  Florence,  is  situated  the  city  of  Pistoja, 
with  28  churches  (among  them,  a  magnificent  cathedral),  a  manufactory  of 
organs,  various  other  manufactories,  and  12,000  inhabitants.  The  villages  of 
Brozzi  and  Signa,  are  noted  for  their  straw  hats,  which  are  plaited  here  in 
great  quantities.  Fiesole,  a  town  in  the  vicinity  of  Florence,  is  remarkable 
for  the  remains  of  cyclopic  walls  and  other  ancient  buildings.  Other  towns 
of  the  compartimento  of  Florence  are :  Prato  (with  11,000  inhabitants),  Peseta 
(with  11,000  inhabitants),  Volterra  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  San  Miniato  (with 
4,000  inhabitants),  Figline  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Modigliano  (with 
2,300  inhabitants).     The  town  of  Certaldo  is  remarkable  as  the  birth-place  of 


124  EUROPK,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

Tuscany     Statistics. 

the  poet  Boccacio.  Arezzo,  capital  of  the  compartimento  of  the  same  name, 
south-eastward  and  37  miles  distant  from  Florence,  with  a  magnificent  cathe- 
dral, and  9,500  inhabitants).  The  town  of  Montepulciano,  witli  3,000  inhab- 
itants, is  noted  for  its  wines.  The  town  of  Chiusi,  which  now  has  only  1,600 
inhabitants,  was  in  the  days  of  old,  or  about  500  years  before  Christ,  the 
residence  of  Porsenna,  and  then  named  Clusium.  Stia,  a  town  near  the 
Arno,  with  cloth  manufactories  and  1,500  inhabitants.  In  its  neighborhood  is 
situated  the  celebrated  abbey  of  Camaldoli,  originated  in  1012.  Other  towns 
in  this  compartimento  are :  Cortona  (with  3,500  inhabitants),  Borgo  San  Sepolcro 
(with  3,000  inhabitants),  Anghiari  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Bibbiena  (the 
wealthiest  town  in  the  district  of  Casentino).  Siena,  the  capital  of  the  com- 
partimento of  the  same  name,  situated  in  a  picturesque  country,  southward 
and  30  miles  distant  from  Florence,  with  a  splendid  cathedral  ranking  next  to 
that  of  Milan,  numerous  palaces,  a  university  and  several  other  literary  insti- 
tutions, silk  and  other  manufactories,  and  24,000  inhabitants.  In  the  middle 
ages,  when  Siena  was  a  republic  (see  above),  the  population  of  the  city 
amounted  to  100,000  inhabitants.  Pienza,  a  town  formerly  called  Corsignano, 
has  1,500  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  compartimento  are:  Chile  (with 
4,000  inhabitants),  Montalcino  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  and  Radicofani  (with 
1,000  inhabitants).  Near  the  last-named  town  are  the  renowned  watering- 
places  of  San  Fillppo  and  San  Casciano.  Gkossetto,  fortified  town  and 
capital  of  the  compartimento  of  the  same  name,  southward  and  70  miles 
distant  from  Florence,  in  a  marshy  and  very  unwholesome  country,  near  the 
coast,  with  salt  works,  and  3,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province 
(besides  those  that  belong  to  the  Stato  degli  Presidii)  are :  Soana,  or  Sovaow 
(remarkable  as  the  birth-place  of  Pope  Gregory  VII.).  Massa  di  Maremma 
(with  1,800  inhabitants),  and  Pitigliano  (with  2,600  inhabitants).  The  com- 
partimento of  Pisa  contains :  Pisa,  a  city  on  the  Arno,  about  4  miles  distant 
from  its  mouth,  and  12  miles  north-north-east  from  Leghorn,  had  in  the  middle 
ages,  when  it  was  a  powerful  republic  (see  above),  a  population  of  150,000, 
but  has  at  present  only  22,000  inhabitants.  Yet  it  is  still  a  most  remarkable 
city,  not  only  for  its  celebrated  university,  one  of  the  best  in  Italy,  but  for  its 
edifices  and  buildings.  There  are  nearly  80  churches,  among  them  the  highly- 
interesting  cathedral  founded  in  1063,  richly  decorated  in  the  interior,  and 
containing  the  tomb  of  the  German  emperor,  Henry  VII.  (who  died  here  in 
1313).  Near  the  back  part  of  the  cathedral  is  the  remarkable  Campanile,  or 
leaning  tower,  168  feet  high,  and  inclining  14  feet  from  the  perpendicular.     It 


ITALY.  125 

Tuscany  :    Statistic*. 

was  reared  in  117-1.  On  the  other  side  is  the  Campo  Santo,  or  church-yard, 
with  fine  paintings  in  fresco  on  the  walls,  with  which  it  is  surrounded.  In 
the  neighborhood  of  Pisa  are  mineral  baths,  which  are  much  frequented. 
The  grand-ducal  farm  of  San  Rossore,  in  the  vicinity  of  Pisa,  is  noted  for  its 
studs  and  a  herd  of  camels  that  have  been  kept  here  since  the  year  1622. 
Leghorn  (in  Italian,  Livorno),  the  chief  seaport  of  Tuscany,  and  the  first 
commercial  city  in  Italy,  50  miles  west-south-west  of  Florence,  with  two 
harbors,  ship  docks,  numerous  manufactories,  and  88,000  inhabitants,  among 
whom  are  nearly  25,000  Jews,  who  have  here  one  of  the  most  splendid  syna- 
gogues in  Europe.  In  the  vicinity  is  the  picturesque  mountain  Montenero 
(or  Monte  Negro),  with  a  rich  convent  and  numerous  mansions.  Barga,  a 
town  with  2,000  inhabitants,  is  situated  in  the  district  called  Garfagna 
Granducale.  Fivizzano,  a  town  with  a  Benedictine  nunnery,  and  2,500 
inhabitants,  is  situated  in  the  district  called  Lunigiana.  Pontremoli,  a  town 
on  the  Magra,  with  a  fine  cathedral,  a  strong  citadel,  and  6,000  inhabitants. 
Other  towns  are :  Castellina  Marittima  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Castelnuovo 
(with  1,000  inhabitants),  Serravezza  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  Pietrasanta 
(wi;h  3,000  inhabitants).  Near  the  coast,  and  at  no  great  distance  from 
Leghorn,  are  situated  the  isles  of  Pianosa  (to  which  Agrippa  Posthumus, 
grandson  of  the  Roman  emperor  Augustus,  was  exiled),  Gianuti,  Giglio 
(with  1,300  inhabitants),  Monte  Cristo,  Palmajola  (between  Elba  and  the 
continent),  Gorgona  (right  against  Leghorn),  and  Meloria. 

2.  The  Stato  degli  Presidii  (area :  298  square  miles)  is  a  territory  that  once 
belonged  to  the  ancient  republic  of  Siena,  and  which,  together  with  the  city 
itself,  was  conquered  by  Spain  in  1554.  When,  in  1557,  the  city  of  Siena 
was  ceded  to  Tuscany  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  he  kept  its  territory,  which  since 
formed  a  constituent  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples  (then  under  Spanish 
sway).  In  1801,  Naples  ceded  it  (or  the  Stato  degli  Presidii)  to  France, 
which  kept  the  island  of  Elba  for  itself,  while  the  principality  of  Piombino 
was  given  to  Felix  Bacchiochi,  the  brother-in-law  of  Napoleon,  and  the  re- 
maining part  of  the  Stato  degli  Presidii  annexed  to  Tuscany.  According  to 
the  stipulations  of  the  congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815,  the  whole  was  annexed  to 
the  grand-duchy.  The  Stato  degli  Presidii  comprise  the  following  towns  on 
the  continent:  Orbjtello,  about  13  miles  distant  from  the  frontier  of  the 
States  of  the  Church,  with  2,000  inhabitants,  Ercole  and  San  Stefano  (little 
seaports) ;  Piombino,  a  maritime  town,  and  capital  of  the  ancient  principality 
of  Piombino  (whose  princes  of  the  houses  of  Appiani,  Ludovici,  and  Buon- 


126  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 


Tuscany:    Duchy  of  Lucca— Statistics. 


campagni,  were  under  the  sovereignty  first  of  the  German  emperor,  then  of 
Spain,  Naples,  etc.),  with  1,000  inhabitants,  Galdano,  Scarlino,  and  Lili ;  and, 
moreover,  the  island  of  Elba  (area :  32  square  miles,  with  important  iron 
mines,  and  the  towns  of  Porto  Ferrajo,  with  2,000  inhabitants,  and  Porto 
Longone,  with  1,000  inhabitants).  In  1814,  the  sovereignty  of  this  island 
was  given  to  Napoleon  in  exchange  for  the  imperial  crown  of  France.  He 
remained  here  until  March,  1815. 

3.  The  duchy  of  Lucca  (area :  426  square  miles;  population:  182,000  in- 
habitants), of  which  the  statistical  and  geographical  particulars  have  already 
been  given  above.  It  comprises  the  north-western  extremity  of  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Tuscany.  Lucca  became  in  the  middle  ages  a  fee  of  the  German 
empire,  and  was  ruled  under  this  sovereignty  by  various  families.  But  in 
1370  it  purchased  its  independence  from  the  emperor  Charles  IV.,  and  since 
it  was  a  republic,  first  with  a  democratic,  but  since  the  years  1430  and  1556 
with  an  aristocratic  constitution.  Lucca  continued  to  be  a  republic  until  the 
year  1805,  when  Napoleon  appointed  his  brother-in-law,  Bacchiochi,  prince  of 
Piombino,  hereditary  president  of  Lucca,  and  thus  transformed  the  republic 
into  a  kind  of  monarchy.  In  1815  it  was  transformed  into  a  duchy,  and  the 
widow  of  the  hereditary  prince  of  Parma  (see  History  of  Tuscany)  invested 
with  it.  She  died  in  1824,  and  was  succeeded  by  her  son,  the  now  (since 
1847)  reigning  duke  of  Parma  (see  History  of  Parma).  Since  the  end  of  the 
year  1847  the  duchy  of  Lucca  is  annexed  to  the  grand-duchy  of  Tuscany  (see 
above).  It  contains  the  following  places :  Lucca,  the  capital  and  former  resi- 
dence of  the  duke,  near  the  Serchio,  12  miles  north-north-east  of  Pisa,  with 
an  extensive  and  richly-decorated  ducal  palace,  22  churches  (among  them  a 
Gothic  cathedral  reared  in  the  11th  century),  various  manufactories,  and 
25,000  inhabitants.  The  famous  mineral  baths  of  Lucca  are  in  the  neighbor- 
ing towns  of  Bagni,  Bagno  alia  Villa,  and  Ponte  a  Seraglio.  Other  towns 
of  the  duchy  are :  Caponnori  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Borgo  (with  2,000  in- 
habitants), Camajore  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  Viareggio  (a  maritime 
town,  with  6,500  inhabitants). 


ITALY.  127 


Slates  of  the  Church 


VL— THE  STATES  OF  THE  CHURCH 

Area  :  17,280  square  miles. 
Population*  :  2,970,000  inhabitants. 

The  territory  forming  the  States  of  the  Church,  or  the  Pope- 
dom, occupies  the  centre  of  Italy,  extending  from  the  western 
coast  of  the  peninsula  to  its  eastern  coast,  and  northward  up  to 
the  mouths  of  the  Po.  The  chief  river  of  the  Popedom  is  the 
Tiber.  In  the  vicinity  of  Rimini,  between  Ancona  and  Ravenna, 
is  the  little  river  of  Luso,  or  Uso,  emptying  into  the  Adriatic 
Sea.  It  is  the  same  rivulet  which  anciently  was  so  renowned  by 
the  name  of  Rubicon.  About  the  mountains  of  the  States  of 
the  Church,  see  Introduction,  §  7,  d.  Near  the  mouths  of  the  Po, 
and  along  the  high  road  between  Rome  and  Naples,  are  extensive 
marshes  exhaling-  bad  air ;  they  are  known  by  the  names  of  Valli 
di  Comacchio  and  Pontine  marshes. 

The  soil  is  generally  good  and  fertile,  but  only  in  some  parts 
of  the  country  the  agriculture  is  conducted  with  skill  and  dili- 
gence. The  annual  produce  in  grains  is  on  an  average  computed 
at  about  615,500  quarters  of  wheat,  295,600  quarters  of  maize, 
20,000  quarters  of  oats,  and  11,200  quarters  of  barley.  Suffi- 
cient corn  for  home  consumption  is  seldom  raised  throughout  the 
country.  The  produce  of  the  richest  lands  is  only  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  clergy  and  nobility,  while  by  far  the  most  of  the  pub- 
lic charges  press  heavily  upon  the  farmer.  With  the  money  got 
by  the  sale  of  his  fruits,  wines,  olive-oil,  hemp,  flax,  and  silk,  the 
farmer  pays  his  debts,  contracted  beforehand,  his  taxes  and 
necessaries  of  life.  The  numerous  holidays  and  pilgrimages, 
jointly  with  the  warm  climate,  are  seducing  the  people  into  indo- 
lence, the  more  so  as  in  many  convents  the  poor  can  have  their 


128  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


States  of  the  Church:    Classes,  Secular  and  Ecclesiastical. 

daily  scanty  food  for  nothing.  Nevertheless  a  good  deal  of  the 
population  would  starve  but  for  their  frugality,  and  the  plenty 
and  cheapness  of  a  great  variety  of  fruits.  Though  the  rivers, 
lakes,  and  coasts  afford  great  facilities  for  the  fisheries,  yet  these 
are  by  no  means  a  great  object  of  pursuit ;  and  as  there  are  an- 
nually about  160  days  of  abstinence  on  which  only  fish  meals 
are  allowed,  great  quantities  of  dried  fish  are  to  be  imported 
from  foreign  countries.  The  commerce  in  general  is  of  no  great 
importance,  and  the  imports  are  far  exceeding  the  exports.  Thus, 
for  instance,  in  Civita  Vecchia,  the  only  seaport  on  the  western 
coast  of  the  country,  the  imports  for  the  year  1842  were  valued 
at  $1,742,000,  while  the  exports  were  only  valued  at  $588,000. 
This  being  the  actual  state  of  things,  the  manufactures  are,  with 
few  exceptions,  in  a  backward  state. 

The  nation  is  divided  into  four  classes :  the  clergy,  nobility, 
burghers,  and  farmers.  The  nobility  comprises  princes  and 
dukes  belonging  to  collateral  lines  of  the  popes,  the  so-called 
senatorial  nobility,  or  Roman  aristocracy,  and  the  lower  degrees 
of  nobility.  The  highest  state  offices  are  generally  occupied  by 
the  cardinals,  and  most  of  the  other  public  offices  either  by  pre- 
lates or  nobles. 

The  Roman  Catholic  is  of  course  the  established  church,  which 
in  this  country  is  governed  by  6  archbishops  and  72  bishops. 
In  1847  there  were,  moreover,  53,000  secular  and  regular  clergy- 
men, 1,824  monasteries,  and  612  nunneries.  Austins,  Barna- 
bites,  Benedictines,  Camaldulenses,  Capuchins,  Carmelites,  Cis- 
tercians, Ccelestians,  Cordelians,  Dominicans,  Jesuits,  Minims, 
Philippines,  Recollectians,  Somascians,  Trinitarians,  Theatins, 
etc. — all  these  religious  orders  are  to  be  found  in  the  States  of 
the  Church.  As  for  the  rest,  all  other  religions  are  tolerated. 
In  Rome  are  8,000,  and  in  Ancona  5,000  Jews. 

There  are  7  universities :  at  Bologna  (see  History  of  Europe, 


ITALY.  129 

States  of  the  Church:    Universities— Government. 

§  17,/;  this  university  was  in  1841  frequented  by  5G0  students), 
at  Rome  (founded  in  1248,  and  in  1841  with  680  students), 
at  Ferrara  (founded  in  1264,  and  in  1841  with  200  students),  at 
Perugia  (founded  in  1307,  and  in  1841  with  210  students),  at  Ma- 
cerata  (founded  in  1548,  and  in  1841  with  320  students),  at  Fermo 
(founded  in  1589,  and  in  1841  with  235  students),  and  at  Came- 
rino  (founded  in  1727,  and  in  1841  with  200  students).  More- 
over, the  clergy  numbers  many  learned  men,  distinguished  for 
their  attainments  in  literature  and  science.  Nevertheless  the 
means  of  education  in  general  are  very  deficient,  and  the  mass 
of  the  people  grossly  ignorant.  That  Rome  is  the  chief  seat 
of  fine  arts,  and  at  the  same  time  noted  for  the  value  of  its  libra- 
ries, is  universally  known. 

The  form  of  government  is  an  elective  monarchy.  The  States 
of  the  Church  are  ruled  by  the  pope,  who  is  the  head  of  the 
Catholic  church,  and  is  invested  with  absolute  (although  at  pres- 
ent somewhat  modified)  power,  both  spiritual  and  temporal.  He 
is  elected  out  of  the  college  of  the  cardinals  (whose  number  is 
fixed  at  70).  The  reigning  pope,  Pius  IX.  (previous  to  his  elec- 
tion, Jos.  Maria,  Count  Mastai  Ferreti,  archbishop  of  Imola,  born 
on  the  13th  of  May,  1792,  at  Sinigaglia),  was  elected  on  the  16th 
of  June,  1846. 

The  public  revenue  was  lately  estimated  at  about  $9,000,000, 
and  the  expenditure  at  nearly  $9,800,000,  thus  a  deficit  of 
$800,000.  The  public  debt  is  computed  at  $34,000,000.  The 
clerical  revenues  (for  dispensations,  taxes  from  the  property  left 
by  clergymen,  etc),  which  still  in  the  last  century  amounted  to 
more  than  $650,000  per  annum,  fall  at  present  short  of  $300,000. 
The  army  numbered  12,669  men  with  1,382  horses  at  the  end  of 
the  year  1844.  Besides  these  there  were  two  regiments  of 
Swiss,  numbering  4,100  men.  The  navy  consists  of  some  small 
vessels. 

6* 


130  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT 

States  of  the  Church :    History. 

There  are  the  following  orders  of  honor  : — 1.  The  order  of  St. 
Gregory  the  Great,  instituted  in  1832.  2.  The  order  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist,  also  called  the  order  of  Christ,  instituted  in  1319. 
3.  The  order  of  the  golden  spur,  instituted  in  1559. 

History. — The  pope,  as  ruler  of  the  States  of  the  Church,  is  invested  with 
temporal,  and  as  the  head  of  the  Catholic  church,  with  spiritual  power.  We 
shall  first  speak  of  the  latter.  In  the  days  of  the  apostles  the  Christian 
church  was  governed  by  seniors  (presbyters),  superintendents  (bishops),  and 
deacons,  under  the  direction  of  the  apostles.  In  the  course  of  time  it  became 
the  custom  to  select  one  of  the  seniors  or  superintendents,  who  by  way  of 
eminence  was  called  bishop,  and  had  a  decisive  vote  in  the  affairs  of  the 
church  community.  About  the  middle  of  the  third  century  the  bishops  of 
Rome,  Carthage,  Alexandria,  Antiochia,  and#  other  principal  cities  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  began  to  enjoy  higher  credit  than  those  of  the  remaining  dio- 
ceses. At  a  later  period  the  bishops  of  Rome,  Constantinople,  Alexandria, 
and  Jerusalem,  were  called  patriarchs,  and  Rome  being  still  revered  as  the 
former  metropolis  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  bishop  or  patriarch  of  Rome 
began  to  exercise  more  and  more  a  kind  of  supremacy,  until  in  the  year  607 
Boniface  111.  assumed  the  papal  title  for  the  first  time.  Thus  the  spiritual 
power  of  the  pope,  as  head  of  the  Catholic  church,  dates  from  this  period. 
For  a  long  time,  the  popes  of  Rome  had  authority  only  in  matters  of  religion, 
but  in  the  9th  century  and  after  the  death  of  Charlemagne,  they  began  to 
claim  the  authority  of  God's  agents  or  vicegerents  on  earth ;  and  towards  the 
end  of  the  11th  century  Gregory  VII  (1073-1085)  established  the  formal 
privilege  of  the  pope  to  dispose  freely  of  temporal  crowns  and  kingdoms. 
He  and  several  of  his  successors  exercised  this  right  on  the  largest  scale,  until 
first  in  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century,  King  Philip  IV.  of  France,  and 
then  above  all  the  reformation  in  the  16th  century,  put  an  end  to  this  usurpa- 
tion. (See  History  of  Europe,  §  17,  e  and  h.)  The  temporal  power  of  the 
pope  dates  from  the  year  755,  when  Pepin  the  Little,  king  of  the  Franks, 
wrested  the  so-called  exarchate  (comprising?  among  others,  the  cities  and 
towns  of  Ravenna,  Forli,  Frosinone,  Velletri,  and  Rieti)  from  the  Lombards, 
and  gave  it  to  the  holy  See.  His  son,  Charlemagne,  enlarged  this  territory 
considerably.  In  the  11th  century  the  duchy  of  Benevento,  and  in  the  12  th 
the  duchy  of  Spoleto  and  part  of  the  mark  (margraviate)  of  Ancona,  etc., 
were  added  by  way  of  donation.    The  city  of  Rome  did  not  become  subject 


ITALY.  131 


State9  of  the  Church :   Geographical  Division. 


to  the  papal  power  until  in  1216.  In  the  year  1273  the  county  of  Venaissin 
(in  the  French  province  of  Provence)  was,  by  King  Philip  IV.  of  France, 
ceded  to  the  popes,  who  in  1348  purchased  the  city  of  Avignon  (quite  near 
to  Venaissin)  for  80,000  gold  florins.  In  the  16th  century  Bologna,  the  duchy  of 
Ferrara,  and  the  remaining  part  of  the  mark  of  Ancona,  and  in  the  11  th  cen- 
tury the  duchies  of  Urbiuo  and  Castro  were  acquired.  In  this  way  the 
States  of  the  Church  in  Italy  were  gradually  enlarged  to  that  extent  which 
they  have  now.  Only  Avignon  and  Venaissin,  of  which  the  French  took 
possession  in  1190,  were  lost  forever;  while  the  Italian  territories  wrested 
from  the  Popedom  by  the  French  and  Napoleon  in  the  years  1191,  1808,  and 
1809  (in  the  last-named  year  the  pope,  then  Pius  VIL,  was  completely  de- 
prived of  his  temporal  power),  were  restored  by  the  determination  of  the 
congress  of  Vienna  in  1815. 

Since  the  year  1 832  the  States  of  the  Church  are  divided  into 
21  provinces,  of  which  13  are  styled  Delegations,  and  those  of 
Bologna,  Ferrara,  Ravenna,  Urbino-Pesaro,  Forli,  and  Velletri 
are  styled  Legations,  while  the  province  of  Rome  bears  the  name 
of  Comarca,  and  that  of  Loretto  the  appellation  of  Commissariat. 
In  an  historical  relation  the  legation  of  Velletri,  the  comarca  di 
Roma,  the  delegations  of  Frosinone  and  Rieti.  and  the  legations 
of  Ravenna  and  Forli,  comprise  the  above-mentioned  exarchate, 
given  to  the  holy  see  io  755,  or  the  ancient  duchy  of  Rome  and 
the  Romagna.  The  delegations  of  Civita  Vecchia  and  Viterbo 
comprise  the  so-called  estates  of  Matilda,  which  were  given  to  the 
popes  in  1077  and  1102  by  the  margravine  Matilda  of  Tuscany. 
The  delegations  of  Spoleto,  Camerino,  and  Perugia,  comprise  the 
ancient  duchy  of  Spoleto  (see  above).  The  legation  of  Bologna 
comprises  the  ancient  Bolognese,  or  the  city  of  Bologna  and  its 
territory.  The  delegations  of  Ancona  and  Macerata,  jointly  with 
the  commissariat  of  Loretto,  comprise  the  ancient  Mark  of  Ancona. 
The  delegations  of  Fermo  and  Ascoli  comprise  the  ancient 
Mark  of  Fermo.  acquired  in  the  16th  century.  The  legation  of 
Ferrara  comprises  the  ancient  duchy  of  Fermo,  acquired  in  1598  ; 


132  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


States  of  the  Church:    Statistics. 


and  the  legation  of  Urbino  and  Pesaro  comprises  the  ancient 
duchy  of  Urbino,  acquired  in  1631. 

1.  The  comarca  di  Roma  contains :  Rome,  the  capital  of  the  States  of  the 
Church,  and  residence  of  the  pope,  on  the  Tiber,  at  18  miles  distance  from  its 
mouth,  had,  according  to  the  census  of  1847,  a  population  of  1*75,883  inhabi- 
tants, exclusive  of  Jews,  whose  number  was  computed  at  8,000.  That  Rome 
was  once  the  capital  of  the  Roman  empire,  is  universally  known ;  it  had  then, 
or  at  least  in  the  days  of  the  Emperor  Augustus,  a  population  of  2,000,000 
inhabitants,  and  was  50  miles  in  circumference.  Though  now  much  decayed, 
and  a  great  part  of  it  in  ruins,  it  is  still  one  of  the  most  interesting  cities  in 
the  world,  and  is  noted  for  its  churches,  palaces,  columns,  arches,  and  other 
monuments  of  splendid  architecture,  among  which  are  the  Coliseum  (a  vast 
amphitheatre  for  82,000  spectators,  built  in  the  days  of  the  Emperor  Titus), 
the  column  of  Trajan,  the  arches  of  Titus,  Septimus  Severus,  etc.  Among 
the  364  churches  of  the  city,  ranks  first  St.  Peter's,  the  largest  church  in  the 
world  (it  was  nearly  200  years  in  building,  and  not  before  the  year  1626 
completely  finished :  it  is  666  feet  long,  and  284  feet  wide,  and  its  magnificent 
cupola  rises  to  the  height  of  408  feet).  The  Vatican  is  the  largest  palace  in 
the  world:  it  is  1,080  feet  long,  and  contains  4,422  saloons,  halls,  and  apart- 
ments, moreover  the  most  valuable  library  in  Europe,  and  the  finest  works  of 
Raphael  and  Michael  Angelo.  The  popes  have  usually  resided  here  in  the  win 
ter  months.  Other  palaces  are,  the  Quirinal  (the  residence  of  the  pope  in  the 
summer  season),  the  vast  palace  of  Barberini,  the  palaces  of  Farnese,  Oolonna, 
Borghese,  etc  The  number  of  literary  institutions,  academies  of  fine  arts, 
etc.,  in  Rome,  is  very  great.  In  the  year  1845,  there  were  at  Rome  404 
foreign  artists,  of  whom  14  were  from  America.  The  environs  of  Rome, 
comprising  the  ancient  Lat'mm,  are  at  present  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Campagna  di  Roma.  Tivoli,  the  ancient  Tibur,  a  town  on  the  Teverone,  18 
miles  east-north-east  of  Rome,  with  a  beautiful  cataract  (60  feet  in  height), 
numerous  remains  of  antiquity,  and  6,300  inhabitants.  Ostia,  a  maritime 
town  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  was  once  the  seaport  of  Rome,  but  it  is  now 
almost  deserted,  on  account  of  the  bad  air  of  the  surrounding  marshes.  Other 
towns  of  the  Campagna  di  Roma  are:  A Ibano (with  5,600  inhabitants),  Castel 
Gandolfo  (with  a  palace  of  the  pope,  who  resides  here  some  weeks  in  the 
summer  season),  Frascati  (formerly  Tusculum,  with  4,000  inhabitants),  Pales- 
trina  (formerly  Praeneste,  with  2,500  inhabitants),  Subiaco  (with  6,000  inhab- 


ITALY.  133 


Slates  of  the  Church  :    Statistics. 


itants),  and  Fiumicino  (with  600  inhabitants).  2.  The  legation  of  Velletri,  or 
Marittima,  contains:  Velletri,  chief  town,  south-eastward  and  23  miles 
distant  from  Rome,  with  many  remains  of  antiquity,  and  12,000  inhabitants. 
Terracina  (the  ancient  Anxur),  a  town  near  the  coast  and  the  frontier  of 
Naples,  amidst  the  Pontine  marshes,  with  8,000  inhabitants.  Cori  and  Norma, 
towns  with  respectively  4,000  and  2,000  inhabitants.  3.  The  delegation  of 
Frosinone  contains :  Frosinone,  chief  town  on  the  Cosa,  46  miles  east-south- 
east of  Rome,  with  7,500  inhabitants.  To  this  delegation  belongs  likewise 
the  district  of  Fontecorvo,  northward  and  23  miles  distant  from  Gaeta,  and 
entirely  surrounded  by  the  Neapolitan  territory.  It  occupies  a  tract  of  43 
square  miles,  has  a  population  of  more  than  7,000  inhabitants,  and  belonged 
in  the  period  from  the  year  1806  to  1810,  to  the  late  king  of  Sweden, 
Bernadotte.  The  town  of  Pontecorvo  has  a  population  of  6,000  inhabitants. 
4.  The  delegation  of  Rieti  contains :  Rieti,  chief  town  on  the  Velino,  north- 
eastward and  37  miles  distant  from  Rome,  with  12,600  inhabitants.  Magliano, 
a  town,  with  5,500  inhabitants.  5.  The  delegation  of  Spoleto  contains :  Spoleto, 
chief  town  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  and  on  the  Mareggia,  crossed  by  a 
handsome  bridge,  with  a  magnificent  cathedral,  an  aqueduct  built  by  the 
ancient  Romans,  and  8,500  inhabitants.  Narni  and  Tcrni,  towns,  with  re- 
spectively 5,500  and  8,500  inhabitants.  6.  The  delegation  of  Civita  Vecchia 
contains :  Civita  Vecchia,  a  fortified  maritime  town,  and  next  to  Ancona,  the 
chief  seaport  of  the  States  of  the  Church,  37  miles  north-north-west  of  Ostia, 
or  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  with  9,500  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  dele- 
gation are :  Tolfa  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  Corneto  (with  3,800  inhabitants), 
Montalto,  Canino,  and  Fonte  Bodio.  7.  The  delegation  of  Viterbo  contains : 
Viterbo,  chief  town  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Cimino,  northward  and  46  miles 
distant  from  Rome,  with  15,000  inhabitants.  Montefiascone,  a  town  on  the 
Lake  Bolsena,  is  noted  for  its  excellent  wines,  and  has  4,500  inhabitants. 
Other  towns  of  this  delegation  are :  A  cguapendente  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
Ronciglione  (with  various  manufactories),  and  Bolsena  (with  curious  remains 
of  antiquity.  8.  The  delegation  of  Orvieto  contains :  Orvieto,  chief  town  on 
the  Paglia,  northward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Viterbo,  with  a  beautiful 
Gothic  cathedral,  excellent  wines,  and  8,000  inhabitants.  Civita  Castellana, 
a  town,  with  4,500  inhabitants.  9.  The  delegation  of  Perugia  contains : 
Perugia,  a  city  between  the  Trasimenian  Lake  and  the  Tiber,  northward 
and  83  miles  distant  from  Rome,  with  several  remarkable  churches,  a  univer- 
sity, and  32,000  inhabitants.     Assisi,  a  town  renowned  as  the  birth-place  of 


134  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

States  of  the  Chinch :    Statistics. 

St.  Frauciscus,  author  of  the  Franciscan  order,  with  5,000  inhabitants.  Other 
towns  of  this  delegation  are:  Foligno  (with  16,000  inhabitants),  Spello  (with 
4,000  inhabitants),  Cita  di  Castello  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Nocera  (with 
3,000  inhabitants),  and  Cita  della  Pieve.  10.  The  delegation  of  Ascoli,  along 
the  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  contains :  Ascoli,  chief  town  on  the  Trento,  and 
near  the  Neapolitan  frontier,  with  a  citadel,  and  9,000  inhabitants.  Other 
towns  are:  Montalto  and  Ripa  Transone.  11.  The  delegation  of  Fermo  con- 
tains :  Fermo,  chief  town,  near  the  Adriatic,  with  20,000  inhabitants,  a  uni- 
versity, and  the  little  seaport  Porto  Fermo.  12.  The  delegation  of  Camerino 
contains :  Camerino,  chief  town,  in  the  Apennines,  with  a  university,  and 
7,500  inhabitants.  13.  The  delegation  of  Macerata  contains:  Macerata,  chief 
town  on  the  high  road  between  Rome  and  Ancona,  with  a  university,  and 
18,000  inhabitants.  Tolentino,  a  town  on  the  Chienti,  south-westward  and 
30  miles  distant  from  Ancona,  with  3,500  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  a  treaty  of 
peace  concluded  here  in  1797  between  France  and  the  pope,  and  for  a  battle 
in  1815,  where  King  Murat,  of  Naples,  was  defeated  by  the  Austrians. 
Fabriano,  a  town,  with  7,000  inhabitants.  14.  The  Commissariat  of  Loreto 
contains:  Loreto,  or  Loretto,  a  town  near  the  Adriatic,  southward  and  13 
miles  distant  from  Ancona,  has  8,000  inhabitants,  and  has,  for  many  hundred 
years,  been  renowned  for  its  holy  shrine,  or  a  little  cottage,  in  which  the  holy 
virgin  is  said  to  have  lived,  having  been  transported  by  angels  from  Gali- 
lee to  Dalmatia,  and  thence  to  Loreto.  This  cottage,  called  Casa  Santa, 
is  in  the  interior  of  a  splendid  church.  Loreto  has,  therefore,  long  been  a 
place  of  great  resort  for  pilgrims,  but  the  number  has  of  late  decreased. 
15.  The  delegation  of  Ancona  (about  the  mark  of  Ancona,  see  p.  131)  contains : 
Ancona,  a  fortified  city  and  chief  seaport  of  the  Popedom  on  the  Adriatic, 
north-eastward  and  30  miles  distant  from  Rome,  with  very  important  trade 
with  the  Levant,  an  excellent  pier  built  in  the  days  of  the  Roman  emperor 
Trajan,  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  32,000  inhabitants.  Jesi  and  Osimo, 
towns,  with  respectively  6,000  and  7,000  inhabitants.  16.  The  legation  of 
Urbino  and  Pesaro  contains :  Urbino,  chief  town  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines, 
westward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Ancona,  is  noted  as  the  birth-place  of 
Raphael  (born  in  1483,  in  a  house  which  still  exists),  and  has  14,000  inhabi- 
tants. Sinigaglia,  a  fortified  maritime  town  on  the  Adriatic,  is  celebrated  for 
its  annual  fair,  and  has  11,600  inhabitants.  Other  towns  and  cities  of  this 
legation  are:  Fano  (with  17,000  inhabitants),  Fossombrone  (with  6,400  inhab- 
itants), Gubbio  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  Pesaro  (with  15,000  inhabitants). 


ITALY.  136 


States  of  the  Church :    Statistics. 


17.  The  legation  of  Forti  contains:  Forti,  chief  town  in  a  fertile  country, 
north-westward  and  83  miles  distant  from  Ancona,  with  a  remarkable  cathe- 
dral, and  17,000  inhabitants.  Rimini,  a  maritime  town  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Marecchia,  with  several  fine  churches  and  well-corfserved  remains  of  antiquity, 
and  18,000  inhabitants.  Cesena,  a  town  on  the  Savio,  with  16,000  inhabi- 
tants. 18.  The  legation  of  Ravenna  contains:  Ravenna,  chief  town  in  a 
marshy  country  near  the  Adriatic,  north-westward  and  87  miles  distant  from 
Ancona,  with  several  interesting  remains  of  antiquity  and  edifices  reared  in 
the  days  of  Honorius,  Theoderic,  etc.,  and  26,000  inhabitants.  Ravenna  was 
the  residence  of  the  last  Roman  emperors,  of  some  Gothic  kings,  and  of  the 
exarch,  or  governor,  of  the  Greek  emperors.  The  seaport  of  Ravenna  is 
called  Porto  Corsini.  Other  towns  of  this  legation  are :  Cervia  (with  4,000 
inhabitants),  Faenza  (with  20,000  inhabitants),  and  Imola  (with  9,000  inhabi- 
tants). 19.  The  legation  of  Bologna  contains :  Bologna,  next  to  Rome  the 
most  important  city  of  the  States  of  the  Church,  in  a  romantic  country,  south- 
eastward and  23  miles  distant  from  Modena,  and  northward  46  miles  distant 
from  Florence,  with  a  magnificent  cathedral,  and  several  other  remarkable 
churches  and  palaces,  a  university,  and  a  great  variety  of  other  literary  insti- 
tutions, and  75,000  inhabitants.  Cento  and  Medicina,  towns,  with  respectively 
4,000  and  5,000  inhabitants.  20.  The  legation  of  Ferrara  contains :  Ferrara, 
a  city  on  a  branch  of  the  Po,  in  a  marshy,  unwholesome  country,  27  miles 
north-north-east  of  Bologna,  with  a  citadel,  a  vast  Gothic  castle,  once  the 
residence  of  the  princes  of  Este  (see  History  of  Modena),  a  university,  and 
28,000  inhabitants.  Comacchio,  a  fortified  town  amidst  the  marshy  Valli  di 
Comacchio  (see  above),  with  6,000  inhabitants.  Ponte  di  Lago  Scuro,  a  town 
on  the  Po,  with  5,000  inhabitants.  21.  The  delegation  of  Benevento  comprises 
the  ancient  duchy  of  the  same  name,  is  entirely  surrounded  by  Neapolitan 
territory,  and  situated  north-eastward  and  about  32  miles  distant  from  the 
city  of  Naples.  It  occupies  a  tract  of  89  square  miles,  and  has  a  population 
of  25,000  inhabitants.  The  duchy  of  Benevento  was  created  in  571  by  the 
Lombards,  and  had  a  far  greater  extent  than  now.  In  851  it  was  divided 
into  three  principalities,  of  Benevento,  Salerno,  and  Capua.  The  Emperor 
Henry  III.  gave  Benevento  to  the  holy  See  in  1053,  and  since  that  time  it  has 
formed  a  constituent  part  of  the  States  of  the  Church.  In  the  period  from 
the  year  1806  to  1815,  the  French  minister  Talleyrand  was  in  possession  of 
this  principality,  whose  capital,  Benevento,  has  a  remarkable  cathedral,  many 
interesting  remains  of  antiquity,  and  15,000  inhabitants 


136  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Republic  of  San  Marino. 


VII— THE  REPUBLIC  OF  SAN  MARINO. 

Area  :  32  square  miles. 
Population  :  8,200  inhabitants. 

The  republic  of  San  Marino  is  the  smallest  of  all  European 
states  with  regard  to  the  extent  (for  with  regard  to  the  popula- 
tion, the  principality  of  Liechtenstein  is  inferior  to  it),  is  entirely 
surrounded  by  papal  territory,  and  situated  between  Ancona  and 
Florence.  It  is  at  the  same  time  the  oldest  republic  in  Europe, 
dating  its  origin  from  the  year  469.  In  this  year  St.  Marinus,  or 
Marino,  originally  a  mason  from  Dalmatia,  retired  to  a  solitary 
mountain  here,  and  led  a  hermit's  life.  He  soon  became  famous 
as  a  holy  man,  and  the  proprietress  of  the  mountain,  a  pious 
lady,  gave  it  to  him.  A  great  number  of  devouts  joined  him, 
and  in  this  way  the  little  state  came  into  existence.  The  consti- 
tution is  partly  aristocratic,  partly  democratic.  The  executive 
power  is  vested  in  two  Capitani  reggenti,  who  are  elected  only 
for  the  period  of  six  months.  The  amount  of  the  revenue,  and 
of  the  expenditure,  is  about  $6,000.  The  regular  military  con- 
sists of  only  24  men  and  7<  commissioned  and  non-commissioned 
officers,  but  the  militia  comprises  850  men.  Besides  the  capital, 
there  are  only  four  villages  in  the  country. 

San  Marino,  the  capital  and  the  seat  of  government,  is  situated  on  the 
above-mentioned  mountain,  and  has  5  churches  (in  one  of  them  is  the  tomb 
of  San  Marino),  3  convents,  and  6,000  inhabitants.  The  4  villages  alluded  to 
are :  Serravalle,  Faetano,  Acquaviva,  and  Feglio. 


ITALY.  137 


Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 


VIIL— THE  KINGDOM  OF  THE  TWO  SICILIES. 

Area  :  42,110  square  miles. 
Population:  8,373,000  inhabitants. 

This  state,  commonly  called  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  comprises 
the  whole  of  Lower  Italy,  together  with  the  island  of  Sicily  and 
some  neighboring  isles. 

With  the  exception  of  80,000  Greek  Christians  and  2,000 
Jews,  the  inhabitants  are  Catholics,  under  the  church  authority 
of  16  archbishops  and  77  bishops.  In  1842  the  whole  kingdom 
numbered  32.360  priests,  12,751  monks,  and  10,056  nuns. 

About  the  Neapolitan  Apennines  and  Abruzzi,  the  Gran  Sassu 
oVIlalia  and  Mt.  Vesuvius  on  the  continent,  and  Mt.  Etna,  etc.,  on 
the  island  of  Sicily,  see  Introduction,  §  7,  d.  In  the  Abruzzi  is 
the  lake  of  Celano,  about  15  miles  long  and  5  miles  wide.  Be- 
sides the  Volturno  and  Garigliano  (see  Introduction,  §  10),  there 
are  no  rivers  worth  mentioning. 

The  climate  is  in  most  parts  of  the  country  very  delightful, 
and  even  during  the  winter  months  the  trees  are  covered  with 
green  leaves.  On  the  island  of  Sicily  the  sugar-cane  and  other 
tropical  products  thrive  very  well.  The  wine  which  grows  in 
the  environs  of  Syracuse  is  excellent,  like  that  on  Mt.  Vesuvius, 
known  by  the  name  of  Lacrymae  Christi  (see  Introduction  to 
Italy).  On  account  of  the  peerless  fertility  of  the  soil  in  Sicily, 
wheat  is  raised  here  in  such  quantities,  that  in  some  years  it  has 
been  exported  at  the  value  of  4,500,000  Neapolitan  ducats ;  not- 
withstanding that  the  agriculture  is  in  a  very  backward  state 
throughout  the  kingdom.  Besides  wheat  and  wine,  the  staples 
are  olive-oil,  silk,  and  sulphur.  That  the  Neapolitan  horses  are 
of  a  very  fine  breed,  has  already  been  mentioned  in  the  Introduc- 
tion to  Italy.     The  kingdom  of  Naples  is  the  only  country  in 


138  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


The  Two  Sicilies — Education,  etc. 


Europe  where  the  porcupine  is  met  with.  Manufactures  have  of 
late  improved,  both  on  the  continent  and  in  Sicily. 

With  regard  to  the  means  of  education,  there  are  4  universi- 
ties: at  Naples  (founded  in  1224,  and  in  1841  frequented  by 
1,550  students),  at  Catania  (founded  in  1445,  and  in  1841  with 
600  students),  at  Palermo  (founded  in  1447,  and  in  1841  with  735 
students),  and  at  Messina  (founded  in  1838,  and  in  1841  with  60 
students).  Moreover  there  are  lyceums  at  Salerno,  Bari,  Catan- 
garo.  and  Aquila,  4  gymnasiums  in  the  city  of  Naples,  and  in  each 
province  at  least  one  gymnasium.  The  number  of  Latin  schools 
amounts  to  780  ;  and  in  the  continental  part  of  the  kingdom 
there  are  2,130  common  schools.  (About  the  terms  of  gymna- 
sium, etc.,  see  the  note  annexed  to  the  Introduction  of  Portugal.) 

The  government  is  almost  absolute,  as  it  was  before  the  last 
revolution,  which  in  1849  has  been  completely  suppressed. 

The  public  revenue  and  expenditure  is  computed  at  about 
26,000,000  Neapolitan  ducats  annually ;  and  the  public  debt  at 
86,000,000  ducats. 

The  army  numbers  on  the  peace  footing  60,000,  and  on  the 
war  footing  nearly  100.000  men,  besides  several  regiments  of 
Swiss.  The  navy  consists  of  1  ship  of  the  line,  3  frigates.  4 
sloops  of  war,  and  4  smaller  vessels. 

There  are  the  following  orders  of  honor : — 1.  The  order  of  St. 
January,  instituted  in  1738,  in  one  class.  2.  The  order  of  St.  Fer- 
dinand, instituted  in  1800,  in  3  classes.  3.  The  order  of  St.  Con- 
stantin,  conferred  by  the  king  in  his  quality  as  heir  of  the  house 
of  Farnese  (compare  Parma).  4.  The  order  of  the  two  Sicilies, 
instituted  in  1808,  in  3  classes.  5.  The  order  of  Francis  the  First, 
instituted  in  1829  by  King  Francis  I.,  in  5  classes. 

History. — The  greatest  part  of  the  present  kingdom  of  Naples  was  at  an 
early  period  occupied  by  Greek  colonists,  and  for  this  reason  called  Great- 


ITALY.  l«g 


Kingdom  of  Naples:    Ritftory. 

Greece  (see  History  of  Italy).  At  a  later  period  the  Carthaginians  took  pos- 
session of  some  parts  of  Sicily,  and  when  in  212  B.  C.  the  Romans  conquered 
this  island,  the  continental  part  of  Magna  Grecia  had  long  since  been  subdued 
by  them.  After  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire  in  the  5th  century,  Naples 
anil  Sicily  became  a  prey  of  Germanic  tribes,  especially  of  the  Ostrogoths. 
Since  the  year  535  Lower  Italy  and  Sicily  were  under  the  sway  of  the  Greek 
emperors,  until  in  842  the  island  of  Sicily,  and  soon  after  Calabria  too,  was 
conquered  by  the  Arabs.  MeanwhiU,  the  Greek  governors  of  several  other 
parts  of  Lower  Italy  had  made  themselves  independent.  Greeks  and  Arabs 
now  combated  for  the  possession  of  Lower  Italy,  and  finally  the  German 
emperors  partook  in  this  struggle  and  conquered  the  principalities  of  Bene- 
vento  and  Capua,  and  even  part  of  Calabria.  In  1016  Norman  warriors 
from  Normandy  came  accidentally  to  Salerno,  where  they  defeated  the 
Arabs,  and  were  richly  rewarded  for  it  by  the  Christian  inhabitants.  The  Nor- 
mans now  remained  in  the  country,  others  of  their  countrymen  joined  them, 
and  thus  they  established  themselves  here  permanently.  Their  valiant 
rulers  belonged  to  the  famous  family  of  Hauteville,  and  the  conquests  of 
the  Normans  had,  before  the  end  of  the  11th  century,  extended  to  Sicily 
(since  the  year  1061),  and  the  greatest  part  of  Lower  Italy.  Roger  II. 
of  Hauteville  was  crowned  by  the  pope  as  king  of  the  Two  Siciliea,  yet 
at  the  same  time  suffered  himself  to  be  enfeoffed  with  this  kingdom  by 
the  holy  father.  Towards  the  end  of  the  12  th  century  the  male  line  of 
the  house  of  Hauteville  became  extinct  with  William  III,  and  the  only 
rightful  heiress  of  the  kingdom  was  Constantia,  daughter  of  William  III. 
She  was  married  to  the  German  emperor,  Henry  VI.,  of  the  house  of  Ho- 
henstaufen.  When  she  died  in  1198,  she  bequeathed  the  kingdom  to  her 
son,  the  famous  emperor  Frederic  II.  of  Hohenstaufen,  who  during  his  reign 
was  ever  at  variance  with  the  holy  see.  About  the  middle  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury the  pope,  filled  with  hatred  against  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen,  invested 
Charles  of  Anjou  (brother  of  King  Louis  IX.  of  France)  with  the  kingdom 
of  the  two  Sicilies.  Charles  took  possession  of  it,  but  lost  the  island  of  Sicily 
in  1282,  when  the  French  were  exterminated  there  by  the  inhabitants.  This 
massacre  is  known  in  history  by  the  name  of  the  Sicilian  Vespers.  The 
Sicilians  now  elected  Peter  III.  of  Aragon  (who  was  married  to  a  princess 
of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen)  their  king,  while  the  continental  part  of  the 
kingdom  continued  to  be  under  the  sway  of  the  house  of  Anjou  until  the 
year  1442,  when  Johanna  II.,  the  last  heiress,  died.     Naples  and  Sicily  were 


140  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Kingdom  of  Naples:    History  and  Statistics. 

now  united  again  by  King  Alphonso  V.  of  Sicily  and  Aragon.  He  subse- 
quently invested  his  natural  son  Ferdinand  with  the  continental  part,  but  in 
1503  both  parts  of  the  kingdom  were  united  permanently.  Since  that  time 
the  two  Sicilies  continued  to  form  a  constituent  part  of  the  Spanish  kingdom, 
until  by  the  treaties  of  peace,  concluded  at  Utrecht  and  Rastadt  in  1713  and 
1714,  the  house  of  Austria  became  possessed  of  them  (see  History  of  Spain). 
But  in  1734  they  were  wrested  from  it  again  by  the  Spaniards,  and  the  Span- 
ish prince,  Charles,  was  acknowledged  as  king  of  the  two  Sicilies.  "When  in 
1759  Charles  ascended  the  Spanish  throne,  he  ceded  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
to  his  third  son,  Ferdinand,  with  complete  sovereignty  for  him  and  his  de- 
scendants. Towards  the  end  of  the  last  century  the  French  conquered  the 
continental  part  of  the  kingdom,  and  in  1806  Napoleon  appointed  first  his 
brother  Joseph,  and  in  1808  his  brother-in-law  Murat  king  of  this  part,  while 
Ferdinand,  assisted  by  the  English,  kept  possession  of  the  island  of  Sicily. 
In  1815  Ferdinand  was  reinstated  into  the  whole  of  his  kingdom.  He  died 
in  1825,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  I.,  who  died  in  1830,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Ins  son,  the  at  present  reigning  king,  Ferdinand  II.  (born 
in  1810). 

The  Neapolitan  continent  is  divided  into  15  provinces,  of  which 
the  section  Terra  di  Lavoro  comprises  4  (Naples,  Terra  di  Lavoro 
proper,  Principato  citeriore,  and  Principato  ulteriore),  the  section 
Abruzzi  comprises  3  (Abruzzo  ulteriore  I.,  Abruzzo  ulteriore  II.. 
and  Abruzzo  citeriore),  the  section  Apulia  comprises  4  (Molise, 
Capitanata,  Terra  di  Bari.  and  Terra  di  Otranto),  and  the  section 
Calabria  comprises  4  (Basilicata,  Calabria  citeriore,  Calabria 
ulteriore  I.,  and  Calabria  ulteriore  II.).  The  island  of  Sicily  is 
divided  into  7  val,  or  provinces. 


ITALY.  hi 


Kingdom  of  Naples— Neapolitan  Continent. 


A.— THE  NEAPOLITAN  CONTINENT. 

Area  :  31,556  square  miles. 
Population  :  6,323,000  inhabitants. 

1.  Terra  di  Lavoro,  comprising :  Naples  (in  ancient  ages  called  Parthenope), 
the  capital  of  the  whole  kingdom,  and  residence  of  the  king,  on  a  beautiful 
bay  of  the  same  name,  near  the  base  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  south-eastward  and 
110  miles  distant  from  Rome,  is  the  largest  city  in  Italy,  and  had,  according 
to  the  census  of  1845,  a  population  of  400,813  inhabitants  (among  them  were 
3,401  priests,  1.764  monks,  and  1,445  nuns).  The  houses  have,  for  the  mosf 
part,  five  or  six  stories,  with  fiat  roofs  decorated  with  orangery  and  flowers. 
There  are  many  palaces,  and  some  of  them  have  been  reared  in  the  days  of 
the  Normans  and  Hohenstaufen.  The  theatre  of  San  Carlo  is  the  largest 
opera-house  in  the  world.  Among  the  122  churches,  the  most  remarkable  is 
the  magnificent  cathedral  where  the  pretended  blood  of  St.  January  is  pre- 
served. The  number  of  convents  in  the  city  amounts  to  149.  Besides  a 
university,  there  are  many  other  literary  institutions.  Among  the  inhabi- 
tants are  about  80,000  Lazzaroni,  or  people  of  the  lower  classes,  who  seldom 
dwell  in  a  house,  and  only  do  any  work  (as  porters,  day-laborers,  etc.)  when 
they  are  compelled  to  it  by  hunger.  The  environs  of  Naples  are  highly 
interesting  by  the  numerous  remains  of  antiquity,  among  which  are  those  of 
Herculanewn  and  Pompeji,  that  were  buried  under  the  lava  and  ashes  of 
Vesuvius  in  79  A.  D.  Near  these  ancient  towns,  digged  out  since  the  last 
century,  are  situated  the  town  of  Portici,  with  a  royal  palace  and  7,000 
inhabitants,  and  the  large  village  of  Renna,  with  a  mansion  of  the  prince  of 
Salerno,  and  9,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are :  Torre 
delV Annunziata  (with  9,000  inhabitants),  Castellamare  (with  15,000  inhabi- 
tants), and  Sorrento  (with  5,000  inhabitants).  At  the  entrance  of  the  bay  of 
Naples  are  situated  the  following  i*land$:  Procida  (with  a  population  of 
1 8,000  inhabitants),  Ischia  (very  fertile,  and  much  resorted  to  for  bathing ; 
its  population  amounts  to  24,000  inhabitants),  Capri  (with  4,000  inhabitants ; 
the  Roman  emperor  Tiberius  lived  here  many  years ;  immense  flocks  of  quails 
are  caught  here  annually),  Nisida  (beautiful  like  a  garden),  and  Purgaturo. 
Caserta,  or  Caserta  Nuova,  chief  town  of  the  province  of  Terra  di  Lavoro 


142  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Kingdom  of  Naples — Neapolitan  Continent. 


proper,  romantically  situated,  northward  and  1 3  miles  distant  from  Naples, 
with  a  most  splendid  royal  palace,  and  5,000  inhabitants.  Gaeta,  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  in  the  world,  on  the  bay  of  the  same  name,  north-westward 
and  42  miles  distant  from  Naples.  Close  by  is  situated  the  town  of  Gaeta, 
with  16,000  inhabitants.  Capua,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Vulturno,  northward 
and  18  miles  distant  from  Naples,  with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  8,500 
inhabitants.  Monte  Cassino,  a  celebrated  Benedictine  abbey,  founded  in 
528,  on  a  steep  hill,  46  miles  north-north-west  of  Naples.  Quite  near  is 
situated  the  town  of  San  Germano,  with  6,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of 
this  province  are :  Nolo,  (with  9,000  inhabitants ;  here  died  the  Roman  emperor 
Augustus),  Piedimonte  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Arpino  (with  12,000  inhabi- 
tants), Santa  Maria  Maggiore  (with  the  remains  of  the  ancient  Capua, 
destroyed  by  the  Arabs  in  844;  has  a  population  of  9,000  inhabitants), 
Cajazzo  (with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  4,000  inhabitants),  Acerra  (with 
7,000  inhabitants),  Aversa  (with  a  mad-house,  and  16,000  inhabitants),  Mad- 
daloni  (with  11,500  inhabitants),  Fondi  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Sessa  (with 
4,000  inhabitants),  and  Aquino  (noted  as  the  birth-place  of  the  holy  Thomas 
of  Aquino).  South-westward  from  Gaeta  are  situated  the  Pontine,  or  Ponza 
Isles,  with  rather  few  inhabitants.  Salerno,  chief  town  of  the  province  of 
Principato  citeriore,  on  the  bay  of  the  same  name,  28  miles  east-south-east 
of  Naples,  with  an  ancient  cathedral,  where  Pope  Gregory  VII.  is  buried, 
various  manufactories,  and  12,000  inhabitants.  (About  the  once-renowned 
medical  faculty,  or  seminary  of  Salerno,  see  History  of  Europe,  §  17,  /.) 
Amalfi,  a  town  on  the  bay  of  Salerno,  south-eastward  and  23  miles  distant 
from  Naples,  with  3,000  inhabitants.  In  the  middle  ages,  Amalfi  was  one  of 
the  emporiums  of  Europe  (see  History  of  Europe,  §  17).  Other  towns  of 
this  province  are :  Capaccio  (with  2,000  inhabitants,  and  the  ruins  of  the 
ancient  town  of  Paestum),  Eboli  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Campagna  (with  a 
beautiful  cathedral,  and  7,000  inhabitants),  Diano  (with  4,000  inhabitants), 
Cava  (with  19,000  inhabitants),  Sarno  (with  13,000  inhabitants),  and  Nocera 
(with  7,000  inhabitants).  Avellino,  chief  town  of  the  province  of  Principato 
ulteriore,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Vergine,  eastward  and  28  miles  distant  from 
Naples,  is  noted  for  its  nuts,  and  has  a  population  of  15,000  inhabitants. 
Quite  near  are  the  Caudinian  Passes,  known  by  the  Roman  history.  Other 
towns  of  this  province  are:  Ariano  (with  12,500  inhabitants),  Solofra  (with 
6,000  inhabitants),  Pesco  Pagano  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Conza  (with  4,000 
inhabitants),  Montefarchio  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Montefuseo  (with  3,000 


ITALY.  14* 


Kingdom  of  Naples— Neapolitan  Continent 


inhabitants),  Atripalda,  or  Atribaldo  (with  5,500  inhabitants),  and  Rocca  San 
Felice  (with  2,500  inhabitants). 

2.  The  section  of  the  Abnizzi,  comprising  the  most  northerly  part  of  the 
Neapolitan  continent,  contains :  Teramo,  chief  town  of  the  province  of  Abruzzo 
ulteriore  I.,  on  the  high  road  between  Naples  and  Ancona,  north-eastward 
and  83  miles  distant  from  Rome,  with  a  botanic  garden,  and  10,000  inhabi- 
tants. Teramo  was  in  ancient  ages  called  Interamnia,  and  subsequently 
Abruzzo,  hence  the  nomination  of  the  Abruzzi.  Other  towns  of  this  province 
are :  Atri  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Civitella  del  Tronto  (with  2,000  inhabi- 
tants), Penne,  or  Civita  di  Penne  (with  10,000  inhabitants),  and  Senarica 
(whose  inhabitants  are  altogether  nobles,  and  endowed  with  various  privileges). 
Aquila,  fortified  capital  of  the  province  of  Abruzzo  ulteriore  II.,  on  the 
Aterno,  south-westward  and  28  miles  distant  from  Teramo,  belongs  to  the 
most  industrious  trading  places  of  the  kingdom,  and  has  a  population  of 
14,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are:  Sulmona  (with  10,000 
inhabitants),  Avezzano  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Celano  (with  2,200  inhabi- 
tants), Civita  Ducale  (with  10,000  inhabitants),  and  Tagliacozzo  (a  small  town 
situated  south-westward  and  23  miles  distant  from  Aquila,  and  eastward  and 
42  miles  distant  from  Rome,  noted  for  the  battle  in  1268,  which  the  unhappy 
Conradin,  of  Hohenstaufen,  lost  against  Charles  of  Anjou).  Chieti,  or  Civita 
di  Chieti,  capital  of  the  province  of  Abruzzo  citeriore,  on  the  Pescara  and 
near  the  Adriatic,  northward  and  101  miles  distant  from  Naples,  with  a 
beautiful  cathedral,  and  14,000  inhabitants.  From  this  town,  formerly  called 
Tkeate,  or  Teate,  the  monastic  order  of  the  Theatines  has  derived  its  name. 
Lanciano,  the  most  important  trading  town  of  the  Abruzzi,  on  the  Feltrino, 
and  quite  near  the  Adriatic,  with  15,000  inhabitants.  Ortona  a  Mare,  a  town 
on  the  Adriatic,  with  6,000  inhabitants.  Pescara,  a  fortified  town  on  the  river 
of  the  same  name,  and  on  the  Adriatic,  with  3,000,  or,  according  to  others} 
only  with  600  inhabitants. 

3.  The  section  of  Apulia  (area:  9,351  square  miles;  population:  1,525,382, 
according  to  the  census  of  1844),  comprising,  exclusive  the  Abruzzi,  the 
eastern  half  of  the  Neapolitan  continent,  and  containing :  Lecce,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Terra  di  Otranto  (which  comprises  the  eastern  great  tongue 
of  land  of  Italy),  in  a  fertile  plain,  eastward  and  207  miles  distant  from 
Naples,  with  12  churches  (among  which  is  a  remarkable  cathedral),  8  con- 
vents, several  higher  schools,  and  21,000  inhabitants.  Otranto,  a  fortified 
town  at  the  strait  of  Otranto  (entrance  into  the  Adriatic  Sea),  with  a  citadel, 


144  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Kingdom  of  Naples — Neapolitan  Continent. 


a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  4,500  inhabitants.  Brindisi,  the  ancient  Brun- 
duftiwn  (the  common  place  of  passing  over  to  Dyrrachium  on  the  opposite 
coast  of  Epirus),  a  maritime  town  on  the  Adriatic,  46  miles  north-north-west 
of  Otranto,  with  Roman  antiquities,  and  7,000  inhabitants  (in  the  period  of 
the  crusades  the  population  amounted  still  to  60,000  inhabitants).  Taranto,  a 
fortified  town  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  with  8  churches,  great  salt-works, 
and  19,000  inhabitants.  In  the  5th  century  B.  C.  Taranto  had  a  population  of 
300,000  inhabitants.  Gallipoli,  a  fortified  maritime  town,  on  the  bay  of  Ta- 
ranto, with  very  important  trade  in  olive-oil,  and  10,000  inhabitants.  Bari, 
fortified  capital  of  the  province  of  Terra  di  Bari,  on  the  Adriatic,  opposite  to 
Cattaro  in  Dalmatia,  with  a  renowned  chapel  to  which  pilgrims  resort,  and  21,000 
inhabitants.  Trani,  a  fortified  maritime  town  on  the  Adriatic,  with  a  beauti- 
ful ancient  cathedral  (whose  steeple  is  one  of  the  highest  in  Italy),  and  15,000 
inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are :  Barletta  (with  great  salt- 
works, and  22,000  inhabitants),  Molfetta  (with  13,000  inhabitants),  Terlizzi 
(with  12,000  inhabitants),  Ruvo  (with  10,000  inhabitants),  Altamura  (with 
16,000  inhabitants),  Monopoli  (with  16,000  inhabitants),  Mola,  surnamed  di 
Bari  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  Giovenazzo  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Bisceglia 
(with  10,000  inhabitants),  Bitonto  (with  15,000  inhabitants),  and  Canosa  (on 
the  Ofanto,  with  4,000  inhabitants).  In  the  vicinity  of  Canosa  is  situated, 
1U6  miles  east-north-east  of  Naples,  and  193  miles  east-south-east  of  Rome, 
the  little  town  of  Canne,  in  ancient  times  called  Cannae,  so  renowned  for  the 
victory  Hannibal  gained  over  the  Romans  in  216  B.  C.  Foggia,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Capitanata,  on  the  Cervaro,  north-eastward  and  83  miles  dis- 
tant from  Naples,  with  an  annual  fair  much  resorted  to,  20  churches,  and 
26,000  inhabitants.  San  Severo,  formerly  the  capital  of  this  province,  with 
a  medical  faculty,  and  18,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are: 
Manfredonia  (with  important  commerce,  and  6,000  inhabitants),  Lucera  (with 
8,000  inhabitants),  Monte  Sant' 'Angelo  (with  12,500  inhabitants),  Ascoli,  sur- 
named di  Satriano  (with  9,000  inhabitants),  Bovino,  (with  3,500  inhabitants), 
and  Viesti  (with  6,000  inhabitants).  To  the  province  of  Capitanata  belong 
also  the  4  Tremitian  Isles,  or  Isole  de  Tremiti,  lying  in  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
but  of  which  only  two,  viz. :  San  Nicola  or  Tremiti,  and  Domino,  are  in- 
habited. Campobasso,  capital  of  the  province  of  Molise,  55  miles  north- 
north-east  of  Naples  with  important  corn-trade,  and  9,000  inhabitants.  Other 
towns  of  this  province  are :  hernia  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Trivento  (with 


ITALY.  145 


Kingdum  of  Naples -Neapolitan  Continent. 


3,000  inhabitants),  Bojano  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Sepino  (with  5,000  inhab- 
itants), and  Agnone  (with  7,000  inhabitants). 

4.  The  section  of  Calabria  (area:  10,107  square  miles;  population: 
1,570,824  inhabitants,  according  to  the  census  of  1844),  comprising  the  west- 
ern half  of  the  Neapolitan  continent,  and  containing :  Reggio,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Calabria  ulteriore  I.  (which  comprises  the  most  southern  part  of 
the  western  great  tongue  of  land  of  Italy),  on  the  straits  of  Messina  and  in 
an  exceedingly  fertile  country,  with  12  churches,  various  manufactories,  very 
active  trade  and  20,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are  :  Gerace 
(with  6,500  inhabitants),  Sciglio  (near  the  promontory  which  the  ancients 
called  Scylla,  has  a  population  of  4,500  inhabitants),  Seminara  (with  9,000 
inhabitants)  and  JPalmi  (with  6,500).  Catanzaro,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Calabria  ulterior  II.,  north  eastward  and  74  miles  distant  from  Reggio,  with 
important  trade  in  silk  and  olive-oil,  and  13,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of 
this  province  are:  Monteleone  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  Nicastro  (with  10,000 
inhabitants),  Squillace  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Tropea  (with  4,000  inhabitants), 
Cotrone  (anciently  Croton,  with  5,500  inhabitants),  Santa  Severina  (anciently 
Syberona,  with  1,800  inhabitants),  Pizzo  (with  5,500  inhabitants ;  here  was 
Joachim  Murat  in  Oct  1815  taken  and  shot),  and  Stilo  (with  important  iron 
mines).  Cosenza,  capital  of  the  province  of  Calabria  citeriore,  in  a  romantic 
and  fertile  country,  south-eastward  and  165  miles  distant  from  Naples,  with 
a  beautiful  cathedral,  and  15  other  churches,  an  orphan  asylum  for  700  chil- 
dren, considerable  trade  in  silk,  and  8,000  inhabitants.  Quite  near,  in  the  bed 
of  the  little  river  of  the  Bisenzio,  lies  buried  Alaric  I.,  king  of  the  Visigoths, 
who  died  here  in  410  A.  D.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are:  Casmno 
(with  7,000  inhabitants),  Castrovillari  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Corigliano 
(with  7,000  inhabitants),  Rossano  (with  8,500  inhabitants),  Amantra  (with 
8,500  inhabitants),  Paula  or  Paola  (with  5,500  inhabitants ;  the  holy  Francis 
of  Paula  was  born  here),  Longobuco  (with  iron  mines),  and  Altomonte  (with 
salt  mines).  Potenza,  capital  of  the  province  of  Basilicata  (comprising  the 
ancient  Ltccdnia),  in  the  Apennines,  92  miles  east-south-east  of  Naples,  with 
10,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are:  Matera  (with  12,000 
inhabitants),  Montepeloso  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Melfi  (with  a  remarkable 
cathedral,  and  8,000  inhabitants),  Turd  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Venosa  (with 
4,500  inhabitants),  Lagonegro  or  Lagonero  (with  5,500  inhabitants),  Franca- 
villa  (with  12,000  inhabitants),  Acerenza  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  and  Bcr- 
nalda  or  Bernaldo  (with  3,000  inhabitants). 


146  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Kingdom  of  Naples — Island  of  Sicily. 


B.— THE  ISLAND  OF  SICILY. 

Area:  10,554  square  miles. 
Population  :  2,050,000  inhabitants. 

This  island  is,  as  has  already  been  mentioned,  divided  into  7  val,  or  prov- 
inces, bearing  the  name  of  their  respective  chief  towns.  In  the  following  de- 
scription we  shall  separate  them  from  each  other  by  dashes. — Palermo, 
capital  of  the  whole  island,  and  the  seat  of  its  governor,  on  a  small  bay  of  the 
northern  coast,  193  miles  south-south-west  of  Naples,  and  westward  and  124 
miles  distant  from  Messina,  is  splendidly  and  regularly  built,  and  has  60 
churches  (among  which  are  to  be  noted  the  magnificent  Gothic  cathedral,  St. 
Joseph's,  and  the  church  of  the  Capuchins,  the  latter  remarkable  for  its  vaults), 
a  vast  and  ancient  royal  castle,  8  abbeys  and  11  other  convents,  a  university, 
and  numerous  other  similar  institutions,  a  great  many  manufactories,  consider- 
able trade  and  commerce,  and  180,000  inhabitants.  The  environs  of  Palermo 
are  adorned  with  numerous  and  magnificent  villas.  In  the  vicinity  of  the 
city  is  situated  the  town  of  Monreale  or  Montreale,  with  a  splendid  cathe- 
dral, and  14,000  inhabitants.  In  Monreale  it  was,  where,  on  the  30th  of 
March,  1282,  the  massacre  of  the  French,  or  the  Sicilian  Vespers  (see  His- 
tory of  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies),  commenced.  Son  Martino,  a  cele- 
brated abbey  of  the  Benedictines,  in  whose  church  is  one  of  the  greatest 
organs  in  Italy.  Termini,  a  maritime,  town,  with  renowned  hot  springs,  and 
19,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are:  Cefalu  (with  10,000 
inhabitants),  Corleone  (with  16,000  inhabitants),  Cinesi  (with  4,500  inhabi- 
tants), Polizzi  (with  4,500  inhabitants),  Castronuovo  (with  6,500  inhabitants), 
Busachino  (with  9,000  inhabitants),  Piano  de'Greci  (with  6,000  inhabitants), 
and  Carini  (with  8,000  inhabitants).  Northward  and  18  miles  distant  from 
Palermo  lies  solitary  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea  the  little  island  of  Ustica, 
with  2,400  inhabitants. — Trapani,  a  strongly  fortified  town  on  a  peninsula, 
westward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Palermo,  with  18  churches,  24  convents, 
important  salt-works,  and  26,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province 
are:  Alcamo  (with  15,6;>0  inhabitants),  Monte  Giuliano  (with  10,300  inhabi- 
tants), Castellconare  (with  6,500  inhabitants),  Calatafimi  (with  11,000  in- 
habitants), Salemi    (with    12,000   inhabitants),    Castelvetrano   (with    16,000 


ITALY.  1,7 

Kingdom  of  Naples:    Island  of  Sicily. 

inhabitants),  Mazzara  (with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  9,000  inhabitants), 
and  Marsala  (noted  for  its  vines,  and  with  16  churches,  14  convents,  salt- 
works, and  23,400  inhabitants).  Marsala  is  situated  close  by  the  promontory 
of  Bocco,  anciently  renowned  by  the  name  of  Lilybaeum.  Westward  from 
Trapani,  at  a  distance  of  about  20  miles  from  the  coast,  are  lying  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  the  Aegades  or  Aegadian  Islands,  with  12,000  inhabitants. 
The  largest  and  most  remarkable  of  them  are:  Favignana  (with  4,000  in- 
habitants), Levanzo  (woody,  with  rearing  of  cattle,  and  5,000  inhabitants), 
and  Jfaretimo,  or  Jlaritimo  (with  a  castle  for  state-prisoners). — Girgenti,  a 
town  on  the  southern  coast,  60  miles  south-south  east  of  Palermo,  with  a 
remarkable  cathedral,  and  18,000  inhabitants.  Quite  near  was  situated  the 
so  renowned  ancient  city  of  Agrigent,  which  in  its  most  flourishing  days  bad 
a  population  of  800,000  inhabitants.  Favara,  a  town  with  9,000  inhabitants, 
and  situated  in  the  midst  of  the  so-called  sulphur-districts,  which  occupy  a 
tract  of  596  square  miles,  and  where  in  150  mines  about  4,400  workmen  are 
occupied,  earning  annually  about  1,000,000  quintals  of  sulphur.  Contessa, 
Piana,  Mezzafuso,  and  Palazzo  Adriano,  4  towns  which  together  bear  the 
common  name  of  Casale  de  'Gkecchi,  and  whose  inhabitants  are  descendants 
of  emigrated  Albanians  who  settled  here  in  the  year  1480.  Other  towns 
of  this  province  are:  Aragona  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Sciacca  (with  18 
churches,  14  convents,  and  15,000  inhabitants),  Bivona  (with  6,000  inhabi- 
tants), Gatolica  and  Regalmuto  (with  8,000  inhabitants).  Westward  and  69 
miles  distant  from  Girgenti,  and  at  about  36  miles  distance  from  the  Tunesian 
coast,  lies  the  exceedingly  fertile  Island  of  Pantelaria,  or  Pantalaria,  with 
a  town  of  the  same  name  (also  known  by  the  name  of  Oppidolo),  mineral 
springs,  and  7,000  inhabitants.  Other  smaller  isles  in  its  vicinity  are :  Lmn- 
pedusa,  Lamp/one,  and  Cinosa.  Only  the  first-named  is  inhabited  since  the 
year  1834. — Caltanisetta,  a  town  situated  in  a  fertile  elevated  plain,  towards 
the  midst  of  the  island  of  Sicily,  south-eastward  and  64  miles  distant  from 
Palermo,  with  17,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are:  Piazza 
(with  13,000  inhabitants),  Naro  (with  10,000  inhabitants),  Castro  Giovanni 
(with  12,700  inhabitants),  Alicata,  commonly  called  Licata  (with  12,000  in- 
habitants), Terranova  (with  9,800  inhabitants),  Mazzarino  (with  10,000  in- 
habitants), Cannicatti  (with  17,000  inhabitants),  and  Palma  (with  6,000  inhab- 
itants).— Syracuse,  a  fortified  city  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  southward 
and  83  miles  distant  from  Messina,  is  renowned  for  its  excellent  wines,  and 
has  two  seaports,  22  churches  (among  which  is  the  cathedral,  anciently  a  tem- 


148  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

Kingdom  of  Naples :    Island  of  Sicily. 

pie  of  Minerva),  and  18,000  inhabitants.  The  celebrated  ancient  Syracuse 
was  23  miles  in  circuit,  and  said  to  have  had  a  population  of  1,200,000  in- 
habitants. Noto,  a  town  south-westward  and  13  miles  distant  from  Syra- 
cuse, with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  19,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of 
this  province  are  :  Modica  (with  26,000  inhabitants),  Ragusa  (with  21,500 
inhabitants),  Spaccafomo  or  Spaccafurno  (with  9,000  inhabitants),  Vittoria 
(with  10,000  inhabitants),  Agosta  (with  15,000  inhabitants),  Avola  (with  7,000 
inhabitants),  Pachino  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Chiaramonte  (with  6,500  in- 
habitants), Comiso  (with  11,500  inhabitants),  Biscari  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
and  Floridia  (with  4,500  inhabitants). — Catanea,  or  Catania,  a  city  on  the 
Sicilian  east  coast,  and  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Etna,  northward  and  36  miles 
distant  from  Syracuse,  with  a  university,  a  magnificent  cathedral,  25  convents, 
considerable  silk  manufactories,  and  60,000  inhabitants.  Near  the  town  of 
Mascoli  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Etna,  is  the  renowned 
chestnut-tree,  considered  as  the  largest  tree  throughout  Europe.  The  circum- 
ference of  its  trunk  is  immense.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are :  Aei 
Reale  (with  20,000  inhabitants),  Nicolosi  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  Glare  (with 
17,700  inhabitants),  Nicosia  (with  13,000  inhabitants),  Paterno  (with  10,700 
inhabitants),  Anderno  (with  13,500  inhabitants),  Mineo  (with  8,300  inhabi- 
tants), Caltagirone  (with  21,600  inhabitants),  Vizzini  (with  11,100  inhabitants), 
Lentini  (with  excellent  potteries,  and  7,300  inhabitants),  Bronte  (with  11,000 
inhabitants),  Biancavilla  (with  6,500  inhabitants),  Sperlinga  (with  1,500  in- 
habitants), Leonforte  (with  10,000  inhabitants),  and  San  Filippo  d'Argyro 
(with  7,500  inhabitants). — Messina,  a  city  on  the  strait  of  the  same  name, 
with  a  university,  considerable  commerce,  and  85,000  inhabitants.  The  cita- 
del of  this  city  is  very  strong.  Taormina,  a  town  at  the  southern  entrance 
of  the  strait  of  Messina,  and  on  a  steep  and  almost  inaccessible  rock,  with 
6,500  inhabitants.  In  the  middle  ages  this  town  sustained  a  siege  of  80 
years,  the  longest  known  in  history.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are : 
Melazzo,  or  Milazzo  (with  9,200  inhabitants),  Roccalumera  (with  12,000  in- 
habitants), Patti  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Barcellona  (with  10,000  inhabitants), 
Mistretta  (with  11,000  inhabitants),  Randazzo  (with  15,000  inhabitants),  and 
Castroreale  (with  15,000  inhabitants).  At  a  distance  from  18  to  46  miles 
northward  from  the  coast  of  the  province  of  Messina,  are  lying,  in  the  Medi 
terranean  Sea,  the  Lipari  Islands  (anciently  called  the  Aeolian  Islands),  13  in 
number,  and  altogether  of  volcanic  origin,  although  they  produce  wines,  figs, 
cotton,  etc.     The  most  remarkable  of  them  are :  Lipari  (the  principal  island, 


ITALY.  149 


Island  of  Malta:    Geographical  Description. 


106  square  miles  in  extent,  with  hot  mineral  springs,  and  16,000  inhabitants), 
Volcano  (uninhabited,  with  two  burning  volcanic  mountains),  Sahna  (with  4 
villages,  salt  works,  and  4,000  inhabitants),  Stromboli  (a  volcanic  mountain, 
constantly  burning,  and  called  the  light-house  of  the  Mediterranean  j  only 
with  300  inhabitants),  Felicudi  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  and  Volcanello  (un- 
inhabited). 


IX.— MALTA. 

Area:  213  square  miles. 
Population:  140,000  inhabitants. 


This  group,  consisting  of  the  islands  of  Malta,  Gozzo,  and 
Comino  (together  with  the  uninhabited  isle  of  Cominotto),  is 
lying  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  between  the  island  of  Sicily  and 
the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  and  belongs  to  Great  Britain  since 
the  year  1800. 

The  islands  are  in  themselves,  it  is  true,  bare  calcareous  rocks, 
yet  for  the  most  part  covered  with  fertile  mould.  The  climate  is 
peerlessly  mild  and  pleasant,  and  the  inhabitants  being  very 
diligent  in  cultivating  the  soil,  they  raise  corn,  cotton,  wine, 
sugar-cane,  and  other  tropic  productions.  Besides  this,  sheep, 
goats,  and  donkeys,  are  reared. 

The  inhabitants,  for  the  most  part  Catholics,  and  speaking  a 
corrupted  Arabian,  intermixed  with  modern  Grecian,  Italian,  and 
French  words,  do  not  only  till  the  ground,  but  are  also  manufac- 
turing cotton  goods,  and  carry  on  a  considerable  trade. 

They  have  retained  their  ancient  laws  and  privileges,  and  are 
ruled  by  a  British  military  governor.  In  1829,  the  public  reve- 
nue amounted  to  £133,072,  and  the  expenditure  to  only  £103,610. 


150  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Island  of  Matte:    History,  etc. 


History. — Malta  was  primitively  called  Iperia,  and  subsequently  Ogygia 
(though  the  island  of  Gozzo  was  properly  denoted  by  this  latter  name) ;  at  a 
later  period,  the  Greeks  named  it  Melite,  which  the  Arabs  finally  transmuted 
into  Malta.  The  most  ancient  inhabitants  were  Phaeacians ;  however,  they 
were  expelled  by  the  Phoenicians,  and  these  again  by  the  Greeks.  Subse- 
quently the  islands  came  under  the  sway  of  the  Carthaginians,  from  whom 
they  were  wrested  by  the  Romans.  At  last  they  formed  a  constituent  part 
of  the  Eastern,  or  Greek  Empire,  until  in  818  the  Arabs  took  possession  of 
them.  In  1090  the  islands  were  conquered  by  the  Sicilian  Normans,  and 
since  that  period,  Malta  and  Sicily  were  under  the  sway  of  one  and  the  same 
ruler.  The  Emperor  Charles  V.,  in  his  quality  as  king  of  Spain,  Naples, 
and  Sicily  (see  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies),  ceded,  in  1530, 
Malta  to  the  knights  of  St.  John  (see  History  of  Em-ope,  §  17,  h),  who  since 
assumed  the  name  of  knights  of  the  order  of  Malta.  They  had  engaged 
themselves  to  wage  war  continually  against  the  Turks  and  pirates,  and  kept 
for  this  purpose  a  navy,  which  in  1770  consisted  of  4  ships  of  the  fine,  1 
frigate,  4  galleys,  and  several  other  smaller  vessels.  In  1798  the  French  con- 
quered Malta,  but  in  1800  it  was  wrested  from  them  by  the  British,  who  since 
have  continued  to  be  in  possession  of  the  islands.  We  shall  now  describe 
them  in  the  following  succession : — 

1.  The  island  of  Malta  (area:  128  square  miles;  population:  120,000  in- 
habitants), containing :  La  Valetta,  capital  of  the  whole  group,  and  one  of 
the  strongest  fortresses,  with  numerous  ancient  and  modern  palaces,  a  univer- 
sity, a  public  library  with  100,000  volumes,  a  botanic  garden,  ship  docks,  two 
seaports,  considerable  commerce,  and  50,000  inhabitants.  In  the  midst  of  the 
island  is  situated  Citta  Vechia  (also  called  Malta,  or  Melite),  the  ancient 
capital,  with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  several  convents,  and  6,500  inhabitants. 
Other  towns  are :  Pinto  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Zorrica  (with  3,500  inhabi- 
tants), and  Zebug  (with  4,000  inhabitants). 

2.  The  island  of  Gozzo  (area:  88  square  miles;  population:  19,000  inhabi- 
tants), containing:  Gozzo,  chief  town,  with  3,000  inhabitants,  and  the  little 
fortress  of  Rabatto.     Chambra  is  a  mansion  of  the  English  governor. 

3.  The  island  of  Comino,  with  a  fortress  of  the  same  name,  has  only  a  pop- 
ulation of  1,000  inhabitants. 

4.  The  isle  of  Corninotto  is  uninhabited. 


SWITZERLAND. 

Area:  15,815  square  miles. 
Population  :  2,400,000  inhabitants. 

Switzerland  (instead  of  which,  the  ancient  name  of  Helvetia 
is  sometimes  used)  is  situated  between  Germany  and  Italy,  and 
on  the  west  bordered  by  France. 

In  point  of  religion,  the  Swiss  are  divided  into  Reformists  (or 
Calvinists)  and  Catholics  ;  in  some  cantons  the  former,  in  others 
the  latter  prevail.  Of  Lutherans,  there  are  perhaps  only  400 
to  be  found  throughout  the  country.  In  1845,  the  total  popula- 
tion amounted  to  2,363,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  998,000  were 
Catholics,  and  about  1,364,000  Reformists.  The  Catholics  are 
under  the  church-authority  of  5  bishops,  viz. :  of  Lausanne 
(residing  at  Friburg),  of  Basle  (residing  at  Soleure),  of  Sion  (for 
the  canton  of  Yalais),  of  Chur  and  St.  Gall  (residing  alternately 
at  Chur  and  St.  Gall),  and  of  Como  (for  the  canton  of  Tesino). 
The  number  of  Jews  in  Switzerland  amounts  to  about  2,000. 
What  regards  the  origin,  the  majority  of  the  Swiss  belongs  to 
the  great  family  of  the  Germanians,  and  the  remainder  (speaking 
partly  French,  partly  Italian,  and  partly  the  so-called  Ladinian 
language,  or  a  corrupted  Latin)  to  the  great  family  of  the  Roma- 
nians (see  Introduction,  §  12). 

Switzerland  is  thoroughly  mountainous,  and  traversed  by  several 
branches  of  the  Alps  (see  Introduction,  §  7),  while  the  Jura 
Mountains  form  the  boundary  on  the  west  towards  France  (see 
the  particulars  in  the  just-naracd  paragraph  of  the  Introduction). 


]62  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Switzerland:    Geographical  Features. 

Two  of  the  principal  rivers  of  Europe  rise  in  Switzerland,  viz. : 
the  Rhine  (whose  tributaries  are  here  the  111,  Thur,  and  Aar, 
which  latter  receives  here  the  Ernme,  Reuss,  and  Limmat),  and  the 
Rhone,  which  has  no  remarkable  tributaries  in  Switzerland. 
Moreover,  the  Tesino,  or  Jicino,  tributary  of  the  Po,  and  the  Inn, 
tributary  of  the  Danube,  rise  here.  The  lakes  exclusively  belong- 
ing to  Switzerland,  are  described  in  §  9  of  the  Introduction, 
where  also  the  particulars  about  the  lakes  of  Constance  and 
Geneva  are  to  be  found. 

The  climate  is  wholesome  throughout  the  country,  although  of 
course  the  temperature  varies  according  to  the  higher  or  lower 
elevation  of  the  country.  In  the  higher  mountainous  regions  the 
air  is  much  cooled  by  the  glaciers,  or  extensive  fields  of  ice  that 
cover  the  lofty  summits  of  the  Alps.  It  may  be  mentioned  on 
this  occasion,  that  sometimes  vast  masses  of  snow,  called  ava- 
lanches, break  away  from  the  glaciers,  and  slide  down  the  declivi- 
ties with  a  tremendous  roar,  overwhelming  in  a  moment  the 
villages  below.  Remarkable  winds  are.  the  Bise,  coming  from 
east  or  north-east,  and  the  Foehn,  a  humid  south  wind. 

Notwithstanding  the  mountainous  character  of  the  country, 
some  parts  of  it  are  very  fertile.  Many  valleys  have  a  rich  soil, 
and  renowned  for  their  nutritious  and  aromatic  herbs  are  the 
excellent-Alpine  pastures.  Pasturage  and  the  making  of  cheese 
are  therefore  the  chief  objects  of  the  farmer.  The  Swiss  breed 
of  cattle  is,  in  some  respects,  considered  as  the  finest  in  Europe. 
The  rearing  of  sheep  is  inconsiderable,  but  goats  abound  every- 
where. The  horses,  which  generally  are  strong  and  durable,  are, 
together  with  mules,  used  as  sumpters,  to  carry  goods  on  their 
backs  across  the  mountains.  The  Swiss  delight  in  hunting  the 
chamois,  which  dwells  among  the  highest  precipices  of  the  Alps, 
while  the  ibex  is  not  more,  or  at  least  very  seldom,  found.  The 
principal  other  wild  animals  found  in  Switzerland  are,  the  bear, 


SWITZERLAND.  153 


Manufactures— Political  Division. 


wolf,  lynx,  and  marmot.  The  rivers  and  lakes  abound  in  various 
kinds  of  excellent  fishes,  and  the  Alpine  brooks  especially  in 
trouts.  In  some  of  the  western  and  southern  cantons,  the  vine 
is  cultivated. 

There  are  a  great  many  manufactories  in  Switzerland,  especially 
of  cotton,  silks,  watches,  etc.  The  trade  is  considerable,  and,  besides 
the  manufactured  goods,  chiefly  cattle,  cheese,  and  drugs,  are 
exported. 

Concerning  the  means  of  education,  there  are  3  universities :  at 
Basle  (founded  in  1459,  and  frequented  by  about  130  students), 
at  Zurich  (founded  in  1833,  and  in  1845  frequented  by  125 
students),  and  at  Berne  (founded  in  1834,  but  not  much  resorted 
to).  Moreover,  there  are  so-called  academies,  or  faculties,  at 
Geneva  and  Lausanne,  and  gymnasiums  in  most  of  the  cantons. 
At  Friburg  is  a  college  of  Jesuits,  and  at  Hofwyl  (near  the  city 
of  Berne)  a  celebrated  boarding-school,  founded  by  Mr.  Fellen- 
berg.     Common  schools  are  numerous. 

Switzerland  is  divided  into  22  cantons,  and  the  government  is 
that  of  a  federal  republic  (also  called  Helvetic  Republic).  Each 
canton  is  independent,  and  has  the  exclusive  control  of  all 
concerns  merely  local ;  but  the  defence  of  the  country,  and  the 
general  interest  of  the  confederacy  are  committed  to  a  general 
government,  or  rather  Diet — a  kind  of  congress,  called  Tagsatzung, 
and  composed  of  two  deputies  from  each  canton  (Berne  and 
Zurich  have  the  privilege  of  sending  each  three  deputies,  while 
G-lurus  sends  only  one).  During  the  time  when  the  Diet  is  not 
assembled,  the  so-called  Vorort,  that  is  the  directory  or  directorial 
government,  vested  alternately  in  the  cantons  of  Berne,  Zurich, 
and  Lucerne,  for  two  years  at  a  time,  manages  the  affairs  of  the 
confederacy. 

The  ordinary  public  expenditure  of  the  confederacy  was  in 
1818  fixed  at  539,275  Swiss  francs  (these  are  somewhat  more  in 

7* 


154  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


value  than  the  French  francs)  annually  ;  its  public  debt,  which 
in  1814  amounted  to  3,000,000  francs,  is  long  since  paid.  The 
total  revenue  of  the  cantons  may  be  computed  at  10,000,000 
francs.  The  wealthiest  cantons  are  Berne,  Vaud,  and  Zurich 
(the  revenue  of  the  first-named  amounted  in  1844  to  3.055,400 
francs,  that  of  the  second  to  1,655,200,  and  that  of  the  third  to 
1,100,000  francs),  and  the  poorest  are  Unterwalden,  Lug,  and 
Uri,  with  a  revenue  of  respectively  20,000,  11,000,  and  10,000 
francs. 

The  Helvetic  Republic  has  no  standing  army,  but  keeps  in 
time  of  peace  only  a  small  number  of  regular  troops,  not  exceed- 
ing 1,200  or  1,300  men.  Yet  in  time  of  war  the  confederacy 
raises  a  federal  army,  whose  strength  is  fixed  at  64,019  men,  with 
3,426  horses. 

History. — Switzerland,  until  the  year  406  A.  D.  a  Roman  province  and 
inhabited  by  Germanic  tribes,  called  Helvetians  by  the  Romans,  was,  since 
the  beginning  of  the  migration  of  nations,  occupied  by  the  Burgundians  and 
Alemanni  (belonging  to  the  great  tribe  of  the  Sueves;  compare  History  of 
Europe,  §  3),  and  came  about  the  year  500  under  the  sway  of  the  Franks. 
After  the  death  of  Charlemagne,  many  Swiss  counts  and  barons  made  them- 
selves independent,  while  part  of  the  country  belonged  to  the  Burgundian 
empire  (see  History  of  Europe,  §§3  and  8,  and  History  of  Burgundy  under 
France).  The  German  emperors  were  to  be  considered  as  sovereigns  of  this 
empire,  and  consequently  of  Switzerland  too,  and  the  latter  would  perhaps 
until  the  present  day  have  formed  a  constituent  part  of  the  German  empire,  if 
not  the  political  interest  of  the  country  itself  and  of  France  had  prevented  it. 
In  Switzerland,  the  clergy  was  possessed  of  considerable  estates  and  tracts  of 
land,  beside  the  barons,  among  whom  the  most  powerful  were  the  counts  of 
Hapsburg,  Kyburg,  Toggenburg,  Neuchatel,  Thierstein,  and  Savoy,  the  barons 
of  Wyssenburg,  Grandson,  etc.  All  these  lords  acknowledged  the  sovereignty 
of  the  German  emperors,  at  least  nominally,  as  also  those  cities  and  towns 
did,  that  were  endowed  with  imperial  privileges,  and  ruled  by  imperial  gov- 
ernors, or  bailifs  of  the  empire.  Cantons  did  not  then  exist ;  however,  there 
•were  privileged  provinces,  of  which  Uri,  Schweitz,  and  Unterwalden,  elected 


SWITZERLAND.  155 


History  —  Geography. 


in  1257  the  mighty  Count  Rodolph  V.,  count  of  Hapsburg  (subsequently 
German  emperor),  their  protector,  but  refused  allegiance  to  his  son,  Emperor 
Albert  I.,  because  they  pretended  to  be  injured  by  him  in  their  privileges. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1308,  they  destroyed  the  castles  of  the  imperial 
governors  (among  whom  was  one,  named  Gesler),  and  united  into  a  confederacy, 
at  first  for  ten  years.  In  the  course  of  time,  other  provinces  joined  in  thig 
confederacy,  and  as  the  canton  of  Schweitz  was  then  the  most  powerful,  the 
German  name  of  Schweitz  (Switzerland),  for  denoting  the  whole  country,  came 
into  vogue.  In  1513,  the  number  of  cantons  was  13,  since  and  before  the 
year  1803,  six  other  joined  them,  and  in  1815  the  whole  number  of  22  was 
completed  by  the  addition  of  Valais,  Neuchatel,  and  Geneva.  Not  before 
the  Westphalian  treaty  of  peace,  concluded  in  1648,  the  independence  of  the 
Helvetic  Republic  was  formally  acknowledged  by  the  foreign  powers.  It 
must  be  remarked  here,  by  the  way,  that  many  modern  historians  are  of  the 
opinion  that  William  Tell  did  never  exist,  but  all  what  is  related  about  him  is 
to  be  considered  as  a  legend,  derived  from  the  Scandinavian  traditions.  Be 
this  as  it  may,  the  fact  is,  that  the  above-named  three  cantons  united  into  a 
confederacy  without  William  Tell,  and  that  also  in  every  other  respect  he  did 
not  exert  the  slightest  political  influence  on  the  revolution  of  the  year  1308. 
In  this  respect  it  made  no  difference,  whether  he  shot  Gesler  or  not.  To 
place  the  political  institutions  and  liberty  of  Switzerland  on  a  par  with  those 
of  the  United  States,  would  be  a  great  mistake ;  for  since  the  end  of  the  last 
century  the  Helvetic  Republic  has  been  in  a  very  unsettled  condition,  which 
in  the  last  twenty  years  has  almost  degenerated  into  complete  anarchy. 
Liberty  and  lawlessness  are  at  present  nearly  synonymous  in  the  opinion  of 
the  great  majority  of  the  Swiss ;  and  sooner  or  later  the  country  will  doubt- 
less become  a  prey  of  the  adjacent  powers,  which,  hitherto,  only  the  jealousy 
among  them  has  prevented. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  finding  out  of  the  several  cantons,  we 
shall  describe  them  in  an  alphabetic  order ;  and  it  only  be 
remarked  here,  that  Schafhausen  is  the  most  northerly,  Valais  the 
most  southerly,  Vaud  the  most  westerly,  and  Grisons  the  most 
easterly  canton.  The  population  stated  in  the  following  descrip- 
tion is  according  to  the  last  census  of  1845. 


156  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Switzerland— Cantons  of  Aargau  and  Appenzell. 


1.  The  canton  of  Aargau  (area:  511  square  miles;  population:  190,000 
inhabitants,  speaking  German,  and  for  the  most  part  Reformists,  while  only 
00,000  are  Catholics),  between  the  cantons  of  Basle  and  Zurich,  crossed  by 
the  Aar  river,  and  on  the  north  separated  from  the  German  grand-duchy  of 
Baden  by  the  Rhine.  It  belonged  formerly  to  the  canton  of  Berne  until  in 
1803,  when  it  became  an  independent  canton,  and  contains:  Aarau,  capital 
of  the  canton,  on  the  Aar,  south-eastward  and  26  miles  distant  from  Basle, 
with  cotton,  silk,  and  hardware  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and  4,500 
inhabitants.  Aarburg,  a  town  on  the  Aar,  south-westward  and  9  miles  dis- 
tant from  Aarau,  with  the  only  fortress  of  all  Switzerland,  and  1,700  inhabi- 
tants. Baden  (sometimes  also  called  Oberbaden,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
grand-ducal  Badish  town  of  the  same  name),  a  town  on  the  Limmat,  north- 
westward and  14  miles  distant  from  Zurich,  with  renowned  hot  mineral 
springs,  and  2,000  inhabitants.  On  the  7th  of  September,  1714,  a  treaty  of 
peace  between  France  and  the  German  empire,  was  concluded  here.  Huri, 
formerly  a  rich  and  celebrated  abbey  of  the  Benedictines,  which  was  founded 
either  in  991  or  in  1027.  This  remarkable  building  is  725  feet  long.  Close  by 
is  the  town  of  the  same  name,  with  a  silk  manufactory,  and  1,800  inhabitants. 
Brugg,  or  Bruck,  a  town  on  the  Aar,  has  1,000  inhabitants,  and  was  once  the 
property  of  the  counts  of  Hapsburg,  of  whose  ancestor's  castle  Hapsburg 
considerable  remnants  are  still  extant  in  the  neighborhood.  This  castle  was 
reared  in  1027.  Not  far  from  here,  near  the  village  of  Windisch,  it  was 
where,  on  the  1st  of  May,  1308,  Emperor  Albert  I.  was  murdered  by  his 
nephew.  His  widow  and  daughter  reared  a  nunnery  on  the  very  place,  named 
Koenigsfelden,  which  in  1528  was  transformed  into  a  hospital.  Zofingen,  a 
town  on  the  Wigger,  with  various  manufactures,  and  3,400  inhabitants.  Other 
towns  of  this  canton  are:  Bremgarten  (with  1,050  inhabitants),  Lenzburg 
(with  2,200  inhabitants),  Rheinfelden  (with,  1,600  inhabitants),  Lauffenburg 
(with  1,000  inhabitants),  Klingnan  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  Zurzach  (with 
1,000  inhabitants),  Villmergen  (with  1,400  inhabitants),  Frick  (with  2,000 
inhabitants),  Wettingen  (with  1,050  inhabitants),  Ober-Kulm  (with  1,700  inhab- 
itants), and  Unter-Kulm  (with  1,800  inhabitants). 

2.  The  canton  of  Appenzell  (area:  149  square  miles;  population:  54,000 
inhabitants,  speaking  German,  and  partly  Reformists,  partly  Catholics),  en- 
tirely surrounded  by  the  territory  of  the  canton  of  St.  Gall,  and  situated  near 
the  lake  of  Constance.  It  became  an  independent  canton  in  1513,  and  was 
since  the  reformation  divided  into  two  distinct  districts,  called  Inner-Rhoden 


SWITZERLAND.  157 


Canton  of  Basle. 


and  Ausser-Rhoden,  the  former  inhabited  only  by  Catholics,  and  the  latter 
only  by  Reformists.  Inner -Rhoden  contains :  Appenzell,  capital  of  the  whole 
canton,  on  the  Sitter,  southward  and  7  miles  distant  from  the  city  of  St.  Gall, 
and  26  miles  south-south-east  of  Constance,  with  a  Gothic  church,  2  convents, 
lineu  trade,  and  3,200  inhabitants.  Weissbad  and  Gonlen,  villages,  with 
mineral  springs.  Ausser-Rhoden  contains :  Trogen,  chief  town  of  this  district, 
with  considerable  linen  trade,  and  2,500  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this 
district  are:  Herisau  (noted  for  its  manufactures,  with  7,900  inhabitants), 
Teuffen  (with  4,200  inhabitants),  Zum  Stein  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Umaesch 
(with  2,100  inhabitants),  Gais  (noted  for  its  whey,  with  2,900  inhabitants), 
and  Rundwyl  (with  1,100  inhabitants). 

3.  The  canton  of  Basle  (area:  192  square  miles;  population:  66,000  inhab- 
itants, of  whom  only  6,500  are  Catholics,  while  the  majority  consists  of 
Reformists,  all  speaking  German),  on  and  near  the  Rhine,  bordered  on  the 
west  by  France,  and  on  the  south  by  the  canton  of  Soleure.  It  joined  the 
confederacy  in  1491,  and  is  since  the  year  1833  divided  into  Basle-City  and 
Basle- Campagne.  The  former  contains:  Basle,  capital  of  the  canton,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  which  is  crossed  here  by  its  only  stone  bridge  (all  the 
other  bridges  over  the  Rhine  are  constructed  by  boats),  southward  and  73 
miles  distant  from  Strasburg,  and  northward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Berne, 
is  noted  for  its  considerable  trade  and  manufactures,  its  university  and  board 
of  missions,  its  ancient  Gothic  cathedral  (founded  in  1010;  the  council  or 
synod  of  the  years  1431-1448  was  held  here;  and,  moreover,  it  contains  the 
sepulchre  of  the  renowned  Erasmus,  of  Rotterdam),  and  has  a  population  of 
23,000  inhabitants.  One  of  its  suburbs,  called  Littfe  Basle  (Klein-Basel),  is 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine.  Basle,  founded  in  the  4th  century, 
was  until  the  year  1529  the  seat  of  the  catholic  bishop  of  Basle,  who  at  the 
same  time  was  a  prince  of  the  German  empire,  and  sovereign  of  a  territory, 
which  in  1814  was  annexed  to  the  canton  of  Berne.  The  present  bishop  of 
Basle  resides  at  Soleure,  while  his  antecessors  since  the  year  1529  resided  at 
Pruntrut  (see  next  canton).  To  the  district  of  Basle-city  belong,  morpover, 
the  small  townships  of  Bettingen,  Riehen,  and  Kleinhueningen  (Little  Iluenin- 
gen).  Basle-Campagne  contains:  Liestall,  or  Liechstall,  chief  town  of  this 
district,  on  the  Ergolz,  south-eastward  and  12  miles  distant  from  Basle,  with 
various  manufactures,  and  2,200  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  district  are : 
Sissach  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Waldenburg  (with  800  inhabitants),  Arlesheim 


158  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Switzerland— Canton  of  Berne. 


(with  800  inhabitants),  and  Muttenz  (with  a  remarkable  old  church,  and  1,850 
inhabitants). 

4.  The  canton  of  Berne  (area:  2,5*76  square  miles;  population:  440,000 
inhabitants,  for  the  most  part  speaking  German,  but  in  the  western  part, 
French;  the  majority  consists  of  Reformists,  and  only  53,000  are  Catholics), 
occupying  nearly  the  centre  of  Switzerland,  and  on  the  south  bordered  by  the 
canton  of  Valais.  It  joined  the  confederacy  in  1352 ;  and  until  1803  the 
present  cantons  of  Aargau  and  Vaud  formed  parts  of  it.  In  1815,  it  was 
indemnificated  by  the  former  territory  of  the  bishop  of  Basle  (see  above).  It 
contains :  Berne,  the  capital  of  the  canton,  on  the  Aar,  southward  and  46 
miles  distant  from  Basle,  and  north-eastward  and  82  miles  distant  from 
Geneva,  with  a  university  and  several  other  schools  and  literary  institutions, 
various  manufactures,  considerable  inland  trade,  and  24,000  inhabitants. 
About  4  miles  distant  from  here  is  situated  the  estate  of  Hofwyl,  where  is 
the  before-mentioned  school  of  Fellenberg.  Laupen,  a  town  on  the  Saane, 
with  900  inhabitants.  In  the  district  of  Ober-Aargau  (Upper  Aargau)  are 
situated  the  towns  of  Aarwangen  (with  1,450  inhabitants),  and  Wangen 
(with  900  inhabitants).  In  the  romantic  valley  of  the  Emme  (noted  for  its 
fine  cattle,  cheese,  and  industry)  are  situated  the  towns  of  Langenthal  (north- 
eastward and  23  miles  distant  from  Berne,  with  2,800  inhabitants),  Langnau 
(with  5,700  inhabitants),  Hutiweil,  or  Hutwijl  (with  900  inhabitants),  and 
Burgdorf  (with  2,300  inhabitants).  Saanen,  chief  town  of  the  valley  of  the 
same  name  (noted  for  its  cheese),  and  in  French  called  Gessenay.  In  the 
so-called  Berner  Oberland  (Highlands  of  Berne)  are  situated :  Thun,  a  town 
on  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  16  miles  south-south-east  of  Berne,  is  the  seat 
of  a  military  academy  of  the  confederacy,  and  has  a  population  of  5,000 
inhabitants.  Near  the  village  of  Lauterbrunnen  are  the  celebrated  falls  of 
the  Staubbach.  Meyringen,  on  the  Aar,  is  the  chief  town  of  the  Haslithal 
(valley  of  Hasli),  whose  inhabitants  are  noted  for  their  fine  shape.  Wimmis 
is  the  chief  town  of  the  eminently  cultivated  valley  of  the  Simmen,  or  Sim- 
menthal.  Other  towns  in  the  Bernese  Oberlands  are:  Frutingen  (with  1,800 
inhabitants),  and  Unterseen  (with  1,250  inhabitants).  Interlaken,  or  Inter- 
lachen,  formerly  a  renowned  monastery  of  Austin  friars,  founded  in  1130.  In 
the  district  called  Seeland  (lake-land,  because  it  is  bordered  by  the  lake  of 
Biel)  are  situated :  Erlach  (in  French,  Erlier,  or  Cerlicr),  a  town  on  the  lake 
of  Biel,  19  miles  west-north-west  of  Berne,  with  1,200  inhabitants,  Nidau  (a 
town,  with  1.000  inhabitants),  Bueren  (a  town  on  the  Aar,  with  1,350  inhabi- 


SWITZERLAND.  159 


Cantons  of  F.eiburg  and  St.  Gall. 


tants),  and  Aarberg  (a  town  on  the  Aar,  with  800  inhabitants).  In  the  former 
territory  of  the  bishop  of  Basle  (see  above)  are  situated :  Pbuntrut  (in  French, 
Porentruy),  a  town  on  the  Halaine,  37  miles  north-north-west  of  Berne,  was 
until  1803  the  seat  of  the  bishop  of  Basle,  who  resided  here  in  a  magnificent 
palace,  and  has  a  population  of  2,700  inhabitants.  Biel  (in  French,  Bienne), 
a  town  on  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  with  2,800  inhabitants.  Other  towns 
of  this  district  are :  Delsberg,  in  French,  Delemont  (with  1,450  inhabitants), 
St.  Ursanne,  or  St.  Ursitz  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Laufen  (with  900  inhabi- 
tants), and  Neuenstadt,  in  French,  Neuveville,  or  Bonneville  (with  1,300  inhabi- 
tants). 

5.  The  canton  of  Friburg,  or  Freiburg  (area :  564  square  miles ;  popula- 
tion: 95,000  inhabitants,  partly  speaking  French,  and  partly  German,  and 
the  majority  consisting  of  Catholics,  only  6,400  being  Reformists),  bordered  on 
the  north-west  by  the  lake  of  NeuchateL  and  on  the  east  by  the  canton  of 
Berne.  It  joined  the  confederacy  in  1481,  and  contains :  Freiburg,  or  Friburg, 
the  capital,  on  the  Saane  (crossed  by  a  wire  suspension  bridge,  which  is  834 
feet  in  length,  and  145  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  water),  south-westward  and 
19  miles  distant  from  Berne,  and  north-eastward  and  73  miles  distant  from 
Geneva,  is  the  seat  of  the  bishop  of  Lausanne,  and  has  the  above-mentioned 
college  of  Jesuits  (in  1842  with  676  pupils),  a  Gothic  cathedral  (whose  steeple 
is  365  feet  in  height),  8  convents,  and  9,200  inhabitants.  In  the  vicinity  is 
situated  the  Cistercian  monastery  Altenryf,  in  French,  Hauterive.  Murten 
(in  French,  Morat),  a  town  on  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  is  noted  for  the 
battle  against  Charles  the  Temerarious,  of  Burgundy,  in  1476,  and  has  1,700 
inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  canton  are :  Greyerz,  in  French,  Gruyeres 
(noted  for  its  cheese,  and  with  1,050  inhabitants),  Rornont  (with  1,400  inhabi- 
tants), and  Staefis,  in  French,  Estavayer  (with  1,800  inhabitants). 

6.  The  canton  of  St.  Gall  (area:  744  square  miles;  population:  172,000 
inhabitants,  speaking  German,  and  in  point  of  religion  at  the  ratio  of  106,000 
Catholics  and  66,000  Reformists),  separated  by  the  Rhine  (before  this  river 
enters  the  lake  of  Constance)  from  Tyrol.  This  canton,  which  joined  the 
confederacy  in  1798,  was  until  then  (with  the  exception  of  the  city  of  St. 
Gall)  the  territory  of  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  St.  Gall,  whose  seat  was  in 
the  just-named  city,  though  separated  from  it  by  a  high  walL  The  abbey 
originated  from  a  cell,  built  by  the  holy  Gallus  (from  Ireland,  and  a  pupil  of 
Columban),  who  in  the  beginning  of  the  7  th  century  came  here  to  preach  the 
gospel  to  the  neighboring  AllemanL     He  converted  many  of  them,  who  set- 


160  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Switzerland — Canton  of  Geneva. 


tied  themselves  around  him,  and  at  last  a  monastery  was  built,  whose  first 
regular  abbot  was  elected  in  720.  The  abbey  was  endowed  with  many 
privileges ;  the  abbot  was  only  subjected  to  the  pope,  and  in  his  temporal 
quality  as  prince  of  the  German  empire,  to  the  emperor,  and  was  at  the  same 
time  sovereign  of  a  pretty  large  territory.  Since  the  year  1451  he  partook 
in  the  direction  of  the  general  affairs  of  the  Helvetic  Republic,  without  being 
an  actual  member  of  the  confederacy,  until  in  1798  the  whole  bishopric  (or 
the  territory  of  the  abbey),  together  with  the  city  of  St.  Gall,  was  trans- 
formed into  a  canton.  (About  the  present  bishop  of  St.  Gall,  see  above.) 
The  canton  contains :  St.  Gall,  its  capital,  on  the  Steinach,  20  miles  south- 
south-east  of  Constance,  and  eastward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Zurich,  with 
the  former  edifice  of  the  abbey,  now  the  residence  of  the  government,  6 
churches,  several  schools  and  valuable  libraries,  important  linen  trade,  and 
11,500  inhabitants.  Pfeffers  (in  French  Faviere),  a  village  situated  in  the 
wild,  romantic  Tamina  Valley  (Taminathal),  and  noted  for  its  warm  baths. 
Here  is  also  a  Benedictine  abbey,  founded  in  720.  Wildhaus,  a  village  near 
the  head  of  the  Thur  river,  remarkable  as  the  birth-place  of  the  reformer 
Zwingli,  who  was  born  here  in  1484,  in  a  house  which  is  still  extant.  Ror- 
schach, a  town  on  the  lake  of  Constance,  with  important  commerce,  and  1,700 
inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  canton  are :  Rappers wyl,  or  Rapperschweil 
(with  2,000  inhabitants),  Sargans  (with  750  inhabitants),  Wallenstadt  (with 
800  inhabitants),  Rheineek  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  Ragatz  (with  1,300  in- 
habitants), Werdenberg  (with  950  inhabitants),  Lichtermteig  (chief  town  of 
the  ancient  county  of  Toggenburg,  with  7,500  inhabitants),  and  Wyl  (with 
2,400  inhabitants). 

7.  The  canton  of  Geneva  (area :  92  square  miles ;  population :  65,000  in- 
habitants, speaking  French,  and  for  the  most  part  Reformists,  only  19,700 
being  Catholics),  situated  along  the  south-west  corner  of  the  lake  of  Geneva. 
It  partook  since  the  year  1558  in  the  direction  of  the  public  affairs  of  Swit- 
zerland, without  being  an  actual  member  of  the  confederacy.  In  1798  it  was, 
by  the  name  of  Leman- department,  annexed  to  France,  but  in  1815  restored 
to  its  independency,  and  now  it  became  a  formal  member  of  the  confederacy. 
It  contains :  Geneva,  fortified  capital,  on  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  and  on 
the  Rhone  (at  the  point  whore  this  river  issues  from  the  lake),  south-westward 
and  82  miles  distant  from  Berne,  and  north-eastward  and  69  miles  distant 
from  Lyons,  is  the  most  populous  and  industrious  city  of  Switzerland,  and 
especially  noted  for  its  extensive  manufactures  of  watches  and  jewelleries 


SWITZERLAND.  161 


Cantons  of  Glarus  and  Orisons. 


(annually  about  60,000  ounces  of  gold,  5,000  marks  of  silver  and  precious 
stones,  at  the  value  of  500,000  francs,  are  used  up  for  this  purpose),  and 
moreover  for  its  literary  institutions,  and  has  a  population  of  31.000  inhabi- 
tants, among  whom  are  5,800  Catholics.  Geneva  was  founded  by  the  Allo- 
brogi  (a  Gaulic  tribe  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Gaul  and  in  the  adjacent 
country,  now  called  Savoy),  came  in  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century  of  the 
Christian  era  under  the  sway  of  the  Burgundians,  and  formed  since  part  of 
the  Burgundian  kingdom,  but  was  at  the  same  time  held  in  some  dependency 
of  the  bishop  of  Geneva.  In  1478  the  bishop  and  the  city  entered  into  a 
league  with  the  cantons  of  Berne  and  Freiburg,  which  in  1526  was  renewed, 
till  in  1558  (the  bishopric  being  meanwhile  dissolved)  matters  were  arranged 
in  the  above-mentioned  manner.  The  territory  of  the  city  contains,  among 
others,  the  towns  of  Versoix  or  Versoy  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  and  Carouge 
(with  4,000  inhabitants). 

8.  The  canton  of  Glarus  (area :  276  square  miles ;  population :  32,000  in- 
habitants, speaking  German,  and  for  the  most  part  Reformists,  only  4,300 
being  Catholics),  situated  in  the  interior  of  Switzerland,  at  about  14  miles 
distance  from  Tyrol,  and  on  the  south  bordered  by  the  canton  of  Grisons.  It 
joined  the  confederacy  in  1352,  and  contains:  Glarus,  capital  on  the  Linth,  32 
miles  south-south-west  of  St.  Gall,  and  south-eastward  and  36  miles  distant 
from  Zurich,  with  numerous  cotton  and  cloth  manufactures,  important  trade, 
and  6,000  inhabitants.  Mollis,  Schwanden,  and  Naefels,  towns  with  re- 
spectively 2,600,  2,200,  and  1,800  inhabitants.  Naefels  is  noted  for  a  battle 
in  1388. 

9.  The  canton  of  Grisons  (area:  2,981  square  miles;  population:  92,000 
inhabitants,  of  whom  about  two  parts  are  Reformists  and  one  part  Catholics, 
speaking  partly  German,  partly  Italian,  and  partly  the  above-mentioned 
Ladinian,  or  corrupt  Latin  language),  comprising  the  south-eastern  part  of 
Switzerland,  and  bordered  by  Tyrol  and  Lombardy.  There  are  not  less  than 
241  glaciers  and  170  valleys  in  this  canton,  from  which  two  great  roads  cross 
the  Alps  to  Italy ;  one  over  the  Bernardin,  and  the  other  over  Mount  Spliigen. 
Grisons,  once  a  constituent  part  of  Rhaetia  (as  Tyrol  anciently  was  called), 
came  in  the  5th  century  under  the  sway  of  the  Ostrogoths,  and  in  529  under 
that  of  the  king3  of  Austrasia  (see  History  of  Europe,  §  8),  who  annexed  it 
to  the  duchy  of  Swabia,  or  Alemannia.  The  German  emperor,  Otho  L,  and 
the  duke  Louis  of  Alemannia  endowed  in  951  the  bishop  of  Chur  with 
various  privileges  in  this  city,  which  subsequently  were  extended  over  a  great 


162  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 


Switzerland— C;mt->i!S  <<!'  Crisou*,  Luzcriio  and  Neucliatd. 


part  of  Grisons,  where,  moreover,  free  communities  had  arisen.  The  latter 
entered  into  three  leagues,  viz. :  the  Grey  League,  the  Gods-house  League,  and 
the  League  of  the  ten  Jurisdictions  ;  while  about  the  same  time,  or  in  1419, 
the  bishop  and  the  city  of  Chur  entered  into  a  confederacy  with  Zurich.  Yet  it 
was  not  until  the  year  1198  Grisons  became  a  canton  and  actual  member  of  the 
Helvetic  Republic.  The  government  of  the  canton  consists  of  representatives 
of  the  above  leagues,  still  existing ;  and  it  may  be  remarked  that  Chur  is 
the  chief  town  of  the  so-called  God's-house  League,  Ilanz  that  of  the  Grey 
League,  and  Meyenfeld  the  chief  town  of  the  League  of  the  ten  Jurisdictions. 
The  canton  contains :  Chur,  capital  of  all  Grisons,  near  the  sources  of  the 
Rhine,  southward  and  46  miles  distant  from  St.  Gall,  with  a  remarkable 
cathedral,  2  convents,  considerable  transit  trade,  and  5,800  inhabitants. 
Especially  in  the  valley  of  Engadin  the  Ladinian  language  is  spoken,  and 
many  of  its  inhabitants  are  spread  over  all  Europe  as  expert  confectioners 
and  keepers  of  coffee-houses.  Puschlaf  or  Poschiavo  and  Zizers,  towns  with 
respectively  900  and  800  inhabitants.  Ilanz  (see  above),  the  uppermost 
town  on  the  Rhine  (the  nethermost  is  Ley  den,  in  Holland),  westward  and  18 
miles  distant  from  Chur,  with  750  inhabitants.  Splugen,  a  town  at  the  north- 
ern foot  of  Mount  Splugen,  28  miles  south-south-west  of  Chur,  with  800  in- 
habitants. Other  towns  of  this  district  are:  Disentis (with  1,200  inhabitants), 
and  Thusis  (with  900  inhabitants).  Meyenfeld  (see  above),  a  town  north- 
ward and  12  miles  distant  from  Chur,  with  a  remarkable  old  castle,  transit 
trade,  and  1,200  inhabitants.  Davos,  a  town  with  1,100  inhabitants.  Pretti- 
gau,  a  valley  noted  for  its  fine  cattle. 

10.  The  canton  of  Luzerne  (area:  595  square  miles;  population:  128,000 
inhabitants,  all  Catholics,  and  speaking  German),  near  the  centre  of  Switzer- 
land, and  bordered  on  the  north  by  the  canton  of  Aargau.  It  joined  the 
confederacy  in  1332,  and  contains:  Luzerne,  the  capital,  on  the  Reuss,  46 
miles  east-north-east  of  Berne,  with  5  churches,  4  convents,  several  literary 
institutions,  manufactures,  transit  trade,  and  8,500  inhabitants.  The  town  of 
Sempach,  with  1,500  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  a  battle  in  1386.  Other  towns 
of  this  canton  are :  Willisau  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  and  Sursee  (with  3,000 
inhabitants). 

11.  The  canton  of  Neuchatel  (area:  297  square  miles;  population:  66,000 
inhabitants  in  1845,  but  67,200  inhabitants  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1847; 
they  speak,  for  the  most  part,  French,  but  also  German  ;  the  majority  consists 
of  Reformists,  and  only  3,500  are  Catholics),  situated  on  the  west  side  of  the 


SWITZERLAND.  16* 


CaistoiiS  of  Neudhatol  n:,:!  Sch:ifhRUse:i. 


Like  of  Neuchatel,  and  on  the  west  bordered  by  the  French  province  of 
Tranche  Comte.  This  canton,  since  the  year  1815  a  member  of  the  confed- 
eracy, but  in  other  respects  subjected  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  king  of  Prussia, 
-was  in  1032  annexed  to  the  German  empire  as  an  almost  sovereign  county, 
(subsequently  principality),  which  since  the  year  1324  changed  hands,  until 
towards  the  end  of  the  17th  century  the  Prince  William  III.,  of  Orange  (king 
of  Great  Britain  in  the  period  1689-1702),  became  possessed  of  it.  From 
him,  his  nephew,  King  Frederic  I.,  of  Prussia,  inherited  the  principality,  and 
took  possession  of  it  in  1707.  Since  that  time,  Neuchatel  has  continued  to  be 
under  Prussian  sway,  with  the  exception  of  the  period  from  the  year  1805  to 
1814,  in  which  it  formed  part  of  France.  In  1848  the  people  declared  them- 
selves independent  from  the  Prussian  crown,  but  it  is  very  doubtful  whether 
they  will  be  able  to  maintain  their  independence,  the  more  so  as  the  king  of 
Prussia  has  not  at  all  acquiesced  in  it.  The  country  is  noted  for  its  industry ; 
and  at  the  end  of  the  year  1843,  there  were  8,825  watch-makers,  3,055  lace- 
makers,  1.994  linen- weavers,  10,021  vine-dressers,  etc.,  etc.  Politically,  or 
historically,  the  country  is  divided  into  the  principality  of  Neuchatel,  and  the 
county  of  Valangin.  The  former  contains :  Neuchatel,  the  capital  of  the 
whole  canton,  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  lake  of  Neuchatel,  westward  and 
27  miles  distant  from  Berne,  with  a  castle,  reared  in  1250,  and  since  the  seat 
of  the  sovereigns  of  the  country,  most  of  whom  are  buried  in  the  Gothic 
church  of  Our  Lady  here,  manufactures  of  watches  and  laces,  considerable 
trade,  and  6,300  inhabitants.  Travers,  a  village  in  the  valley  of  the  same 
name,  whose  6,000  inhabitants  are  for  the  most  part  watch-  and  lace-makers. 
Boudey,  a  town  noted  for  its  wines,  with  1,700  inhabitants.  Landeron,  a  town 
on  the  lake  of  BieL  with  1,000  inhabitants.  Cortaillod,  a  village  on  the  lake 
of  Neuchatel,  with  calico  printings,  and  1,100  inhabitants.  Valangtx,  chief 
town  of  the  ancient  county  of  Valangin,  in  a  deep  valley,  north-westward 
and  2  miles  distant  from  Neuchatel,  with  a  Gothic  church  and  6,000  inhabi- 
tants. Locle,  a  town  near  the  French  frontier,  is  noted  for  its  manufactures 
of  watches,  and  has  a  population  of  6,000  inhabitants.  Also  the  town  of 
Chaux  de  Fonps  (with  8,500  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of 
watches. 

12.  The  canton  of  Schafhaitsen  (area:  117  square  miles;  population: 
35,000  inhabitants,  speaking  German,  and  being  Reformists,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  only  600  Catholics),  the  most  northerly  canton,  and  almost  entirely 
eurrounded  by  the  territory  of  the  German  grand-duchy  of  Baden.     It  joined 


164  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Switzerland— Cantons  of  Schweilz  and  Soleure. 

the  confederacy  in  1501,  and  contains :  Schafhausen,  the  capital,  on  the 
Rhine  (whose  celebrated  falls  are  not  far  from  here,  close  by  the  village  of 
Laufen,  which,  however,  belongs  to  Zurich),  north-eastward  and  82  miles 
distant  from  Berne,  and  2*7  miles  north-north-east  of  Zurich,  with  3  churches, 
manufactures  of  silks  and  cotton  goods,  and  7,500  inhabitants.  Stein,  or 
Stein  am  Rhein  (because  this  town  is  situated  on  the  Rhine),  is  noted  for  its 
wines,  and  has  1,800  inhabitants.  Quite  near  the  town  is  the  ancient  castle 
of  Hohenklingen.  Other  towns  of  this  canton  are:  Neukirch  (with  1,000 
inhabitants),  Taeyingen  (with  700  inhabitants),  Unter-Hallau  (with  mineral 
baths,  and  3,100  inhabitants),  and  Wilchingen  (with  900  inhabitants). 

13.  The  canton  of  Schweitz,  or  Schwyz  (area:  340  square  miles;  popula- 
tion :  43,000  inhabitants,  speaking  German,  and  being  Catholics),  situated  on 
the  south  side  of  the  lake  of  Zurich.  It  was  one  of  those  three  cantons  which 
in  1308  first  entered  into  a  confederacy,  and  contains:  Schwyz,  or  Schweitz, 
the  capital,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Myten  (5,790  feet  high),  eastward  and  65 
miles  distant  from  Berne,  and  south-westward  and  69  miles  distant  from  St. 
Gall,  with  2  convents,  and  5.000  inhabitants.  Einsiedeln,  a  town  on  the 
Sihl,  9  miles  north-north-east  of  Schwyz,  with  6,000  inhabitants,  and  a  cele- 
brated Benedictine  abbey  (founded  in  906),  whose  holy  shrine  is  annually 
visited  by  about  150,000  pilgrims.  Other  towns  of  this  canton  are:  Lachen 
(with  1,300  inhabitants),  Gersau  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Arth  (with  2,600 
inhabitants),  and  Kuessnacht  (with  1,700  inhabitants).  In  this  canton  is  also 
Mount  Rigi,  5,700  feet  high.  Between  this  mountain  and  another,  called 
Rusaberg  (4,800  feet  in  height),  was  situated  the  town  of  Goldau,  which  on 
the  2d  of  September,  1806,  was  totally  buried  by  a  terrible  fall  of  earth. 

14.  The  canton  of  Soleure  (area :  255  square  miles ;  population :  65,000 
inhabitants,  speaking  German,  and  being  Catholics),  situated  on  the  south  side 
of  the  canton  of  Basle.  It  joined  the  confederacy  in  1481,  and  contains: 
Soleure,  the  capital,  on  the  Aar,  northward  and  20  miles  distant  from  Basle, 
with  3  churches,  5  convents,  considerable  transit  trade,  and  4,600  inhabitants. 
Gilgenberg,  an  ancient  remarkable  mountain-castle,  whose  walls  are  14  feet 
thick.  Olten,  a  town  on  the  Aar,  with  important  inland  trade,  and  1,800 
inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  canton  are  :  Ballstall  (with  800  inhabitants), 
Trimmbach  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  Schoenenwerth,  or  Bellowerth  (with  800 
inhabitants),  Hegendorf  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  and  Grenchen  (with  1,200 
inhabitants). 

15.  The  canton  of  Tfsino  (area:  1,044  square  miles;  population:  114,000 


SWITZERLAND.  165 


Cantons  of  Tesino  and  Tlmr-au. 


inhabitants  in  1845,  but  121,000  inhabitants  in  1847,  speaking,  for  the  most  part, 
Italian,  and  being  Catholics),  situated  between  Grisons  (on  the  east)  and 
Valais  (on  the  west),  and  on  the  south  bordered  by  Lombardy.  It  consists 
of  the  7  former  Italian  bailiffships  of  Bellinzona,  Riviera,  Bollenz,  Lugano, 
Locarno,  Meynthal,  and  Mendrisio,  which  were  allied  to  the  Swiss  cantons, 
until  in  1803  they  joined  the  confederacy  as  a  canton  by  the  name  of  Tesino 
(derived  from  that  of  the  river  crossing  the  country).  It  is  sometimes  called 
Italian  Switzerland,  has  no  permanent  capital,  the  towns  of  Bellinzona,  Lugano, 
and  Locarno,  being  alternately  the  seat  of  government,  and  contains :  Bellin- 
zona, a  town  on  the  Tesino,  or  Ticino,  south-eastward  and  115  miles  distant 
from  Berne,  with  3  castles,  one  of  which  is  strongly  fortified,  2  churches,  3 
convents,  transit  trade,  and  1,600  inhabitants.  Riviera,  or  Polese,  chief  town 
of  the  former  bailiffship  of  the  same  name.  Cevio,  or  Gevio,  chief  town  of 
the  former  bailiffship  of  Meynthal,  has  a  population  of  600  inhabitants. 
Bollenz  (also  called  Palenzerthal),  formerly  a  bailiffship,  which  in  1500  allied 
to  the  cantons  of  Uri,  Schweitz,  and  Unterwalden.  Lugano  (in  German, 
Lauis,  or  Lavis),  a  town  on  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  southward  and  19 
miles  distant  from  Bellinzona,  with  16  churches,  6  convents,  various  manufac- 
tures, important  trade,  and  4,700  inhabitants.  Agno  and  Ponte  Tresa,  towns, 
with  respectively  1,900  and  850  inhabitants.  Locarno,  a  town  at  the  northern 
end  of  the  lake  Maggiore,  westward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Bellinzona,  with 
1,700  inhabitants.  Ascona  and  Dongio,  towns,  with  respectively  1,800  and 
1,000  inhabitants.  Mendrisio,  or  Mendris,  a  town  near  the  lake  of  Lugano, 
northward  and  30  miles  distant  from  Milan,  with  3  convents,  silk  spinning, 
and  1,800  inhabitants.  Airolo  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  and  Giornico,  or 
Irnis  (with  2  remarkable  churches,  and  900  inhabitants),  towns  situated  in 
the  valley  of  Levantina.  Other  towns  of  this  canton  are :  Balerno  (with  750 
inhabitants),  Stabio  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  and  Chiasso  (with  800  inhabi- 
tants). 

16.  The  canton  of  Thurgau  (area:  266  square  miles;  population:  92,000 
inhabitants,  speaking  German,  and  being  Reformists,  with  the  exception  of 
19,800  Catholics),  on  the  western  bank  of  the  lake  of  Constance,  on  the  west 
bordered  by  the  canton  of  Zurich.  This  canton,  the  most  fertile  of  Switzer- 
land, joined  the  confederacy  in  1803,  and  contains:  Frauenfeld,  the  capital, 
on  the  Murg,  south-westward  and  13  miles  distant  from  Constance,  with  silk 
manufactures,  and  2,200  inhabitants.  Gottlieben,  a  town  on  the  Rhine,  and 
near  Constance,  with  an  old  castle,  where  John  Huss  and  the  pope,  John 


166  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Switzerland— Cantons  of  Unlerwalden  and  Uri 


XXIII,  were  kept  prisoners  in  1415,  transit  trade,  and  600  inhabitants. 
Other  towns  of  this  canton  are :  Arbon  (with  various  manufactures,  and 
1,100  inhabitants),  Weinfelden  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  Steckborn  (with 
2,200  inhabitants),  Diessenhofen  (with  1,300  inhabitants),  Bischofszell  (with 
2,600  inhabitants),  Ermatingen  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  and  Hauptweil  (with 
2,200  inhabitants). 

17.  The  canton  of  Unterwalden  (area:  266  square  miles;  population: 
25,000  inhabitants,  speaking  German,  and  being  Catholics),  situated  in  the 
interior  of  Switzerland,  on  the  south  bordered  by  the  canton  of  Berne,  and 
on  the  north-west  by  the  canton  of  Luzerne.  It  is  crossed  from  the  south  to 
the  north  by  a  forest,  called  Kernwald,  which  divides  the  canton  into  two 
districts,  known  by  the  names  of  Nidwalden  and  Obwalden  (beneath  and 
above  the  forest).  Unterwalden  is  one  of  the  three  cantons,  which  in  1 308 
first  entered  into  a  confederacy,  and  has  no  capital,  Stanz  (eastward  and  46 
miles  distant  from  Berne,  with  2  convents,  and  3,500  inhabitants)  being  the 
chief  town  of  Nidwalden  (which  besides  it  contains  the  towns  of  Bucks,  with 
1,600  inhabitants,  and  Stanzstad,  or  Stansstadt,  with  800  inhabitants).  The 
chief  town  of  Obwalden  is  Sarnen,  on  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  9  miles 
west-south-west  of  Stanz,  with  a  beautiful  church,  2  convents,  and  4,000  in- 
habitants. Sachseln,  or  Saxeln,  a  village  on  the  lake  of  Sarnen,  with  2,200 
inhabitants,  and  a  church,  where  the  renowned  hermit,  Nicholas  von  der  Flue 
(-)-  1487),  is  buried.  Engelberg  and  Melchthal  are  two  romantic  villages. 
Kerns  and  Alpnach,  or  Altnacht,  towns  with  respectively  2,900  and  1,800 
inhabitants. 

18.  The  canton  of  Uri  (area:  426  square  miles;  population:  14,500  in- 
habitants, speaking  German,  and  being  Catholics),  situated  on  the  east  side 
of  Unterwalden,  and  on  the  south-east  and  south  bordered  by  the  cantons 
of  Grison  and  Tesino.  It  was  one  of  the  the  three  cantons,  which  in  1308 
first  entered  into  a  confederacy,  aud  contains :  Altorf,  the  capital,  on  the 
Reuss  and  the  lake  of  Luzerne,  eastward  and  55  miles  distant  from  Berne, 
and  southward  and  36  miles  distant  from  Zurich,  with  2  convents,  transit 
trade,  and  1 ,800  inhabitants.  Here  it  was,  where  Gessler  (see  History  of 
Switzerland)  lived.  Not  far  from  here  is  the  wild,  romantic  valley,  called 
Schaechenthal.  Fluelen,  a  village  on  the  lake  of  Luzerne,  with  considerable 
transit  trade,  and  650  inhabitants.  Goeschenen,  a  village  on  the  new  road 
over  Mount  St  Gothard  (whose  highest  peak,  called  GalenstocTc,  is  11,300 
feet  high),  which  at  the  same  time  leads  over  the  DeviV s-bridge  (built  in  mod- 


BWITZE1U.AND.  io7 

Canton*  of  Uri,  Valais  and  Vaud. 


em  time,  and  consisting  of  an  arch  55  feet  wide,  and  built  at  the  height  of 
90  feet  over  the  Reuss  :  the  old  Devil's-bridge  is  still  extant).  In  the  valley 
of  Urseren  is  situated  the  village  of  Andermatt,  with  1,400  inhabitants. 

19.  The  canton  of  Valais  (area:  1667  square  miles;  population  :  80,000 
inhabitants,  being  Catholics,  and  speaking  partly  French,  partly  German,  and 
partly  Italian),  the  most  southerly  canton,  bordered  on  the  south  by  Pied- 
mont. It  belonged  first  to  the  Burgundian,  and  since  the  year  1032  to  the 
German  empire,  became  in  the  years  1475  and  1529  a  member  of  the  Swiss 
confederacy,  was  in  1810  annexed  to  the  French  empire  (by  the  name  of  de- 
partment of  Simplon),  but  in  1815  restored  to  independency.  It  is  divided 
into  Upper  and  Lower  Valais,  and  contains :  Sion  (in  German  Sitten),  the 
capital  of  the  canton,  and  chief  town  of  Upper  Valais,  near  the  Rhone,  south- 
ward and  54  miles  distant  from  Berne,  and  northward  and  82  miles  distant 
from  Turin,  with  6  churches  (among  which  is  a  remarkable  cathedral),  a  col- 
lege of  Jesuits,  and  3,200  inhabitants.  Leuk  (in  French,  Loueche),  a  town  on 
the  Rhone,  is  noted  for  its  warm  baths,  and  has  750  inhabitants.  Simplon,  a 
village  on  the  mountain  of  the  same  name  (11,730  feet  high),  and  on  the  road 
crossing  the  latter.  Brig,  Naters,  and  Sieders,  towns  on  the  Rhone  and  in 
Upper  Valais,  with  respectively  750,  2,500,  and  1,000  inhabitants.  Mahtigny 
(in  German,  Martinach),  chief  town  of  Lower  Valais,  on  the  Dranse,  south- 
westward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Sion,  with  vine  culture  on  a  large 
scale,  considerable  transit  trade,  and  1,250  inhabitants.  Between  this  town 
and  the  frontier  of  Piedmont  is  the  valley  of  Bagne,  with  4,000  inhabitants. 
Here  commences  the  road  over  the  Great  St.  Bernard  (10,400  feet  high,  and 
belonging  to  the  Pennine.  Alps),  by  which  the  French  army  passed  into  Italy 
in  the  month  of  May,  1800,  and  at  whose  top  is  a  Benedictine  monastery 
(reared  in  the  midst  of  the  10th  century),  where  annually  about  15,000  trav- 
ellers are  hospitably  entertained.  St.  Maurice  (in  German  St.  Moritz),  a 
town  on  the  Rhone,  with  considerable  transit  trade,  and  1,200  inhabitants. 
Monthey,  a  town  on  the  Vieze,  with  1,100  inhabitants. 

20.  The  canton  of  Vaud  (area:  1,186  square  miles;  population:  203,000 
inhabitants,  for  the  most  part  Reformists,  and  of  French  origin,  only  6,000 
speaking  German,  and  no  more  than  3,000  being  Catholics),  situated  between 
the  lakes  of  Geneva  and  Neuchatel,  and  in  common  life  also  called  French 
Switzerland.  It  belonged  formerly  to  the  canton  of  Berne,  but  joined  the 
confederacy  in  1798  as  an  actual  member.  It  contains  :  Lausanne,  the  capi- 
tal, on  the  northern  bank  of  the  lake  of  Geneva,  with  a  beautiful  Gothic 


168  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


r^wi  zerland- Cantons  of  Vand,  Zu?,  and  Zurich. 


cathe  Iral  and  2  other  churches,  several  higher  schools  and  literary  institutions, 
vine  culture,  and  16,000  inhabitants.  Grandson  (in  German,  Gransee),  a 
town  on  the  lake  of  Neuchatel,  is  noted  for  a  battle  in  1476,  and  has  1,000 
inhabitants.  Vevay,  or  Viois,  a  town  on  the  lake  of  Geneva,  with  manufac- 
tures of  watches,  etc,  and  4,700  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  canton  are  : 
La  Tour,  surnamed  de  Peils  (with  800  inhabitants),  Villeneuve  (with  1,500  in- 
habitants), St.  Saphorin  (with  800  inhabitants),  Cully,  or  Cuilly  (with  2,900 
inhabitants),  Lustri,  or  Lutry  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Morges,  or  Morsee 
(with  2,000  inhabitants),  Aubonne  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  Nyon,  in  German, 
Ncuss  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  Coppet  (with  600  inhabitants),  Yverdun,  or 
Iverdun,  in  German,  Ifferten  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  Moudon,  in  German, 
Milden  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  Avenches,  in  German,  Wifflisburg  (with  1,100 
inhabitants),  Casso?iay  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Payerne,  in  German,  Peter- 
linqen  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  Romainmoustiers  (with  1,200  inhabitants), 
Echallens,  in  German,  Tscherlitz  (with  700  inhabitants),  Orbe,  in  German, 
Orbach  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Aigle,  in  German,  Aden  (with  1,900  inhabi- 
tants), and  Bex  (with  the  only  salt- work  in  Switzerland,  and  2,400  inhabitants). 
The  valley  ofloux  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  watches,  swords,  hard-ware, 
etc.,  and  has  a  population  of  3,000  inhabitants. 

21.  The  canton  of  Zug  (area:  85  square  miles;  population:  16,500  inhabi- 
tants, speaking  German,  and  being  Catholics),  situated  on  the  south  side  of 
the  canton  of  Zurich.  It  joined  the  confederacy  in  1352,  and  contains:  Zug, 
the  capital,  on  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  southward  and  14  miles  distant 
from  Zurich,  with  transit  trade,  and  3,500  inhabitants.  South-eastward  and  9 
miles  distant  from  Zug  is  the  little  mountain  or  hill  of  Morgarten,  noted  for  a 
battle  in  1315.  Baar  and  Cham,  towns,  with  respectively  2,500  and  1,300 
inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  canton  are :  Aegeri  (with  2,800  inhabitants), 
Walchwyl  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  and  Maenzingen  (with  1,500  inhabitants). 

22.  The  canton  of  Zurich  (area :  686  square  miles ;  population :  280,000 
inhabitants,  speaking  German,  and  being  Reformists,  with  the  exception  of 
2,000  Catholics),  in  the  northern  part  of  Switzerland,  at  about  20  miles  distance 
from  the  lake  of  Constance,  on  the  north  bordered  by  the  canton  of  Schaf- 
hausen.  It  joined  the  confederacy  in  1351,  and  contains:  Zurich,  the  capital, 
on  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  and  on  the  Limmat,  46  miles  east-south-east 
of  Basle,  with  a  university  (see  above),  4  churches  (at  St.  Peter's,  the  cele- 
brated Lavater  was  minister),,  several  literary  and  charitable  institutions, 
various  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and  15,000  inhabitants.     In  1799, 


SWITZERLAND.  169 


Canton  of  Zurich. 


a  battle  was  fought  here  between  the  French  and  the  Austro-Russians. 
Winterthur,  a  town,  situated  north-eastward  and  14  miles  distant  from 
Zurich,  with  various  literary  institutions,  manufactures,  and  3,650  inhabitants. 
Pftffikoii,  Wald,  and  Affoltern,  extensive  and  highly  industrious  villages,  with 
respectively  3,500.  5,000,  and  1,900  inhabitants.  Laufen,  a  village  near 
Schafhausen,  and  on  the  Rhine,  whose  falls  are  here.  Cappel,  a  village  near 
the  frontier  of  the  canton  of  Zug,  is  noted  for  a  battle,  in  which  the  Reformists 
of  Zurich  were  defeated  by  the  Swiss  Catholics,  and  where  Zwingli  was  killed. 
Kyburg,  a  town,  situated  south-eastward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Zurich, 
with  an  ancient  mountain-castle,  reared  in  1079,  and  once  the  seat  of  renowned 
and  powerful  counts  of  Kyburg.  Other  towns  in  this  canton  are :  Neumunster 
(with  4,400  inhabitants),  Horgen  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Buelach  (with  3,000 
inhabitants),  Meilen  (with  5.100  inhabitants),  Staefa  (with  3,500  inhabitants), 
Eglimu  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  Andelfingen  (with  2,900  inhabitants),  Grue- 
ningen  (with  1,400  inhabitants),  Waedenschwyl,  or  Waedensweil  (with  6,000 
inhabitants),  Richtenschweil  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  Marthalen  (with  1,450 
inhabitants),  Ellg  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Uster  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  and 
Gossau  (with  3,600  inhabitants).  Upper  and  Lower  Stammheim  are  two 
towns,  which  together  have  a  population  of  2,500  inhabitants,  and  mineral 
baths. 


8 


FRANCE. 

♦ 

Area  :  204,825  square  miles. 
Population  :  35,401,000  inhabitants. 

France,  lying  on  the  south-west  side  of  Germany,  and  on 
ihe  south  separated  from  Spain  by  the  Pyrenees,  touches  the 
North  Sea  only  with  a  small  part  o,f  its  northern  extremity,  is 
separated  from  the  British  Islands  by  the  Strait  of  Dover  and 
the  English  Channel,  and  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Lyons.  (See  Introduction,  orGeneral 
View  of  Europe,  §  8.) 

In  France,  every  fifth  year  a  census  is  taken  ;  and  the  above- 
stated  population  is  according  to  the  last  one,  of  the  year  1846 ; 
and  the  number  of  inhabitants  was  then  exactly  35,400,486. 
According  to  the  census  of  1841  the  population  was  34,173,234, 
and  according  to  that  of  1836  it  was  33,540,910  inhabitants. 
Thus  in  the  period  from  1836  to  1841,  the  population  had 
increased  by  632,324,  and  in  the  period  from  1841  to  1846  by 
1,227,252  inhabitants.  In  the  year  1700  (when  Corsica  and 
Lorraine  were  not  yet  annexed  to  France)  the  population  amounted 
to  19,669,320  inhabitants,  and  in  1773  to  23,531,000  inhabitants. 

The  great  mass  of  the  people  consists  of  French,  belonging  to 
the  great  family  of  the  Romanians  (see  General  View  of  Europe, 
$  12).  The  number  of  Germans  (chiefly  in  Alsace  and  Lorraine) 
is  about  1,500,000;  and  in  French  Flanders  live  about  180,000 
Flemings  (see  Introduction,  §  12).     In  the  French  province  of 


FRANCE.  171 


Geographical  Features. 


Brittany  are  nearly  1,200,000  Breyzards,  or  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Britons,  who  settled  here  in  the  5th  century  (see  History 
of  Europe,  §  4),  and  in  Gascogne  about  150,000  Basques.  (See 
General  View  of  Europe,  §  12).  Near  the  Pyrenees  are  to  be 
found  Gypsies,  perhaps  9,000  in  number. 

There  is  no  established  religion  in  France,  all  denominations 
being  equal  in  the  eye  of  the  law  ;  but  the  great  mass  of  the 
people  are  Roman  Catholics  (under  the  church-authority  of  14 
archbishops  and  66  bishops) ;  while  only  about  4,000,000  are 
Protestants  (nearly  3,000,000  Reformists,  and  about  1,000,000 
Lutherans).  There  are  nearly  4.000  convents  with  24,000 
religious,  of  whom,  however,  18,000  are  sisters,  or  nuns,  who  have 
devoted  themselves  to  the  attendance  and  care  of  the  sick  and 
to  the  education  of  children. 

The  face  of  the  country  is  mountainous  in  the  south  and  east, 
level  in  the  north,  and  diversified  in  the  centre.  For  the  moun- 
tain ranges  which,  beside  parts  of  the  Pyrenees,  Alps,  and  Jura, 
belong  to  France,  see  General  View  of  Europe,  §  7,  h. 

The  4  principal  rivers  of  France :  Seine,  Loire,  Garonne,  and 
Rhone,  are  together  with  their  chief  tributaries,  and  with  the 
other  rivers,  as:  Var,  Herault,  Aude,  Somme,  etc.,  described  in 
General  View  of  Europe,  §  10.  The  principal  canals  in  France 
are  the  following :  the  canal  of  Languedoc,  connecting  the  Garonne 
with  the  Mediterranean  Sea ;  the  canal  of  the  centre,  connecting 
the  Loire  with  the  Saone ;  the  Rhine-canal,  connecting  the  Rhine 
with  the  Saone,  and  the  canal  of  Burgundy,  connecting  the  Seine 
with  the  Rhone.  It  may  be  mentioned  here,  that  at  the  present 
time  rail-roads  are  crossing  many  parts  of  France.  The  most  im- 
portant of  them,  are  those  which  connect  Havre  de  Grace  with 
Paris,  and  this  capital  with  Strasburg. 

The  climate  is  in  general  temperate,  France  lying  between  the 
parallels  of  42°  and  50°  N.  lat.     In  the  south,  it  is  sometimes 


172  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Natural  Products  of  France. 


very  hot ;  but  there,  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  it 
has  sometimes  also  been  very  cold,  especially  in  1608,  in  the 
beginning  of  last  century,  and  in  1776. 

The  soil  is,  upon  the  whole,  fertile,  yet  there  are  also  many 
barren  and  desert  tracts,  together  amounting  to  7,799,672  hec- 
tares, or  30,279  square  miles  (nearly  one  seventh  of  the  total 
area  of  France).  Of  the  arable  land,  about  14,000,000  hec- 
tares (or  54,346  square  miles)  are  appropriated  to  grain-raising; 
and  in  1843  there  were  5,338,043  hectares  (257£  hectares  are 
nearly  equal  to  one  English  square  mile)  cultivated  with  wheat, 
2,638,948  with  rye,  1,300,186  with  barley,  2,840,360  with  oats, 
700,890  with  buckwheat,  and  595.227  with  maize  and  millet.  Upon 
an  average,  the  annual  produce  is  about  333,000,000  bushels  of 
grain,  128,000,000  of  which  consist  of  wheat.  (Beside  which, 
the  annual  harvest  of  potatoes  may  be  computed  at  170,000,000 
bushels.)  All  the  grain  raised  in  the  country  is  at  times  not 
sufficient  for  home  consumption,  and  in  the  period  from  1815  to 
1841,  grain  has  been  imported  from  foreign  countries  to  the 
amount  of  464,000,000  francs  in  value.  The  agriculture  in  France 
is  generally  in  a  backward  state,  or  at  least  inferior  to  that  of 
England,  Belgium,  and  Germany.  Of  far  greater  importance 
is  the  vine  culture,  to  which  purpose  2,134,822  hectares  were 
appropriated  in  1843.  At  all  events,  France  ranks  first  among 
the  wine  countries  in  the  world,  and  its  annual  produce  in  wines 
may  on  an  average  be  estimated  at  720  million  gallons  (next  to 
France,  follows  the  Austrian  empire,  inclusive  Hungary,  with  an 
annual  produce  of  about  603  million  gallons  ;  then  Spain,  with 
about  153  million,  and  then  Germany,  with  about  81  million 
gallons).  Other  productions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  are  prin- 
cipally :  madder  (in  the  environs  of  Avignon,  and  other  parts  of 
Provence,  and  in  Languedoc),  fruits  (apples  in  Normandy  and 
Brittany,  plums  in  Gascony),  sugar  beets  (of  which  at  least  22 


FRANCE.  178 


Forests— Rearing  of  Cattle— Mineral  Products. 


million  pounds  of  sugar  are  made  annually),  olives  (renowned  is 
the  olive-oil  from  Provence),  tobacco  (cultivated  only  in  Brittany, 
Gascony,  French  Flanders,  and  Alsace,  the  tobacco  trade  being 
a  monopoly  of  the  government),  capers,  almonds,  and  trvffl.es 
(renowned  are  the  truffles  of  Perigord).  Before  the  revolution 
of  1789,  France  had  extensive  and  valuable  forests,  but  they  have 
since  been  thinned  so  extravagantly  that  in  1843  no  more  than 
7,422,315  hectares,  or  only  about  the  seventh  part  of  the  total 
area  of  France,  were  still  woodland,  of  which  moreover  only  the 
14th  part  consisted  of  forests  of  tall  trees. 

The  rearing  of  cattle  is  in  France,  even  more  than  agriculture, 
in  a  backward  state,  and  in  1843  the  total  number  was  only 
9,130,632,  whereas  for  instance  Austria  numbered  in  the  same 
year  11,389,001  heads  of  black  cattle.  The  best  breed  is  that  of 
Normandy  and  Auvergne.  For  the  home  consumption,  the  cattle 
reared  in  France  are  not  found  sufficient.  The  number  of  horses 
throughout  the  country  is  estimated  at  2£  million  ;  the  finest 
breed  is  to  be  found  in  Normandy  and  Limousin,  but  even  these 
horses  are  inferior  to  those  of  Mecklenburg,  Oldenburg,  and 
other  parts  of  Germany,  from  which  countries  numerous  horses 
are  annually  imported  to  remount  the  French  cavalry.  In  Poi- 
tou  and  Auvergne  are  reared  fine  mules.  The  numbers  of  sheep 
(the  finest  breed  is  in  Berry)  amounted  in  1843  to  29,130,231 
(in  the  same  year  in  Austria  there  were  numbered  31,809,481 
sheep).  Of  goats,  the  fine  breed  from  Angora  and  Thibet,  intro- 
duced into  France  since  1819,  thrives  well  in  the  southern  prov- 
inces. In  these  provinces  the  rearing  of  silk-worms  is  also  very 
important. 

Of  mineral  products,  France  has  only  iron  and  coal  in  somewhat 
considerable  quantities.  Most  of  the  iron  mines  are  in  Cham- 
pagne, Burgundy,  Franche-Comte,  Lorraine,  Nivernais,  Lyonnais, 
and    Berry,  and    in     1842    the    total    produce  was  6.954,100 


174  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Manufactures  and  Commerce  of  France. 


metric  quintals  of  iron  of  various  descriptions.  The  total  pro- 
duce of  coal  amounted  in  the  same  year  to  35,920,843  metric 
quintals,  but  being  not  sufficient  for  home  consumption,  nearly 
17  million  quintals  had  to  be  imported  from  Belgium  and 
England.  Of  precious  metals,  only  silver  is  obtained  in  Dau- 
phiny ;  and  the  annual  produce  of  copper  (chiefly  found  in 
Navarre  and  Beam,  Dauphiny,  Lyonnais,  and  Lower  Alsace)  may 
be  estimated  at  3,000  quintals.  Salt  is  made  in  rather  large 
quantities  by  evaporation  of  sea-water  at  Cette  and  other  mari- 
time towns.  France  abounds  in  warm  springs  and  mineral  waters, 
on  account  of  which  especially  Bagneres  and  Bareges  (in  the 
Pyrenees).  Bourbon  l'Archambault  and  Vichy  (in  Bourbonnais), 
etc.,  are  much  visited. 

The  manufactures  are  various  and  numerous,  ^,nd  the  value  of 
the  annually  manufactured  goods  (cotton,  woollen,  silk,  and  fancy 
goods,  hard-ware,  jewelry,  perfumes,  paper,  etc.)  is  estimated  at 
$400,000,000  to  $500,000,000.  Many  of  the  French  shawls  rival, 
if  not  in  fineness  and  softness,  at  least  in  the  elegance  of  pat- 
tern, those  of  Cashemere.  The  French  paper  is  almost  unrival- 
led ;  and  in  some  respects  the  same  may  be  said  of  French  cloth. 

Next  to  Great  Britain,  France  ranks  first  as  a  commercial  state, 
and  its  exports  and  imports  for  the  year  1843  were  in  value 
2,179,000,000  francs  (about  $436,000,000),  the  exports  being  in 
value  992,000,000  francs  (or  about  $198,500,000),  and  the  im- 
ports in  value  1,187,000,000  francs  (or  about  $237,500,000). 
(In  1840  the  total  value  of  the  exports  and  imports  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  was  about  $214,500,000,  but  with  the  difference  that 
here  the  exports  exceeded  the  imports  by  nearly  $20,000,000, 
while  in  France  the  imports  were  by  195,000,000  francs,  or  nearly 
$39,000,000  more  in  value  than  the  exports.  Moreover,  the 
commerce  of  France  does  not  extend  to  all  parts  of  the  world, 
like  that  of  the  United  States ;  as  for  instance,  its  intercourse 


FRANCE.  175 


Education—  Universities 


with  China  and  India  is  comparatively  very  insignificant.)  The 
French  exports  are  chiefly  silks,  cottons,  woollens,  wine,  brandy, 
madder,  paper  and  paper-hangings,  looking-glasses  and  plate-glass, 
laces,  and  fancy  articles  of  all  kinds,  olive-oil,  fruits,  etc.  The 
chief  imports  are  cotton,  raw  silk,  wool,  grain,  sugar,  coal,  timber, 
furs  and  hides,  iron,  and  indigo. 

Of  the  means  of  education  in  France  it  may  be  said,  that  there 
is  much  ado  about  nothing.  All  schools  (with  the  exception  of 
military,  mining,  and  other  similar  academies)  are  under  the  spe- 
cial direction  of  a  supreme  board  at  Paris,  styled  the  university, 
which  however  has  nothing  to  do  with  teaching  or  instructing 
like  other  institutions  bearing  this  name.  It  is  a  characteristic 
evidence  of  the  system  of  centralization  prevailing  in  France, 
that  just  as  27  tribunals  are  subjected  to  the  control  of  the  court 
of  cassation  (or  supreme  court),  so  27  academies  (as  they  are 
styled)  are  subjected  to  the  control  of  the  university  ;  while  all 
common  and  other  inferior  schools  are  again  subjected  to  these 
academies.  France  has  no  universities  like  those  of  Germany, 
etc.,  that  is  with  all  4  faculties  united  (see  the  explanatory  note, 
page  95),  but  the  faculties  are  separated,  though  they  have  re- 
tained that  name.  The  university  of  Paris,  so  renowned  in  the 
middle  ages  (see  History  of  Europe,  §  17,/),  is  still  extant,  and 
was  in  1841  frequented  by  about  7,000  students,  but  it  con- 
sists at  present  of  three  faculties  (of  theology,  of  jurisprudence, 
and  of  medicine),  separated  from  each  other.  It  is  the  same 
with  that  of  Toulouse  (founded  in  1233,  and  in  1841  with  1,250 
students),  and  of  Strasburg  (founded  in  1638,  and  880  students 
in  the  last-named  year).  The  former  universities  of  Lyons 
(founded  in  1300),  Aix  (founded  in  1409),  Bordeaux  (founded  in 
1447),  and  Rouen  (founded  in  1800)  are  now  reduced  to  faculties 
of  catholic  theology  (only  in  Aix  is  also  a  faculty  of  jurispru- 
dence) ; — those  of  Caen  (founded  in   1433),  Dijon  (founded  in 


176  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

Education  in  France — Form  of  Government. 

1722),  Poitiers  (founded  in  1411),  and  Rennes  (founded  in  1801), 
to  faculties  of  jurisprudence ; — that  of  Montpellier  (founded  in 
1289),  to  a  faculty  of  medicine  ;  that  of  Montauban  (founded  in 
1800),  to  a  protestant  theological  faculty;  and  that  of  Besancon 
(founded  in  1564),  to  a  faculty  of  philosophy.  Moreover,  there 
are  faculties  of  science  and  literature  (as  they  are  styled)  in  Paris, 
Caen,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Montpellier,  Strasburg,  and  Toulouse. 
With  regard  to  secondary  schools,  there  are  358  public  colleges 
(numbering  57,278  pupils  in  1844),  1,100  private  schools  (with 
35,000),  and  120  clerical  schools  (with  20,000  pupils).  The 
primary  schools  throughout  France  were  in  1840  frequented  by 
2,881,679  children.  (The  common  schools  of  Germany  are  an- 
nually frequented  by  more  than  6  million  children.)  In  1837 
there  were  7,682,  and  in  1840  still  4,196  French  communities 
vnthout  schools  at  all  (in  Germany  even  not  the  smallest  parish  is 
without  a  school),  and  according  to  the  statement  of  a  credible 
French  statistician  (Legoyt,  in  his  "  France  statistique"),  out  of 
every  one  thousand  French  405  (upon  an  average)  can  neither 
read  nor  write.  In  1843  there  were  out  of  50,352  schoolmasters, 
not  less  than  23,048  who  had  only  an  annual  salary  of  200  francs 
(or  little  more  than  $40)  each,  while  that  of  the  remainder 
amounted  to  no  more  than  300  francs.  Now  the  sum  for  the 
sustenance  of  a  galley-slave  in  the  bagnos  of  Toulon,  Rochefort, 
and  Lorient  is  fixed  at  319  francs  annually;  thus  the  wants  of 
culprits  are  indeed  better  provided  for,  than  those  of  teachers  in 
the  public  schools. 

The  form  of  government  is  at  present,  i.  e.,  since  the  year 
1848,  republican  ;  the  legislative  power  being  vested  in  an  As- 
sembly, or  Congress,  and  the  executive  power  in  a  President, 
chosen  for  4  years.  How  long  this  form  may  last,  nobody  can 
at  present  say;  yet  it  is  at  all  events  a  curious  fact,  that 
France  has  had  not  less  than  eight  constitutions  since  its  first 


•m 

FRANCE.  177 



Financial  Particulars. 

revolution,  viz. :  in  1791  (limited  monarchy),  1793  (republic,  with 
terrorism),  1795  (republic  with  aristocratism),  1799  (republic 
with  absolutism),  1804  (unlimited  military  monarchy),  1814  (lim- 
ited monarchy),  1830  (forms  of  limited  monarchy  with  actual 
absolutism  and  money-aristocracy),  and  1848  (republic  with  ten- 
dency to  monarchical  reaction). 

It  is  evident  that  under  such  circumstances  the  public  finances 
of  "the  country  could  not  prosper.  Shortly  before  the  revolution 
of  1789  the  public  debt  amounted  to  about  4,200  million  livres, 
or  francs;  in  1838  it  had  increased  to  4,590,876,111,  and  at 
present  it  amounts  to  more,  than  five  thousand  million  francs,  not- 
withstanding the  confiscation  of  several  thousand  millions  of 
church,  private,  and  other  property,  in  the  time  of  the  first  revo- 
lution. In  1787  the  deficit  in  the  public  revenue  and  expenditure 
was  180  million  livres,  and  in  1846  the  deficit  amounted  to 
421,462,992  francs!  In  1788  the  ratio  in  tax-paying  of  the 
French  people  fell  short  of  22  livres  per  head,  and  in  1846  this 
ratio  had  increased  to  almost  79  francs.  None  of  the  French 
rulers  since  the  first  revolution  has  extorted  more  money  from  the 
people  than  Louis  Philipe.  In  the  year  anterior  to  the  revolution 
of  1830  the  amount  of  the  public  expenditure  was  977,935,329, 
and  in  the  year  posterior  to  this  revolution  it  was  1,233,000,000 
francs;  in  1832  it  was  still  more,  and  so  it  increased  in  Tegular 
progression  until  in  1846  it  had  reached  the  height  of  1,727,999,- 
673  francs!  In  1829  the  public  revenue  and  expenditure  had 
yielded  a  surplus  of  1,180,382  francs,  and  every  year  posterior  to 
the  revolution  of  1830  brought  ^deficit,  which  in  1843  amounted 
to  39,826,728  francs,  in  1844  to  about  157,750,000,  in  the  follow- 
ing year  to  350,000,000,  and  in  1846  to  421,462,992  francs! 
We  repeat,  it  was  not  the  amount  of  the  public  debt,  nor  the 
public  expenditure,  but  a  real  and  plain  deficit.  Neither  the  public 
debt  nor  the  expenditure  were  affected  by  such  a  trifle,  the  former 

8* 


178  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Finances,  Army  and  Navy  of  France. 

requiring  at  the  same  period  nearly  375  million  francs  for  pay- 
ing interest,  and  the  latter  amounting  (as  has  been  stated  above) 
to  nearly  1,728  million  francs.  In  short,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1846  the  account  stood  exactly  thus : 

Interest  of  the  public  debt, 374,845,536  francs. 

Other  branches  of  the  expenditure, 1,353,151,137  " 

The  deficit  of  the  last  year, 421,462,992  " 

Arrears  of  the  former  deficits, 293,560,267  " 

Extraordinary  loan  contracted  by  the  government,  to 
make  head  against  temporary  embarrassments,  and 

for  which  public  forests  were  mortgaged, 350,000,000  " 

Total  amount, 2,793,019,932  francs. 

Divide  this  enormous  sum  by  the  population  of  France,  then 
amounting  to  about  35.400,000  inhabitants,  and  it  will  be  found 
that  each  inhabitant  had  to  contribute  almost  79  francs.  The 
revolution  of  1848  has  anew  increased  the  public  expenditure, 
and  in   1849  a  fresh  loan  of  200  million  francs  was  required. 

The  French  army  comprised  in  1846,  according  to  official 
statements,  340,000  men,  and  81,669  horses;  and  the  navy  con- 
sisted in  1845  of  23  ships  of  the  line,  30  frigates,  22  sloops  of 
war,  154  other  vessels,  4  steam  frigates,  and  41  other  steam 
vessels,  all  in  active  service ;  while  23  ships  of  the  line,  20  frigates, 
3  sloops  of  war,  and  2  schooners,  were  in  the  navy  yards,  and  4 
steam  frigates,  and  18  other  steam  vessels,  still  on  the  stocks. 

The  monarchy  having  been  again  abolished,  honorary  orders 
are  of  course  out  of  question,  at  least  for  the  present ;  the  more 
so  as  since  the  revolution  of  1830  only  the  order  of  the  legion  of 
honor  (instituted  in  1 802  by  Bonaparte)  was  retained  and  distrib- 
uted by  Louis  Philipe  in  such  an  immense  number  (more  than 
50,000),  that  it  was  almost  degraded  to  disdain.     The  former 


FRANCE.  179 


History— The  Capet  Dynasty. 


orders  of  honor,  distributed  before  the  revolution  of  1789,  and  in 
the  period  from  1814  to  1830,  were  the  following: — 1.  The  order 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  instituted  by  King  Henry  III.,  in  1579.  2.  The 
order  of  St.  Louis  (instituted  by  Louis  XIV.,  in  1693,  for  Catholic 
officers  of  the  army  and  navy).  3.  The  oidcr  of  St.  Michael 
(instituted  by  Louis  XL,  in  1469,  and  renewed  in  1665).  4.  The 
order  of  Military  Merit  (instituted  by  Louis  XV.,  in  1759,  for 
protestant  officers). 

History. — The  aborigines  of  the  country  were  the  Iberians,  and  subsequently 
the  Celts  (see  Introduction,  or  General  View  of  Europe,  §  12),  by  the  Romans 
called  Gauls.  The  country  itself  was  then,  and  until  the  5th  century,  only 
known  by  the  name  of  Gaul.  In  the  period  from  the  year  124  to  50  B.  G, 
the  Romans  subjected  the  whole  country.  The  changes  brought  on  since  the 
beginning  of  the  5  th  century,  by  German  tribes,  especially  by  the  Franks, 
have  been  related  in  the  History  of  Europe  (§§  3,  8,  and  14),  where  we  have 
learned  that  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Verdun  in  843,  Charles  the  Bald 
acquired  France.  He  died  in  81*7,  and  his  descendants  and  successors  being 
weak  kings,  the  race  of  the  French  Carlovingians  was  towards  the  end  of  the 
10th  century  excluded  from  the  throne,  upon  which  in  987  the  mighty  duke  of 
Francia  (subsequently  called  Isle  de  France,  and  comprising  the  city  of  Paris), 
Hugh  Capet,  was  raised  to  it  by  the  French  barons,  or  vassals  of  the  crown. 
With  him,  the  reign  of  the  Capetingians  commenced  (Louis  Philipe,  as  well 
as  other  members  of  the  House  of  Bourbon,  are  descendants  of  Hugh  Capet). 
Hugh  Capet,  or  as  King,  Hugh  I,  died  in  996,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Robert  I.  (996-1031);  then  followed  in  succession:  Henry  I  (1031-1060), 
Philip  I  (1060-1108),  Louis  VI.  (1108-1137),  Louis  VII.  (1137-1180).  The 
last-named  king  was  succeeded  by  Philip  II,  surnamed  Augustus,  who  reigned 
from  the  year  1180  to  1223,  and  in  this  period  the  wars  between  France  and 
England  commenced.  King  Henry  II.,  of  England,  being  at  the  same  time 
duke  of  Anjou  and  Normandy  by  birth,  acquired  moreover,  by  marriage  and 
inheritance,  Brittany,  Guyenne,  Poitou,  etc.,  and  became  thus  possessed  of  nearly 
the  whole  western  half  of  France.  The  French  king  refusing  to  acknowledge 
the  claims  of  Henry  II.,  the  wars  commenced,  and  lasted,  though  with  many 
intervals,  two  centuries  and  a  half,  without  a  final  success  on  the  part  of  the 
English.     The  successors  of  Philip   II.  were  the  following:  Louis  VIII. 


180  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

House  of  Bourbon— Firat  French  Revolution — Napoleon. 

(1223-1226),  Louis  IX,  surnamed  the  Holy  (1226-1270),  Philip  III.  (1270- 
1285),  Philip  IV,  surnamed  the  Fair  (1285-1314),  and  in  the  short  period 
from  1314  to  1328,  Philip  the  Fair's  sons  Louis  X,  Philip  V,  and  Charles  IV. 
With  the  last-named  king,  the  chief  line  of  the  Capetingians  became  extinct, 
and  now  the  collateral  line  of  the  House  of  Valois  ascended  the  throne  in  the 
person  of  Philip  VI.  (great-grandson  of  King  Louis  IX.,  and  reigning  from 
1328  to  1350).  His  successors  (belonging,  like  him,  to  the  House  of  Valois) 
were  the  following:  John,  surnamed  the  Good  (1350-1364),  Charles  V,  sur- 
named the  Wise  (1364-1380),  Charles  VI.  (1380-1422),  Charles  VII.  (1422- 
1461 ;  at  this  time  lived  the  famous  Maid  of  Orleans,  named  Joan  of  Arc), 
Louis  XI.  (1461-1483),  Charles  VIII  (1483-1498),  Louis  XII.  (1498-1515), 
Francis  I.  (1515-1547),  Henry  II.  (/1547-1559),  Francis  II.  (1559-1560), 
Charles  IX.  (1560-1574;  during  his  reign,  in  1572,  the  horrible  murder  of 
French  Protestants,  in  the  night  of  Saint  Bartholomew's  day,  occurred),  and 
Henry  III.  (1574-1589).  With  Henry  III.,  who  was  murdered  by  a  monk, 
the  House  of  Valois  became  extinct,  and  now  the  House  of  Bourbon  ascended 
the  throne.  The  first  king  from  this  house  (whose  ancestor  was  Robert  of 
Clermont,  second  son  of  King  Louis  IX.)  was  Henry  IV.  (1589-1610),  whose 
father,  Anton  of  Bourbon,  was  married  to  Johanna,  heiress  of  Navarre,  from 
which  cause,  Henry  became  possessed  of  this  kingdom  (i.  e.,  its  part  lying  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Pyrenees)  too,  and  bequeathed  it  to  his  descendants  and 
successors  on  the  French  throne.  Henry  was  murdered  on  the  14th  of  May, 
1610,  by  Ravaillac,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Louis  XIII.  (1610-1643). 
The  following  kings  were :  Louis  XIV.  (1643-1715),  Louis  XV.  (his  great- 
grandson,  1715-1774),  and  Louis  XVI.  (grandson  of  Louis  XV.),  who 
ascended  the  throne  in  1774,  and  was  a  good-natured  and  honest  man,  but 
not  at  all  qualified  for  a  ruler.  Being  of  an  extremely  weak  and  yielding 
temper,  he  made  one  concession  after  the  other  to  the  leaders  of  the  first 
French  revolution  (see  History  of  Europe,  §  18),  and  this  was  the  surest  way, 
first  to  be  deprived  of  his  royal  prerogatives  (on  the  3d  of  September,  1791), 
and  then  of  his  life  on  the  scaffold  (on  the  21st  of  January,  1793).  The  reign 
of  terror  lasted  for  more  than  a  whole  year,  viz.:  from  the  24th  of  July,  1793, 
to  the  28th  of  July,  1794,  and  that  of  the  so-called  Directory  (government  of 
five  members)  from  the  26th  of  October,  1795,  to  the  10th  of  November, 
1799,  when  Bonaparte  attained  the  power,  first  as  Consul,  and  in  1804  as 
Fmperor,bj  the  name  of  Napoleon.  In  1814,  he  was  compelled  by  the  other 
European  powers  to  surrender  the  imperial  crown  of  France,  in  exchange  for 


FRANCE.  181 


Second  and  Third  Revolution— Departments  and  Provinces. 


the  sovereignty  of  the  little  island  of  Elba  (see  page  126),  the  Bourbons  returned 
to  France,  and  Louis  XVIII.  was  established  on  the  French  throne.  In  March, 
1815,  Napoleon  suddenly  landed  on  the  French  coast,  and  in  a  few  days  hi9 
banner  again  waved  triumphant  over  all  France,  but  iu  the  battle  of  Waterloo, 
on  the  18th  of  June,  1815,  he  was  utterly  overthrown,  and  the  Bourbons  returned 
for  a  second  time.  Louis  XVIII.  died  on  the  16th  of  September,  1824,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Charles  X.  By  the  revolution  of  1830,  the  Bourbons 
were  banished  anew  from  the  French  territory,  with  the  exception  of  the 
duke  of  Orleans  (a  descendant  of  Philip  of  Orleans,  brother  of  Louis  XIV.), 
who  by  the  name  of  Louis  Philip  was  proclaimed  king  of  the  French,  but 
experiened  at  last  the  very  same  fate  which  he  had  prepared  to  his  cousin 
and  antecessor,  eighteen  years  before.  By  the  revolution  of  February,  1848, 
he  was  compelled  to  make  his  escape  to  England,  and  the  French  citizen- 
kinghood  was  transformed  into  a  republic 

Before  the  first  French  revolution  France  was  divided  into  as 
many  provinces  (32  great,  and  8  smaller  ones,  which  latter  were, 
except  Corsica,  inclosed  by  the  former),  as  there  had  been  baro- 
nages, or  duchies  and  counties,  in  the  middle  ages.  In  1790  this 
arrangement  was  abolished,  and  the  country  divided  into  86  (at 
first  into  fc3)  departments,  and  their  names  derived  chiefly  from 
the  rivers,  mountains,  and  other  natural  objects  within  their 
limits.  The  departments  are  subdivided  into  districts  (363  in  all), 
the  latter  into  cantons  (2,846),  and  the  cantons  again  into  commu- 
nities (37,295  in  all).  Each  department  is  governed  by  a  prefect, 
each  district  by  an  under-prefect,  and  each  canton  and  commu- 
nity by  a  mayor.  But  as  the  names  of  the  provinces  have  all 
since  continued  to  be  used  in  commou  life,  and  as  they  moreover 
continually  occur  in  history  and  other  reading,  we  have  retained 
them  in  the  following  description,  and  combined  them  at  the 
same  time  with  the  departmental  division,  in  a  manner  that  it 
easily  can  be  found  out  which  and  how  many  departments  each 
province  comprises.  The  chief  towns  of  departments  are  marked 
by  a  cross  (-J-). 


182  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  French  Province  Of  Isle  de  France. 

I.  Isle  de  France. — This  province,  once  called  Francia  (see  History  of 
France),  and  subsequently  Isle  de  France,  or  Island  of  France,  on  account  of 
its  insular  situation  amidst  the  rivers  of  Seine,  Marne,  Oise,  etc.,  comprises  5 
departments,  viz. :  the  Aisne  Department  (part  of  which  belongs  to  Picardy  ; 
its  chief  town  is  Laon),  the  Oise  Department  (chief  town  Beauvais),  the  Seine 
and  Oise  Department  (chief  town  Versailles),  the  Seine  Department  (with 
Paris),  and  the  Seine  and  Marne  Department  (chief  town  Melun).  1.  The 
Seine  Department  contains :  -(-Paris,  the  capital  of  all  France,  on  the  Seine, 
165  miles  south-south-west  of  Brussels,  with  a  population  of  1,053,907  inhab- 
itants, according  to  the  census  of  1846.  It  embraces  (beside  14  suburbs) 
three  parts,  called  ville,  cite,  and  university.  The  ville  is  situated  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Seine,  the  cite  (city  proper)  on  the  islands  of  the  river,  and 
the  university  on  the  south  side  of  the  Seine.  Paris  is  next  to  London  the 
first  city  in  Europe  for  size ;  and  its  numerous  public  buildings  and  palaces 
generally  excel  those  of  the  British  capital.  It  contains  about  30,000  houses 
(many  of  which  are  eight  stories  high),  1,150  streets,  75  public  places  (among 
which  are,  the  place  of  Vendome  with  the  statue  of  Napoleon  on  a  column  133 
feet  high ;  the  place  of  Concord,  formerly  called  place  of  Louis  XV.,  where 
Louis  XVI.  was  executed,  and  which  is  at  present  adorned  by  an  obelisk 
from  Luxor,  and  the  place  of  Victory,  with  an  equestrian  statue  of  Louis 
XIV.),  22  bridges  (among  which  the  Pont  Neuf,  1,020  feet  long  and  72  feet 
wide,  with  an  equestrian  statue  of  Henry  IV.),  41  churches  (the  most  remark- 
able of  which  is  the  Gothic  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame),  25  hospitals,  84  bar- 
racks, 24  theatres,  and  8  former  royal  palaces.  The  most  prominent  among 
these  palaces  are  the  Tuileries  (reared  in  1564  and  the  following  years  by 
Queen  Catharine  of  Medici),  connected  by  side-wings  with  the  Louvre  (founded 
in  1528  by  Francis  1.),  and  the  Palais  Royal  (reared  by  the  cardinal  Riche- 
lieu in  the  years  1629-1636,  presented  by  him  to  Louis  XIII.,  and  subse- 
quently by  Louis  XIV.  to  his  brother  Philip  of  Orleans,  who  bequeathed  it 
to  his  descendants).  Other  remarkable  public  buildings  are :  the  palace  of 
Luxembourg  (founded  in  1612  by  Queen  Mary  of  Medici,  widow  of  Henry  IV.), 
the  Hotel  of  Invalids  (since  1840  containing  the  mortal  remains  of  Napoleon), 
the  palace  of  Justice  (reared  in  the  9th  century,  and  until  1431  the  royal 
residence),  the  Hotel  Dieu,  the  Salpetriere  (containing  4,000  tenants),  etc. 
The  most  remarkable  of  the  public  gardens  is  the  Jardin  des  plantes,  or 
botanic  garden,  with  7,000  exotic  plants  and  a  menagery.  Paris  is  also  noted 
for  the  value  of  its  public  libraries  (43  in  all,  and  the  principal  public  library 


FRANCE.  183 


The  Province  of  Isle  de  France. 


contains  700,000  volumes,  and  70,000  manuscripts),  collections  of  pictures,  etc., 
and  literary  institutions  ;  and  moreover  for  its  numerous  and  various  manu- 
factures. Its  inland  trade  is  very  important.  Paris  was  founded  already 
before  the  Christian  era,  but  then  known  only  by  the  name  of  Lntetia  ;  it 
was  burnt  down  by  the  Parisians,  a  Celtic  tribe,  but  built  up  again  by  the 
Romans,  and  since  that  time  the  name  of  Paris  came  into  use.  The  kings  of 
the  race  of  the  Merovingians  and  Carlovingians  resided  here  only  at  times, 
but  the  Capetingians  permanently,  except  in  the  period  from  1672  to  1790, 
during  which  the  kings  of  France  resided  at  Versailles.  Louis  Philipe  used  to 
reside  during  the  summer  season  in  his  palace  at  Neuilly,  a  town  with  3,000 
inhabitants.  St.  Denis,  a  town  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine,  with  9,500 
inhabitants,  and  a  formerly  renowned  Benedictine  abbey  (founded  in  the  year 
600  by  King  Clotar  II.),  in  whose  magnificent  church  is  the  sepulchre  of  the 
royal  family  of  France,  the  mortal  remains  of  26  kings  of  France,  16  queens, 
and  83  princes  and  princesses  having  been  deposited  there.  Other  towns  of 
this  department  are  :  Passy  (with  3,100  inhabitants),  Vincennes  (with  5,000  in- 
habitants, and  a  renowned  castle,  reared  in  1337  by  Philip  of  Valois),  Cka- 
renton  (near  the  junction  of  the  Marne  with  the  Seine,  with  a  mad-house, 
and  1,500  inhabitants),  Sceaux  (with  important  cattle  fairs,  and  1,800  inhabi- 
tants), and  Bourg  la  Reine  (with  a  manufactory  of  porcelain).  2.  The  Seine 
and  Oise  Department  contains :  -f- Versailles,  chief  town,  9  miles  west-south- 
west of  Versailles,  with  30,000  (before  the  revolution  of  1789  with  nearly 
100,000)  inhabitants,  and  a  vast  palace  (1.800  feet  long),  reared  by  Louis 
XIV.,  and  the  splendid  royal  residence  in  the  period  1672-1790,  with  a 
highly  remarkable  park  and  water-works.  About  4  miles  distant  from  here 
is  Marly,  a  town  on  the  Seine,  with  1,500  inhabitants,  and  a  former  royal 
palace.  Within  the  limits  of  the  park  of  Versailles  is  situated  St.  Cyr, 
formerly  a  convent  of  Austin  nuns,  instituted  in  1686  by  Madame  de  Mainte- 
non  (married  to  Louis  XIV.  with  the  left  hand),  at  present  a  military  acad- 
emy. Not  far  from  here  are  the  former  royal  palaces  of  Great  and  Little 
Trianon.  St.  Germain,  surnamed  en  Laye,  a  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Seine,  opposite  St.  Denys,  with  11,000  inhabitants,  and  a  great  former  royal 
palace,  reared  by  King  Francis  I.,  and  in  which  Henry  II.,  Charles  IX.,  and 
Louis  XIV.  were  born,  and  where  James  II.  of  England  lived  until  his 
death.  St.  Cloud,  a  town  on  the  Seine,  opposite  the  Bois  de  Boulogne 
(which  is  connected  with  the  garden  of  the  Tuileries  at  Paris),  with  3,000 
inhabitants,  and  a  former  royal  palace,  in  which  Henry  III.  was  murdered. 


184  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  French  Province  of  Isle  de  France. 

Not  far  from  here  are  Sevres  (a  town  with  4,000  inhabitants,  and  a  celebrated 
manufactory  of  porcelain),  and  Malmaison,  once  the  favorite  palace  of  Napo- 
leon, where  his  consort  Josephine  died  in  1814.  Montmorency,  a  town  in 
the  romantic  valley  of  the  same  name,  with  1,900  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of 
this  department  are :  Rueil  (with  3,000  inhabitants,  and  a  palace,  once  the 
frequent  abode  of  the  cardinal  Richelieu),  Rambouillet  (with  3,200  inhabitants, 
and  a  palace,  where  Francis  I.  died  in  1547),  Pontoise  (with  5,800  inhabi- 
tants), Ecouen  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Argenteuil  (with  5,000  inhabitants), 
Corbeil  (with  3,900  inhabitants),  Mantes  (with  4,400  inhabitants),  Etampes 
(with  8,500  inhabitants),  Meudon  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Poissy  (with  im- 
portant cattle  fairs,  and  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Mereville  (with  the  most 
considerable  fairs  of  the  Department).  3.  The  Seine  and  Marne  Department 
contains :  -(-Melun,  chief  town,  on  the  Seine,  south-eastward  and  28  miles 
distant  from  Paris,  with  a  remarkable  church,  and  7,000  inhabitants.  Fon- 
tainebleau,  a  town  on  the  Seine  and  in  an  extensive  and  beautiful  forrest, 
37  miles  south-south-east  of  Paris,  with  8,800  inhabitants,  and  a  celebrated 
vast  palace,  the  frequent  seat  of  the  last  members  of  the  House  of  Valois, 
and  where  in  1657  Monaldeschi,  equerry  of  the  Swedish  queen  Christiana, 
was  murdered  by  her  command.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are: 
Nemours  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Nangis  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  and  Brie 
sur  Yeres,  or  Brie  Comte  Robert  (with  3,000  inhabitants).  These  three  last- 
named  towns  belong  to  the  ancient  district  of  la  Brie  francoise  (la  Brie  cham- 
penoise  is  within  the  limits  of  Champagne,  and  comprises  the  towns  of 
Meaux,  Provins,  Coulommiers,  and  La  Ferte  sous  Jouarre,  which  in  adminis- 
trative regard  belong  to  the  Seine  and  Marne  Department).  4.  The  Oise 
Department  contains :  -{-Beauvais,  chief  town  on  the  Therain,  eastward  and 
46  miles  distant  from  Rouen,  and  46  miles  north-north-west  of  Paris,  with  a 
remarkable  Gothic  cathedral,  important  manufactures  of  carpets,  cloth,  etc., 
and  14,000  inhabitants.  Compiegne,  a  town  on  the  Oise,  46  miles  north-north- 
east of  Paris,  with  an  ancient  palace  (where  in  former  times  the  royal  court 
used  to  reside  in  the  summer  season),  several  Gothic  churches,  and  9,500  in- 
habitants. Clermont,  surnamed  en  Beauvaisis  (at  present  also  called  Cler- 
mont-Oise),  a  town  eastward  and  13  miles  distant  from  Beauvais,  with  numer- 
ous manufactures,  and  2,000  inhabitants.  Salency,  a  village  on  the  Oise, 
noted  for  its  feast  of  roses,  celebrated  annually  on  the  8th  of  June,  and  insti- 
tuted in  the  5th  century  by  the  holy  Medardus.  Crepy,  or  Crespy  en  Valoist 
a  town  southward  and  13  miles  distant  from  Compiegne,  with  2,300  inhabi- 


FRANCE.  185 


The  Provinces  of  Isle  de  France  and  Normandy. 


tants,  is  noted  for  a  treaty  of  peace,  concluded  here  on  the  18th  of  Septem- 
ber, 1544,  between  Francis  I.  and  the  emperor  Charles  V.  Other  towns  of 
this  department  are :  Senlis  (with  a  beautiful  Gothic  cathedral,  whose  steeple 
is  one  of  the  highest  in  France,  and  5,500  inhabitants),  Chantilly  (with  2,000 
inhabitants,  important  manufactures  of  laces,  etc.,  and  the  remains  of  a  once 
renowned  palace  of  the  princes  of  Conde),  and  Creil  (with  2,000  inhabitants). 
5.  The  Aisne  Department  contains :  -J-Laon,  chief  town,  on  a  hill  and  surrounded 
by  fortifications,  north-eastward  and  74  miles  distant  from  Paris,  with  a  vast 
and  remarkable  cathedral,  and  9,000  inhabitants.  Soissons,  a  town  on  the 
Aisne,  north-eastward  and  60  miles  distant  from  Paris,  with  a  remarkable  ca- 
thedral, and  8,500  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  a  battle  in  486,  in  which  King  Clovis 
I.  defeated  Syagrius,  the  last  Roman  governor  in  France.  Other  towns  of  this 
department  are  :  Chauny  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  La  Ferte  Milon  (with  2,000 
inhabitants),  Craonne  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  and  Crexpy  en  Ldonais  (north- 
eastward and  36  miles  distant  from  Crespy  en  Valois,  with  1,400  inhabitants). 
Premontrc,  formerly  the  chief  convent  of  the  Premonstrants.  Of  the  other 
towns,  belonging  to  this  department,  those  of  St.  Quentin,  La  Fere,  Vervins, 
St.  Gobin,  and  Aubenton,  are  situated  within  the  limits  of  Picardy,  and  Cha- 
teau Thierry  within  the  limits  of  Champagne.  On  the  other  hand  the 
following  towns  of  the  Eure  and  Loir  Department  {see  Orleanais)  are  situated 
within  the  limits  of  Isle  de  France :  Dreux,  a  town  on  the  Blaise,  westward 
and  32  miles  distant  from  Versailles,  with  7,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  a 
battle  in  1562  between  the  Catholics  and  Protestants,  in  which  the  prince  of 
Conde  was  taken  prisoner.  Anet,  a  town  with  1,800  inhabitants,  and  a 
palace  reared  by  King  Henry  II.,  and  inhabited  by  bis  mistress,  Diana  of 
Poitiers. 

II.  Normandy. — This  province,  between  Paris  and  the  English  Channel,  and 
crossed  by  the  Seine,  was  in  911  given  to  the  Normans  in  feoffment  (see 
History  of  Europe,  §  15),  and  reunited  with  the  French  crown  by  King 
Charles  VII.  It  comprises  5  departments,  viz. :  the  Lower  Seine  Department 
(chief  town,  Rouen),  the  Eure  Department  (chief  town,  Evreux),  the  Calvados 
Department  (chief  town,  Caen),  the  Orne  Department  (chief  town,  Alencon), 
and  the  Manche  Department  (chief  town,  St.  Lo).  6.  The  Lower  Seine 
Department  contains :  -f-  Rouen,  ancient  capital  of  Normandy,  on  the  Seine, 
north-westward  and  69  miles  distant  from  Paris,  and  southward  and  115  miles 
distant  from  Calais,  with  a  magnificent  Gothic  cathedral  (where  many  of  the 
dukes  of  Normandy  are  buried),  very  considerable  commerce,  numerous  and 


186  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  French  Province  of  Normandy. 

important  manufactures  of  cotton,  etc.,  and  100,000  inhabitants.  Noted  for 
their  manufactures  are  also  the  neighboring  towns  of  Bolbec  (with  9,000  inhab- 
itants), Caudebec  (with  3.000  inhabitants),  and  Lillebonne  (with  2,100  inhab- 
itants). Elbeuf,  a  town  in  the  vicinity  of  Rouen,  with  11,000  inhabitants,  is 
one  of  the  principal  seats  of  cloth  manufactures.  Havre  (surnamed  de  Grace, 
but  by  the  French  commonly  called  Le  Havre),  a  fortified  commercial  city  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  may  be  eonsidered  as  the  port  of  Paris,  is  the  chief 
seat  of  the  commerce  with  America,  and  has  30,000  inhabitants.  Dieppe,  a 
maritime  town  on  the  English  Channel,  82  miles  south-south-west  of  Calais,  is 
renowned  for  its  sea-baths,  and  has  17,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this 
department  are :  Neufchatel  (with  3,800  inhabitants),  Gournay  (with  3,000 
inhabitants),  Fecamp  (with  9,000  inhabitants),  St.  Valery,  surnamed  en  Caux 
(with  5,500  inhabitants),  Ailly  (with  1,800  inhabitants),.^  (with  4,000  inhab- 
itants, and  a  former  royal  palace),  Treport  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Aumale 
(with  2,260  inhabitants,  and  mineral  springs),  Yvetot  (with  renowned  linen 
manufactures,  and  10,000  inhabitants),  Harfleur  (with  2,300  inhabitants),  and 
Montivilliers  (with  4,000  inhabitants).  7.  The  Eure  Department  contains : 
~\-  Evreux,  chief  town  on  the  Iton,  southward  and  27  miles  distant  from 
Rouen,  with  a  beautiful  Gothic  cathedral  (whose  steeple  is  252  feet  in  height), 
and  13,000  inhabitants.  In  its  vicinity  is  situated  the  palace  of  Navarre, 
reared  in  1686  by  a  duke  of  Bouillon,  and  inhabited  by  the  Empress  Josephine 
in  the  period  from  1810  to  1813.  Louviers,  a  town  on  the  Eure,  and  one  of 
the  principal  seats  of  cloth  manufactures,  with  a  magnificent  cathedral,  and 
11,000  inhabitants.  Quilleboeuf,  a  maritime  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Seine,  opposite  to  Havre,  is  to  be  considered  as  the  port  of  Rouen,  and  has 
1,500  inhabitants.  Ivry,  a  town  on  the  Eure,  with  1,500  inhabitants,  is  noted 
for  the  victory  Henry  IV.  obtained  over  the  Liguists,  or  Catholics,  on  the  14th 
of  March,  1590.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  Conches  (with  2,000 
inhabitants),  Rugles  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Verneuil  (with  renowned  pot- 
teries, and  4,600  inhabitants),  Vernon  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  Les  Andelys 
(with  5,500  inhabitants),  Pont  Audemer  (with  5,800  inhabitants),  and  Bernay 
(with  important  horse-marts,  and  8,000  inhabitants).  8.  The  Calvados  Depart- 
ment contains :  -j-  Caen,  chief  town  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orne,  with  lace 
manufactures,  a  church  containing  the  mortal  remains  of  William  the  Con- 
queror, and  43,000  inhabitants.  Courseule,  a  village  on  the  English  Channel, 
is  noted  for  its  oysters,  of  which  about  1,000,000  are  sent  every  week  to  Paris. 
Honfleur,  a  maritime  town  on  the  south  side  of  the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  oppo- 


FRANCE.  187 


The  Provinces  of  .Normandy  and  Picardy. 


site  to  Harfleur  and  Havre,  with  11,000  inhabitants,  many  of  whom  are 
engaged  in  whale  and  cod-fishery.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are: 
Pont  PEveqtie  (with  2,300  inhabitants),  Vire  (with  8,500  inhabitants),  Condi 
sur  Noireau  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Bayeux  (with  a  remarkable  cathedral, 
and  11,000  inhabitants),  Isigny  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Lisieux  (with  impor- 
tant linen  and  cloth  manufactures,  and  12,500  inhabitants),  and  Falaise  (with 
10,000  inhabitants,  renowned  dyeries  and  hosieries,  the  remains  of  an  ancient 
castle  where  William  the  Conqueror  was  born  in  1027,  and  celebrated  fairs  in 
its  suburb  Ghiibray).  9.  The  Manche  Department  contains:  St.  L6,  chief 
town  on  the  Vire,  westward  and  32  miles  distant  from  Caen,  with  important 
manufactures  of  coarse  woollens,  two  beautiful  and  remarkable  churches,  and 
9,500  inhabitants.  Cherbourg,  a  fortified  maritime  town  and  naval  depot  on 
the  English  Channel,  is  famous  for  its  breakwater  and  docks,  and  has  a  popu- 
lation of  20,500  inhabitants.  On  the  18th  of  August,  1830,  Charles  X.  em- 
barked here  with  his  family  for  England.  Westward  and  23  miles  distant 
from  here  is  Cape  La  Ilogue,  noted  for  the  naval  battle  in  1692,  between  the 
French  and  British.  Mont  St.  Michel,  a  strongly  fortified  town  on  a  promon- 
tory, which  twice  daily  is  separated  from  the  continent  by  the  tide,  with  a 
castle,  where  state-prisoners  are  confined,  and  with  Gothic  chapels  belonging 
to  a  Benedictine  abbey,  instituted  in  966.  Other  towns  of  this  department 
are:  Coutances  (with  one  of  the  finest  cathedrals  in  France,  and  9,500  inhab- 
itants), Valogne  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  Moriain  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
Granville  (with  8,500  inhabitants),  Avranches  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  and 
Villedieu  les  Poeles  (with  3,000  inhabitants).  10.  The  Orne  Department 
contains :  -j-  Alen^on,  chief  town  on  the  Sarthe,  110  miles  west-south-west  of 
Paris,  with  various  manufactures,  and  15,000  inhabitants.  The  manufacturing 
of  lace,  straw  hats,  and  crystal  wares,  for  which  Alencon  formerly  was 
renowned,  are  at  present  almost  left  oft  Other  towns  of  this  department  are : 
Seez  (with  a  beautiful  cathedral,  and  5,800  inhabitants),  Argentan  (with  6,500 
inhabitants),  Vimoutiers  (chief  seat  of  linen  manufactures,  with  4,000  inhabi- 
tants), L'Aigle  (with  needle  manufactures,  and  6,000  inhabitants),  Tinchebray 
with  3,500  inliabitants),  and  Domfront  (with  2,600  inhabitants).  The  towns 
of  Mortagne,  La  Trappe,  etc.,  belonging  to  this  department,  are  situated  within 
the  limits  of  Perche  (see  province  XVIII.). 

III.  Picardy. — This  province,  on  the  north  side  of  Normandy  and  Isle  de 
France,  and  bordering  upon  the  English  Channel  between  Dieppe  and  Calais, 
was  since  the  year  823  ruled  by  mighty  counts,  who,  however,  continued  to 


188  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  French  Province  of  Picardy. 

be  more  or  less  dependent  on  the  French  crown.  Out  of  its  chief  territory- 
has  been  formed  the  Somme  Department,  yet  being  of  far  greater  extent,  the 
province  of  Picardy  comprises  also  parts  of  the  Pas  de  Calais  and  Aisne 
Departments.  11.  The  Somme  Department  contains:  -f- Amiens,  the  fortified 
ancient  capital  of  Picardy,  on  the  Somme,  northward  and  73  miles  distant 
from  Paris,  with  a  cathedral  considered  as  a  masterpiece  of  Gothic  architec- 
ture, important  manufactures  of  velvet,  carpets,  etc.,  considerable  inland  trade, 
and  48,000  inhabitants.  Treaty  of  peace  concluded  here  between  France  and 
Great  Britain,  on_the  25th  of  March,  1802.  Abbeville,  a  fortified  town  on 
the  Somme,  with  velvet,  cloth,  and  other  manufactures,  considerable  trade, 
and  19,500  inhabitants.  Peeonne,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Somme,  on  the 
high  road  between  Valenciennes  and  Paris,  with  a  remarkable  old  castle  (in 
which  Charles  the  Simple  was  kept  prisoner  and  died  in  929,  and  where  also 
Louis  XL  was  confined  for  three  days  by  Charles  of  Burgundy,  in  1468),  and 
4,200  inhabitants.  Crecy,  or  Cressy,  a  town,  with  1,600  inhabitants,  is  noted 
for  the  battle  of  the  26th  of  August,  1346,  in  w7hich  Philip  of  Valois  was 
defeated  by  King  Edward  III.  of  England.  Ham,  a  town  on  the  Somme,  with 
an  ancient  strong  castle,  whose  walls  are  36  feet  thick,  and  where,  among 
other  state-prisoners,  Polignac  and  his  fellow-ministers,  Louis  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, etc.,  were  confined.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  Conti  (from 
which  Bourbon  princes  of  a  collateral  fine  derived  their  title),  Doullens  (with 
4,000  inhabitants),  St.  Valery  (north-eastward  and  42  miles  distant  from  St. 
Valery  en  Caux,  with  3,500  inhabitants,  and  a  harbor  where  William  the 
Conqueror  embarked  for  England  in  1066),  Rue  (with  1,600  inhabitants), 
Crotoy  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  .4  w/£  (with  1,400  inhabitants),  and  Montdidier 
(with  4,000  inhabitants).  Of  the  towns  belonging  to  the  Aisne  Department 
(see  Isle  de  France)  are  situated  within  the  limits  of  Picardy  the  following : 
St.  Quentin,  a  fortified  city  on  the  Somme,  eastward  and  37  miles  distant 
from  Amiens,  with  important  manufactures  of  laces,  shawls,  etc.,  and  20,000 
inhabitants.  Battle  in  1557  between  the  Spaniards  and  French.  St.  Gobain, 
a  town,  with  2,000  inhabitants,  is  renowned  for  its  looking-glass  manufactory 
which  makes  plate-glasses  of  more  than  150  inches  in  height,  and  more  than 
90  inches  wide.  La  Fere,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Oise,  with  an  artillery 
school,  and  3,000  inhabitants.  Vervins  (noted  for  a  treaty  of  peace  concluded 
here  in  1598,  between  France  and  Spain)  and  Aubenton,  towns,  with  respect- 
ively 3,000  and  1,500  inhabitants.  Of  the  towns  belonging  to  the  Pas  de 
Calais  Department  (see  Artois)  are  situated  within  the  limits  of  Picardy  the 


FRANCE.  189 


. 

The  Provinces  of  I'icaidy,  Artvii,  and   Bouhmniiis. 


following:  Calais,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Strait  of  Dover  (here  about  18  miles 
wide),  with  important  cotton  manufactures,  sea-baths,  and  12,000  inhabitants' 
A  daily  intercourse  with  Dover  is  kept  up  here  by  steam  navigation.  Edward 
III.  of  England  conquered  Calais  in  1346,  and  the  English  since  continued  to 
be  possessed  of  it  until  the  year  1558,  when  the  French  wrested  it  from  them 
again.  Ardres,  a  fortified  town  in  the  midst  of  marshes,  with  2,300  inhabi- 
tants. Near  this  town,  Francis  I.  held  an  interview  with  Henry  VIII.  of 
England,  in  1520.  Montreuil  and  St.  Pierre,  towns,  with  respectively  4,100 
and  7,000  inhabitants. 

IV.  Artois. — This  province,  comprising  a  tract  of  land  between  Amiens 
and  Lille,  once  formed  part  of  Flanders  and  Hainault,  and  was  in  1180 
brought  in  dowry  by  Isabella  of  Hainault,  to  her  consort  King  Philip  II.  of 
France.  It  comprises  at  present:  12.  The  Pas  de  Calais  Department,  which 
contains :  -j-  Arras,  fortified  ancient  capital  of  Artois,  on  the  Scarpe,  north- 
eastward and  32  miles  distant  from  Amiens,  with  a  strong  citadel,  a  remark- 
able Gothic  cathedral,  manufactures  of  lace,  cotton  goods,  etc.,  and  24,500 
inhabitants.  St.  Omer,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Aa,  south-eastward  and  23 
miles  distant  from  Calais,  with  tobacco  manufactories,  and  20,000  inhabitants. 
Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  St.  Pol  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Bapaume 
(with  3,000  inhabitants),  Bethune  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  Aire  (with  9,000 
inhabitants),  Hesdin  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  Lens  (with  2,300  inhabitants). 
The  village  of  Agincourt  is  noted  for  the  victory  King  Henry  V.  of  England 
obtained  over  the  French,  on  the  25th  of  October,  1415. 

V.  Boulonnais. — It  is  situated  on  the  Strait  of  Dover,  south  of  Calais,  and 
once  formed  part  of  the  ancient  county  of  Flanders,  until  it  was  acquired  by 
Louis  XI.,  who  then  invested  with  it  the  church  of  Our  Lady  at  Boulogne, 
but  considering  himself  as  a  vassal  of  this  church,  he  offered  to  his  feigned 
lady  paramount  a  golden  heart,  6,000  livres  in  value,  in  acknowledgment  of 
her  right  This  ceremony  was  kept  on  by  his  successors  until  the  first  French 
revolution.  At  present  the  former  province  of  Boulonnais  forms  part  of  the 
Pas  de  Calais  Department  (see  above),  and  contains:  Boulogne,  ancient 
capital  of  Boulonnais,  and  a  fortified  maritime  town,  on  the  Strait  of  Dover, 
or  rather  on  the  English  Channel,  23  miles  south-south-west  of  Calais,  with 
frequented  sea-baths,  considerable  fishery,  and  26,500  inhabitants.  Boulogne 
is  the  residence  of  many  English  families.  Etaples,  a  maritime  town  on  the 
English  Channel,  with  1,800  inhabitants,  and  a  harbor,  where  Julius  Caesar 
shall  have  embarked  for  Britannia  in  the  years  55  and  54  B.  C.     At  the  little 


190  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


French  Flanders. 


maritime  town  of  Ambleteuse  it  was,  where  James  II.  landed,  when  he  had 
made  his  escape  from  England. 

VI.  French  Flanders. — This  province,  also  called  the  French  Netherlands, 
because  it  comprises  only  former  Netherlandish  territories,  viz. :  a  great  part 
of  the  ancient  county  of  Flanders,  the  so-called  country  of  Cambresis,  and 
parts  of  Hainault  and  Namur.  At  present  it  comprises  the  whole  Nord 
Department,  and  a  part  of  the  Ardennes  Department.  13.  The  Nord  Depart- 
ment contains :  -j-  Lille  (in  Flemish,  called  Ryssel),  formerly  the  capital  of 
the  province,  on  the  Deule,  northward  and  138  miles  distant  from  Paris,  is 
one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  of  France,  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  cloth, 
linen,  etc.,  and  for  its  trade  in  flowers,  and  has  a  population  of  80,000  inhabi- 
tants. Not  far  from  here  is  the  village  of  Bouvines.  or  Bovines,  noted  for  the 
victory  Philip  II.  obtained  over  the  Emperor  Otho  IV.  and  the  count  of 
Flanders,  in  1214.  Douai,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Scarpe,  with  one  of  the 
greatest  arsenals  in  France,  numerous  manufactures,  and  20,000  inhabitants. 
Gravelines  (in  Flemish,  Gravelingen),  a  fortified  town  on  the  North  Sea,  with 
4,000  inhabitants.  Commines,  a  town  on  the  Lys,  by  which  it  is  divided  into 
two  parts,  the  one  belonging  to  France  (and  having  5,000  inhabitants),  and 
the  other  to  Belgium  (see  Commines,  under  the  head  of  Belgish  West 
Flanders).  Other  towns  of  this  French  part  of  Flanders  are :  Armentieres 
(with  6,000  inhabitants),  Bergues  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Mont-Cassel,  or 
Cassel  (with  4,400  inhabitants),  Hazebrouk  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  Bailleul 
(with  10,000  inhabitants),  Roubaix  (with  16,000  inhabitants),  Tourcoing  (with 
18.000  inhabitants),  St.  Amand  (with  9,500  inhabitants),  and  Mortagne  (with 
4,000  inhabitants).  In  the  former  so-called  country  of  Cambresis  are  situated  : 
Cambrai  (in  Flemish,  Cameryk),  a  fortified  town  on  the  Scheldt,  southward 
and  32  miles  distant  from  Lille,  is  noted  for  its  cambric  manufactures,  and  has 
32,000  inhabitants,  and  a  cathedral  with  the  sepulchre  of  the  celebrated  arch- 
bishop Fenelon.  Chateau-Cambresis,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  country  (or 
county)  of  Cambresis,  south  eastward  and  15  miles  distant  from  Cambrai,  is 
noted  for  its  fine  twisted  thread  for  bone-lace,  and  has  5,000  inhabitants. 
Crevecoeur,  a  town  on  the  Scheldt,  with  1,800  inhabitants.  The  French  part 
of  Hainault  contains :  Valenciennes,  a  strongly  fortified  town  on  the  -Scheldt, 
32  miles  south-south-east  of  Lille,  and  south-westward  and  55  miles  distant 
from  Brussels,  with  renowned  lace  manufactures,  and  21,000  inhabitants.  The 
neighboring  village  of  Anzin  is  noted  for  its  coal-pits,  worked  by  16,000  men. 
Conde,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Scheldt,  with  8,000  inhabitants.     Bouchain 


FRANCE.  191 


French  Flanders  and  the  Province  of  Champagne. 


(with  2,000  inhabitants),  Le  Quesnoy  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Landrecies  (with 
4,000  inhabitants),  Maubeuge  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  and  Avesnes  (with  3,000 
inhabitants),  fortified  towns.  The  village  of  Malplaquet  is  noted  for  the  battle 
in  1709,  between  the  French  and  the  allied  army  under  the  command  of 
Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene ;  and  the  village  of  Denain  for  the  capture  of 
the  important  Austrian  magazines  by  Villars  in  1712,  in  consequence  of  which, 
Prince  Eugene  was  compelled  to  retreat.  Bavay,  a  town,  with  Roman  anti- 
quities, and  2,000  inhabitants.  To  the  former  province  of  French  Flanders 
was  annexed,  since  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  the  little  province  of  Dunkirk,  com- 
prising, beside  some  villages,  the  fortified  maritime  and  commercial  city  of 
Dunkirk,  on  the  North  Sea,  and  at  the  northern  extremity  of  France  (north- 
ward and  580  miles  distant  from  Perpignan,  the  most  southern  town  of 
France),  before  the  first  revolution  with  54,000,  but  at  present  only  with  25,000 
inhabitants.  First  in  1646,  and  then  in  1658,  Dunkirk  was  wrested  from  the 
Spaniards  by  the  French,  who  then  ceded  it  to  the  English,  in  reward  for  their 
assistance  in  this  war.  But  four  years  later,  Charles  II.  sold  it  to  France  for 
5,000,000  livres.  The  French  part  of  the  former  county  of  Namur  comprises 
the  following  towns,  which  are  situated  within  the  limits  of  French  Flanders, 
but  belong  at  present  to  the  Ardennes  Department  (see  Champagne) :  Givet, 
a  fortified  town  on  the  Meuse,  40  miles  east-south-east  of  Valenciennes,  has 
4,000  inhabitants,  and  consists  of  the  three  united  towns  of  Givet  Notre  Dame, 
Givet  St.  Hilaire,  and  Charlemont.  Other  towns  on  the  Meuse  are :  Fumay 
(with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  Revin  (with  2,000  inhabitants). 

VII.  Champagne. — This  province,  situated  between  Isle  de  France  and 
Lorraine,  had  in  the  days  of  the  Carlovingians,  their  proper  dukes,  subse- 
quently counts,  who  ruled  it  until  the  latter  part  of  the  13th  century,  when 
its  only  heiress,  princess  Johanna,  brought  it  in  dowry  to  her  consort,  Philip 
IV,  or  the  Fair,  in  1284,  together  with  that  part  of  it  which  was  called 
Brie.  Champagne  comprises  at  present  4  departments,  viz. :  the  Aube  De- 
partment (chief  town,  Troyes),  the  Marne  Department  (chief  town,  Chalons), 
the  Upper  Marne  Department  (chief  town,  Chaumont),  and  the  Ardennes 
Department  (chief  town,  Mezieres).  Beside  these,  parts  of  the  Seine  and 
Marne,  Meuse  and  Aisne  departments  are  within  its  limits.  14.  The  Aube 
Department  contains :  -["Troyes,  ancient  capital  of  Champagne,  on  the  Seine, 
83  miles  east-south-east  of  Paris,  with  a  magnificent  Gothic  cathedral,  numer- 
ous cotton  manufactures,  and  26,500  inhabitants.  Arcis  sur  Aube  and  Bar 
stir  Aube,  towns  on  the  Aube,  with  respectively  3,000  and  4,200  inhabitants. 


192  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  French  Province  oi'  Champagne. 

Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  Nogent  sur  Seine  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
Font  sur  Seine  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Brienne  (formerly  with  a  military 
academy  where  Napoleon  was  educated,  and  with  3,500  inhabitants),  Riceys 
(with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  Clairvaux  (formerly  the  seat  of  a  renowned 
abbey  of  the  Cistercians,  whose  abbot  the  holy  Bernard  was  from  1115  to  1153). 
15.  The  Marne  Department  contains:  -(-Chalons  sur  Marne,  chief  town,  on 
the  Marne,  eastward  and  92  miles  distant  from  Paris,  and  northward  and  1-47 
miles  distant  from  Chalons  sur  Saone,  with  a  great  cathedral,  and  13,500  in- 
habitants. By  the  Romans  Chalons  was  called  Catalaunum,  hence  the  name 
of  the  neighboring  Catalaunian  Fields,  where  Attila,  king  of  the  Huns,  was 
defeated  in  451.  Rheims,  a  city  situated  north-eastward  and  83  miles 
distant  from  Paris,  is  noted  for  its  splendid  cathedral  (in  which  the  kings  of 
France  were  formerly  crowned,  for  the  last  time  in  1825),  and  for  its  consid- 
erable wine-trade,  and  has  40,000  inhabitants.  Sillery,  a  village,  and  Ai,  a 
town  with  3,000  inhabitants,  are  noted  for  their  culture  of  the  vine.  The 
chief  seat  of  the  trade  in  wines  of  Champagne  is  Epernay,  a  town  on  the 
Marne,  southward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Rheims,  with  5,800  inhabitants. 
St.  Menehould,  a  town  on  the  Aisne,  with  4,200  inhabitants.  Here  it  was 
where  Louis  XVI.  on  his  flight  from  Paris  was  discovered  by  the  postmaster 
Diouet,  on  the  22d  of  June,  1791,  and  upon  this  apprehended  on  the  next 
stage  at  Varennes  (in  Lorraine),  and  recouveyed  to  Paris.  Other  towns  of 
this  department  are :  Chatillon  sur  Marne  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  La  Fere 
Champenoise  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Vitry  le  Francais  (with  7,500  inhabi- 
tants), and  Vienne  le  Chateau  (with  1,800  inhabitants).  (About  Montmirail 
in  this  department,  see  below  under  the  head  oi  Brie.)  16.  The  Upper 
Marne  Department  contains :  -j-Chaumont,  fortified  chief  town,  eastward  and 
46  miles  distant  from  Troyes,  with  iron-works  and  6,800  inhabitants.  Nogent 
le  Roy,  a  town  on  the  Treire,  184  miles  east-south-east  of  Nogent  le  Roy  in 
Orleanais,  is  renowned  for  its  cutleries,  and  has  2,800  inhabitants.  Bour- 
bonne  les  Bains,  a  town  renowned  for  its  mineral  baths,  has  3,700  inhabi- 
tants. Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  Langres  (with  a  magnificent 
cathedral,  renowned  manufactures  of  cutleries,  considerable  trade  in  mill- 
stones, and  8,000  inhabitants).  Vassy  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  St.  Dizicr 
(with  6,000  inhabitants),  and  Joinville  (with  3,200  inhabitants).  17.  The 
Ardennes  Department  contains:  -j- Mezieres,  fortified  chief  town,  on  the 
Meuse,  westward  and  92  miles  distant  from  Treves,  and  southward  and  83 
miles  distant  from  Brussels,  with  4,400  inhabitants.     On  the  opposite  bank 


FRANCE.  193 


The  Province  of  Champagne  and  Lorraine, 


of  the  Meuse  is  situated  the  town  of  Charleville,  with  a  manufactory  of  fire- 
arms, and  8,500  inhabitants.  Sedan,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Meuse  and  near 
the  frontier  of  Belgium,  is  renowned  for  its  cloth  manufactures,  has  a  popula- 
tion of  14,500  inhabitants,  and  was  formerly  the  capital  of  a  principality, 
belonging  to  the  dukes  of  Bouillon,  who  in  1624  ceded  it  to  France.  Other 
towns  of  this  department  are :  Chene  le  populeuz  (with  1,000  inhabitants), 
Rethel  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  Rocroy  (with  3,700  inhabitants),  Grandpre 
(with  1,600  inhabitants),  Vouziers  (with  2,300  inhabitants),  Mouzon  (with  2,400 
inhabitants),  and  Chateau  Regnaud  (with  1,800  inhabitants).  (About  Givet, 
Fumay,  and  Bevin,  belonging  to  the  Ardennes  Department  likewise,  see 
French  Flanders,  towards  the  end.)  Beside  the  above-stated  places,  the 
following,  which  belong  to  several  other  departments,  are  situated  also  within 
the  limits  of  Champagne:  Bray  sua  Seine  (with  2,300  inhabitants),  and 
Montekeau  fault  Yonne  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  towns  belonging  to  the 
Seine  and  Marne  Department  (see  Isle  de  France) ;  Domremy  (village  and 
birth-place  of  Joan  d'Arc,  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  born  here  in  1411),  belonging 
to  the  Vosges  Department  (see  Lorraine) ;  Vaucoulburs,  a  town  on  the 
Meuse,  with  5,500  inhabitants,  belonging  to  the  Meuse  Department  (see  Lor- 
raine) ;  Sens  (on  the  Yonne,  with  a  splendid  Gothic  cathedral  and  9,400  in- 
habitants), Joigny  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Ton.ne.re  (with  4,000  inhabitants), 
Chablis  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Villeneuve  le  Roy  (with  5,500  inhabitants), 
Villeneuve  VArcheveque  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  St.  Florentin  (with 
3,000  inhabitants),  towns  belonging  to  the  Yonne  Department  (see  Burgundy). 
That  part  of  Champagne,  which  is  called  Brie  (about  Brie  francoise,  see 
under  the  head  of  Isle  de  France),  or  rather  Brie  champcnoise,  comprises  the 
following  towns :  Meaux  (ancient  capital  of  Brie  in  general,  on  the  Marne, 
with  a  beautiful  Gothic  cathedral,  and  9,000  inhabitants),  Proving  (with  6,500 
inhabitants),  La  Ferte  sous  Jouarre  (with  4,300  inhabitants),  and  Coulommiers 
(with  4,000  inhabitants),  all  four  belonging  to  the  Seine  and  Marne  Depart- 
ment (see  Isle  de  France) ;  Chateau  Thierry  (a  town  on  the  Marne,  46  miles 
east-north-east  of  Paris,  with  5,000  inhabitants),  belonging  to  the  Aime  De- 
partment (see  Isle  de  France) ;  Montmirail  (a  town  on  the  Morin,  eastward 
and  54  miles  distant  from  Paris,  with  considerable  trade  in  millstones,  and 
2,300  inhabitants),  and  Sezanne  (a  town  on  the  Auge,  with  4,500  inhabitants), 
belonging  to  the  Marne  Department  (see  above). 

VIII.  Lorraine. — This  province,  situated  between  Champagne  and  Alsace, 
>n  the  north  bordered  by  Germany,  formed  a  constituent  part  of  that  tract 

9 


194  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 


The  French  Province  of  Lorraine. 


of  land,  which  by  the  treaty  of  Verdun  in  813  (see  History  of  Europe,  §  14) 
fell  to  the  share  of  Lothar  ;  but  was  at  that  time  of  far  greater  extent  than 
sit  present,  stretching  from  the  Vosges  Mountains  in  a  north-westerly  direc-. 
tion  down  to  the  shores  of  the  North  Sea.  In  954  it  was  divided  into  Upper 
and  Lower  Lorraine,  out  of  which  latter,  comprising  the  Netherlands,  Belgium, 
and  Holland,  including  Luxemburg,  arose  in  the  course  of  time  more  or  less 
independent  duchies  and  counties,  at  last  reunited  under  the  sway  of  the  dukes 
of  Burgundy.  On  the  other  hand  Upper  Lorraine  continued  to  be  a  German 
duchy,  whose  last  duke  was  Francis  Stephen,  who  married  the  renowned 
Austrian  archi-duchess,  Mary  Therese  (daughter  of  the  German  emperor 
Charles  VI.),  and  was  subsequently  elected  emperor  by  the  name  of  Francis  I. 
The  king  of  France,  Louis  XV.,  was  married  to  the  daughter  of  Stanislaus 
Leczinski,  who  had  been  king  of  Poland  in  the  period  from  1704  to  1710. 
Thus,  when  King  Augustus  II.  of  Poland  died  in  1733,  France  supported  the 
claims  of  Stanislaus  Leczinski  upon  the  Polish  throne  by  armed  force,  while 
Austria  conjointly  with  Russia  supported  the  claims  of  Augustus  III.  (son  of 
Augustus  II.).  At  last  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  on  the  3d  of  October, 
1735,  according  to  which  Francis  Stephen,  duke  of  Lorraine,  should  become 
sovereign  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Tuscany  after  the  death  of  John  Gasto,  the 
last  descendant  of  the  Medici  (see  History  of  Tuscany),  and  on  the  other 
hand  Stanislaus  Leczinski  should  then  succeed  in  Lorraine.  In  1737  John 
Gasto  died  and  was  succeeded  by  Francis  Stephen,  while  Stanislaus  Leczinski 
became  sovereign  of  Lorraine  and  Bar  (the  official  name  of  the  duchy).  He 
died  in  1766,  and  his  duchy  (considered  as  an  inheritance  of  his  daughter,  the 
queen  of  France)  was  now  annexed  to  France,  in  conformity  to  the  stipulations 
of  the  above-mentioned  treaty.  Lorraine  comprises  at  present  4  depart- 
ments, viz. :  the  Meurthe  Department  (chief  town,  Nancy),  the  Vosges  Depart- 
ment (chief  town,  Epinal),  the  Meuse  Department  (chief  town,  Bar  le  Due), 
and  the  Moselle  Department  (chief  town,  Metz).  18.  The  Meurthe  Depart- 
ment contains :  -{-Nancy,  ancient  capital  of  Lorraine,  near  the  Meurthe,  west- 
ward and  74  miles  distant  from  Strasburg,  and  southward  and  74  miles  dis- 
tant from  Luxemburg,  is  one  of  the  finest  and  most  regularly  built  cities  of 
France,  was  until  1690  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Lorraine,  and  has '32,500 
inhabitants.  Nancy  is  also  noted  for  the  battle  of  1477,  in  which  Charles  the 
Temerarious  of  Burgundy  was  killed.  Luneville,  a  town  on  the  Meurthe, 
south-eastward  and  16  miles  distant  from  Nancy,  with  a  magnificent  palace 
(the  residence  of  the  ancient  dukes  of  Lorraine  in  the   period  from  1690  to 


FRANCE.  195 


The  Province  of  Lorraine. 


1766,  but  at  present  transformed  into  a  military  barrack),  and  13,500  inhabi- 
tants. Luneville  is  noted  for  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  here  on  the  9th 
of  February,  1801,  between  France  and  the  German  empire.  Saarburg  (in 
French,  Sarrebourg),  a  town  on  the  Saar,  37  miles  west-north-west  of  Stras- 
burg,  with  2,500  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  Pont  a, 
Mousson  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  Gondreville  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Nico- 
las de  Port  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  St.  Malzeville  (with  4,000  inhabitants), 
Rosieres  aux  Salines  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Chateau  Salins  (with  3,000 
inhabitants),  Dieuze  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Vic  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
Moyenvic  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  and  Baccarat  (noted  for  its  crystal-glass 
manufactures,  with  3,000  inhabitants).  The  villages  of  St.  Quirin  and  Cirey 
are  also  noted  for  their  crystal  and  plate-glass  manufactures.  (About  the  towns 
of  Pfalzburg  and  Toul,  within  this  department,  see  below.)  19.  The  Vosges 
Department  contains :  -]-Epinal,  chief  town  on  the  Moselle,  37  miles  south-south- 
east of  Nancy,  with  10,000  inhabitants.  The  neighboring  village  of  Archettes  is 
noted  for  its  paper  manufactures.  Plombieres,  a  town  in  the  Vosges  Mountains, 
is  noted  for  its  warm  baths  and  hardware  manufactures,  and  has  1,500  inhab- 
itants. Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  St.  Die  (with  8,200  inhabitants), 
Rambervillers  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Remiremont  (with  5,200  inhabitants), 
Gerardmer  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Mirecourt  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  and 
Neufchateau  (with  4.000  inhabitants).  About  the  village  of  Domremy,  birth- 
place of  Joan  d'Arc,  see  under  the  head  of  Champagne.  20.  The  Meuse 
Department  contains :  -|-Bar  le  Due,  ancient  capital  of  the  former  duchy  of 
Bar  (see  above),  which  since  the  middle  of  the  15th  century  formed  a  con- 
stituent part  of  the  duchy  of  Lorraine,  is  situated  on  the  Ornain,  westward 
and  46  miles  distant  from  Nancy,  and  has  13,000  inhabitants.  Varennes,  a 
town  on  the  Aisne,  13  miles  north-north-east  of  St.  Menehould  (in  Champagne, 
to  which  town  we  refer  with  regard  to  the  seizure  of  Louis  XVI.),  with 
2,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  Ligny  (with  3,200 
inhabitants),  St.  Mihiel,  or  St.  Michel  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Commercy 
(with  4,000  inhabitants),  Damvilliers  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Marville  (with 
1,200  inhabitants),  and  Montmedy  (with  2,400  inhabitants).  (About  Verdun 
in  this  department,  see  below.)  21.  The  Moselle  Department  (whose  capital, 
Metz,  shall  be  described  below)  contains :  Saargemund  (in  French,  Sarregue- 
mines),  a  town  on  the  Saar,  at  its  junction  with  the  Blies,  eastward  and  42 
miles  distant  from  Metz,  with  4,500  inhabitants.  The  villages  of  Monther- 
hausen,  Maisenthal,  Goetzenbruck,  and  Munzthal,  are  noted  for  their  great 


196  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


The  French  Provinces  of  Lorraine  and  Alsace. 


Bitsch,  a  town  in  the  Vosges  Mountains,  is  noted  for  its  re- 
markable and  strong  citadel,  and  has  3,000  inhabitants.  Thionville  (in 
German,  Diedenhofen),  a  strongly  fortified  town  on  the  Moselle,  southward 
and  13  miles  distant  from  Luxemburg,  with  6,000  inhabitants.  It  belonged 
formerly  to  the  ancient  duchy  of  Luxemburg,  and  was  in  1659  ceded  tc 
France.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are  :  St.  Avoid  (with  3,000  inhabi- 
tants), Sarralbe  or  Saaralbe  (on  the  Saar,  at  its  junction  with  the  Albe,  has 
4,000  inhabitants),  Sierk  (in  French,  Sierques,  with  2,000  inhabitants),  Briey 
(with  2,000  inhabitants),  Longwy  (a  fortified  town,  with  2,500  inhabitants), 
and  Faulquemont  (in  German,  Falkenberg,  with  1,500  inhabitants).  Beside 
these  is  situated  within  the  limits  of  Lorraine  the  town  of  Bourmont  (on  the 
Meuse,  with  manufactures  of  cutlery,  and  2,000  inhabitants),  belonging  to  the 
Upper  Marne  Department  (see  under  the  head  of  Champagne). 

The  following  three  cities  of  Metz,  Tout,  and  Verdun,  did  indeed  originally 
belong  to  Lorraine,  but  separated  from  it  so  early  as  towards  the  end  of  the 
10th  century,  and  became  since  German  free  towns.  In  the  days  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.,  the  Protestant  German  princes  formed  a  league  against 
him,  and  induced  King  Henry  IL  of  France,  to  make  common  cause  with 
them,  upon  condition  that  he  was  to  occupy  the  three  named  cities  for  his 
security.  The  German  princes  had,  it  is  true,  no  right  at  all  to  dispose  thus 
of  the  imperial  cities;  however,  the  latter  were  in  1552  actually  occupied  by 
the  French,  and  in  1648  by  the  Westphalian  treaty  of  peace,  formally  ceded 
to  them.  To  the  Moselle  Department  (see  above)  belongs  at  present :  -j-  Metz, 
strongly  fortified  chief  town  of  this  department,  on  the  Moselle,  south-west- 
ward and  50  miles  distant  from  Treves,  and  southward  and  37  miles  distant 
from  Luxemburg,  with  a  magnificent  cathedral,  a  remarkable  arsenal,  several 
military  schools,  many  literary  institutions,  and  48,000  inhabitants.  To  the 
Meurthe  Department  (see  above)  belongs :  Toul,  a  fortified  town  on  the 
Moselle,  southward  and  30  miles  distant  from  Metz,  with  a  remarkable  cathe- 
dral, and  7,700  inhabitants.  To  the  Meuse  Department  (see  above)  belongs : 
Verdun,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Meuse,  westward  and  34  miles  distant  from 
Metz,  with  a  citadel,  and  11,000  inhabitants. 

IX.  Alsace. — This  province,  situated  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  by 
which  it  is  separated  from  the  German  grand-duchy  of  Baden,  on  the  south 
bounded  by  the  Swiss  canton  of  Basle,  and  on  the  north  by  the  Bavarian 
Palatinate,  belonged  since  the  year  870  to  the  German  empire,  and  formed  a 
constituent  part  of  the  ancient  duchy  of  Swabia  (see  introduction  to  the 


FRANCE.  197 


The  Province  of  Alsace. 


Bavarian  province,  Swabia  and  Neuburg)  in  the  period  from  the  year  916 
to  1268.  Since  the  solution  of  this  duchy  in  the  last-named  year,  Alsace 
became  an  immediate  territory  of  the  empire,  although  Austria  got  possession 
of  a  great  part  of  Upper  Alsace.  France  had  long  since  lusted  after  this  fine 
country,  and  having  been  called  for  assistance  by  the  German  Protestants  in 
the  war  of  thirty  years,  France  reserved  to  herself  Alsace,  which  actually  was 
ceded  to  it  in  the  Westphalian  treaty  of  peace  in  1648,  with  the  exception  of 
Strasburg  and  some  other  imperial  cities.  However,  France  took  possession 
of  them  too  in  1681,  and  in  1697  they  were  formally  ceded  to  her.  Alsace 
comprises  two  departments,  viz. :  the  Lower  Rhine  Department  (or  that  part 
of  Alsace  which  formerly  was  called  Lower  Alsace,  or  Northgau),  and  the 
Upper  Rhine  Department  (formerly  called  Upper  Alsace,  or  Sundgau,  i.  e., 
South  District).  22.  The  Zotoer  Rhine  Department  (or  Lower  Alsace)  con- 
tains: -\-  Strasburg,  formerly  the  capital  of  all  Alsace,  and  until  the  year 
1681  an  imperial  city  of  the  German  empire,  quite  near  the  Rhine,  south- 
westward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Carlsruhe,  has  70,500  inhabitants,  numer- 
ous and  important  manufactures,  is  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  France, 
and  noted  for  its  magnificent  cathedral  reared  in  the  period  from  1015  to  1275, 
and  whose  steeple  is  445  feet  high.  Strasburg  was  founded  in  the  middle  of 
the  6th  century  by  the  Franks.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  7th  century  it  was 
the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  whose  bishop  was  an  immediate  member  of  the 
German  empire,  and  whose  territory  was  situated  partly  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  partly  in  Alsace,  there  comprising :  Zabern,  in  French,  Saverne 
(a  town,  with  5,500  inhabitants,  and  a  magnificent  palace,  where  the  bishop 
resided  since  the  reformation),  and  the  towns  of  Molsheim  (with  3,000  inhabi- 
tants), Mutzig  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Dambach  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
Bennfelden,  and  Markolsheim.  Hagenau,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Moder, 
northward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Strasburg,  with  10,000  inhabitants. 
Wasselonne  (in  German,  Wasselnheim)  and  Rosheim,  towns,  with  respectively 
5,000  and  4,000  inhabitants.  Ehenheim  (in  French,  Obernay),  a  town  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  St.  Odilia  (2,364  feet  high),  with  calico  manufactures,  and  5,000 
inhabitants.  In  a  neighboring  valley  of  the  Vosges  is  situated  the  village  of 
Klingenthal,  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  sword  blades,  cutlery,  etc.  Barr, 
a  town  romantically  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Vosges,  south-westward  and 
18  miles  distant  from  Strasburg,  with  numerous  cotton  and  woollen  manufac- 
tures, and  5,000  inhabitants.  Not  far  from  here  is  the  valley  called,  in  French, 
Ban  de  la  Roche,  and  in  German,  Stehvthal,  where  the  celebrated  Lutheran 

8* 


198  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  French  Province  of  Alsace. 

minister  J.  F.  Oberlin,  lived  in  the  period  from  1766  to  1826,  who  transformed 
this  rough  and  sterile  valley  into  a  little  paradise,  and  by  this,  as  well  as  by 
his  truly  Christian  ministry,  proved  himself  the  benefactor  of  his  parishioners. 
He  resided  in  the  village  of  Waldbach.  Lichtenberg,  a  remarkable  ancient 
feudal  castle,  until  the  year  1480  of  barons  of  the  same  name,  whose  estates 
then  were  entailed  upon  the  counts  of  Hanau  (see  the  Bavarian  Palatinate 
under  the  head  of  Germany).  Buohsweiler  (a  town,  with  various  manufac- 
tures, and  4,000  inhabitants)  wa3  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Lordship  of 
Lichtenberg.  Lauterburg,  a  fortified  town  near  the  junction  of  the  Rhine 
with  the  Lauter,  did  until  the  first  French  revolution  belong  to  the  imme- 
diate German  bishopric  of  Spire,  and  has  3,000  inhabitants.  Here  terminate 
the  so-called  Lines  of  Weissenburg,  noted  in  the  military  history  of  the  wars 
between  France  and  Germany,  and  consisting  of  a  rampart  and  moat  running 
upwards  along  the  Lauter  to  the  town  of  Weissenburg  (with  6,200  inhabi- 
tants), situated  on  this  river,  westward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Lauterburg. 
Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  Bischweiler  (with  6,000  inhabitants), 
ScJdettstadt  (with  10,000  inhabitants),  Niederbronn  (with  2,000  inhabitants), 
and  Saar- Union  (with  3,600  inhabitants).  Fort  Louis,  formerly  also  called 
Fort  Vauban,  at  present  a  village,  with  600  inhabitants,  but  formerly  a  fortified 
town  on  an  island  of  the  Rhine,  founded  in  1689  by  order  of  Louis  XIV.  The 
above-mentioned  fortified  town  of  Pfalzburg,  belonging  to  Lower  Alsace,  but 
at  present  situated  within  the  limits  of  the  Meurthe  Department  (see  under 
the  head  of  Lorraine),  has  4,000  inhabitants.  (To  Lower  Alsace  belonged  also 
the  towns  of  Landan,  Rheinzabem,  Kandel,  and  Bergzabern,  which  in  1815 
were  ceded  from  France  to  Germany,  and  then  annexed  to  the  Bavarian 
Palatinate.)  23.  The  Upper  Rhine  Department  (or  Upper  Alsace)  contains : 
-f-  Colmar,  chief  town  of  the  department,  on  the  Lauch,  41  miles  south-south- 
west of  Strasburg,  is  famous  for  its  extensive  cotton  manufactures,  and  has 
16,500  inhabitants.  New  Breisach,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Rhine,  right  oppo- 
site and  Old  Breisach  in  Baden,  founded  in  1699  by  Louis  XIV.,  has  2,000 
inhabitants.  Munster,  surnamed  im  Gregorienthal  (in  the  valley  of  Gregory), 
with  important  cotton  and  paper  manufactures,  and  4,000  inhabitants  Other 
towns  of  this  department  are :  Kaisersberg  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Turkheim 
(with  2,300  inhabitants),  Rappoltsweiler  (in  French,  Ribeauviller,  with  impor- 
tant cotton  manufactures,  and  7,000  inhabitants),  Rufach,  or  Rouffac  (with 
4,400  inhabitants),  Egisheim  (with  1,900  inhabitants),  Herlishcim  (with  1,200 
inhabitants),  Gebweiler  (with  4,000  inhabitants).  Watweiler  (with  1,600  iuhabi- 


FRANCE.  199 


The  Provinces  of  Alsace  and  Burgundy. 


tants),  St.  Arnarin  (with  2,000  inhabitants,  and  an  extensive  calico  and  iudienne 
manufactory  in  the  neighboring  ancient  castle  of  Wesserling),  Ensisheim  (with 
8,000  inhabitants),  Thann  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  Sennheim,  or  Cernay  (with 
3,000  inhabitants),  Beamoart  (with  extensive  manufactures  of  hardware,  etc., 
and  1,100  inhabitants),  Sulz  (with  5,300  inhabitants),  and  Altkirch  (with  3,000 
inhabitants).  Near  Basle  (in  Switzerland)  and  on  the  Rhine,  is  situated  the 
town  of  Huningen  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  whose  strong  fortifications,  erected 
in  1681  by  order  of  Louis  XIV.,  but  demolished  in  1815  according  to  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  at  Paris,  were  renowned  in  the  military 
history.  Befort,  or  Belfort,  a  town  on  the  Savoureuse,  with  6,000  inhabi- 
tants, was  once  the  capital  of  the  Sundgau  (see  above).  St.  Marie  aux  Mines, 
in  German,  MarJcirch,  a  town,  with  various  manufactures,  and  10,500  inhabi- 
tants, is  situated  within  the  limits  of  this  department,  but  is  properly  belonging 
to  Lorraine.  The  city  of  Muhlsausen  (on  the  111,  and  14  miles  distant  from 
Basle,  with  the  most  extensive  cotton  manufactures  of  the  Upper  Rhine 
Department,  and  25,000  inhabitants),  was  formerly  a  German  imperial  city, 
and  at  the  same  time  a  member  of  the  Helvetic  confederation,  but  in  1798 
ceded  to  France. 

X.  Bourgogne,  or  the  ancient  duchy  of  Burgundy,  at  the  southern  frontier 
of  Champagne,  and  separated  from  Switzarland  by  the  Franche  Comte  (or 
ancient  county  of  Burgundy).  This  province  conserving  by  its  name  still  the 
memory  of  ancient  Burgundy  in  general,  so  often  mentioned  in  the  European 
history  of  the  middle  ages,  it  may  be  here  the  most  convenient  place  to  give 
a  historical  sketch  of  ancient  Burgundy.  The  Burgundians,  mentioned  in  §  3 
of  the  History  of  Europe,  founded  after  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century  in 
the  eastern  parts  of  Gaul  an  extensive  empire,  which  comprised  not  only  the 
present  French  provinces  of  Bourgogne,  Franche  Comte,  Lyonnais,  Dauphiny, 
and  Provence,  but  also  Savoy  and  the  western  part  of  Switzerland.  It  was 
of  greater  extent  than  the  present  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  ruled  by 
kings  who  resided  alternately  at  Geneva  and  Lyons.  In  the  year  500  it  was 
attacked  by  Clovis  I.,  king  of  the  Franks,  who  vanquished  the  Burgundians 
in  a  battle  near  Dijon,  made  them  tributary,  and  wrested  from  them  the 
greatest  part  of  the  subsequent  Lyonnais.  In  533  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy 
was  completely  conquered  by  the  sons  of  Clovis,  and  formally  annexed  to 
the  Frankish  empire.  By  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Verdun  in  843  (see 
History  of  Europe,  §  14)  Lothar,  the  third  son  of  Louis  the  Pious,  became 
among  other  territories  possessed  of  Burgundy  too,  and  his  claims  upon  it 


200  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  French  Province  of  Burgundy. 


were  subsequently  transferred,  by  way  of  inheritance,  to  the  German  empe- 
rors and  in  several  periods  realized  by  them.  Yet  in  the  years  879  and  887 
this  ancient  and  primitive  kingdom  of  Burgundy  was  divided  into  three  more 
or  less  independent  parts :  the  kingdom  of  Provence,  the  kingdom  of  Bur- 
gundy, and  the  duchy  of  Burgundy.  .1.  The  kingdom  of  Provence,  whose 
first  king  (since  the  year  879)  was  Boso  duke  of  Provence  (hence  the  name 
of  the  kingdom),  did  not  only  comprise  the  subsequent  French  province  of 
this  name,  but  also  Savoy,  Dauphiny,  Lyonnais,  and  part  of  Franche  Gomte, 
and  was  subsequently  often  called  the  Cisjuranian  kingdom  of  Burgundy. 
2.  The  second  division  of  ancient  Burgundy  comprised  the  greatest  part  of 
Switzerland  and  parts  of  Savoy  and  Franche  Comte ;  its  first  king  was  Ro- 
dolph,  duke  of  West  Franconia ;  it  was  called  par  excellence  the  kingdom  of 
Burgundy,  or  (to  distinguish  it  from  the  just-mentioned  other  kingdom)  the 
Transjuranian  kingdom  of  Burgundy.  In  933  it  was  united  with  the  Cisju- 
ranian kingdom,  and  this  united  kingdom  was  since  called  tne  Arelatian 
kingdom,  or  kingdom  of  Arelate,  because  its  kings  resided  in  the  city  of  Aries 
(in  Provence  and  on  the  Rhone).  In  the  course  of  time  several  of  the  govern- 
ors of  its  provinces  made  themselves  independent,  at  a  later  period  they 
became  vassals  of  the  French  crown,  and  thus  at  last  all  the  western  provin- 
ces were  incorporated  into  the  kingdom  of  France,  while  of  the  other  prov- 
inces Savoy  became  an  independent  duchy,  and  those  situated  in  Switzerland 
were  annexed  to  the  Helvetic  confederation.  3.  What  regards  the  'third 
division  of  ancient  Burgundy,  or  the  duchy  of  Burgundy  (of  which  is  properly 
the  question  here),  its  first  duke,  since  the  year  887,  was  Richard,  brother  of 
Boso  (see  above),  but  since  the  beginning  of  the  11th  century  its  rulers  were 
French  princes,  or  younger  brothers  of  the  reigning  kings  of  France  and  their 
descendants.  In  1369  Philip,  duke  of  Burgundy,  married  Margaret,  heiress 
of  Flanders,  and  since  the  dukes  of  Burgundy  became  gradually  possessed 
of  the  Netherlands  too.  In  1384  Philip's  son  John  inherited  likewise  the 
Franclie  Comte  (see  the  next  province),  which  was  generally  known  by  the 
name  of  the  county  of  Burgundy,  or  Upper  Burgundy,  and  had  for  a  long  period 
been  a  constituent  part  of  the  Transjuranian  kingdom.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
14th  and  during  the  15th  century  the  dukes  of  Burgundy  resided  alternately 
in  Dijon,  Besancon,  Bruges,  and  and  other  cities  of  the  Netherlands.  In  1477 
their  male  line  became  extinct,  and  the  duchy  now  as  vacant  fee  fell  back  to 
the  French  crown.  The  duchy,  or  province  of  Burgundy  comprises  at  pres- 
ent 4  departments,  viz. :  the   Cote  d'  Or  Department  (chief  town  Dijon),  the 


FRANCE.  201 


The  Province  of  Burgundy. 


Sabne  and  Loire  Department  (chief  town  Macon),  the  Yonne  Department 
(chief  town  Auxerre),  and  the  Ain  Department  (Bourgen  Bresse).  24.  The 
Cote  a"  Or  Department  contains  :  -f-Duox,  ancient  capital  of  the  duchy  of 
Burgundy,  at  the  junction  of  the  Ouze  and  Suzon,  south-eastward  and  165 
miles  distant  from  Paris,  is  noted  for  its  mustard,  wax  candles  and  wines,  and 
has  27,000  inhabitants.  Citeaux  (in  Latin  Cistercium),  formerly  a  renowned 
abbey  and  chief  convent  of  the  Cistercian  monks.  Pommard  and  Volenay, 
great  villages,  noted  for  their  excellent  Burgundy  wines.  Nuits  and  Beaune, 
towns  with  respectively  3,000  and  12,000  inhabitants,  are  likewise  noted  for 
their  Burgundy  wines.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are:  Fontaine 
Francaise  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Issurtille  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  St. 
Jean  de  Lome  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Auxonne  (with  5,800  inhabitants), 
Chatillon  sur  Seine  (with  4,600  inhabitants),  Semur,  surnamed  en  Auxois 
(with  4,300  inhabitants),  Montbard  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  Saulieu  (with 
3,000  inhabitants),  and  Arnay  le  Due  (with  3,200  inhabitants).  25.  The 
Sabne  and  Loire  Department  contains :  -|-Macon,  chief  town,  on  the  Saone, 
southward  and  72  miles  distant  from  Dijon,  and  westward  and  65  miles  dis- 
tant from  Geneva,  with  important  wine  trade,  and  12,500  inhabitants.  Cha- 
lons sdk  Saone,  a  town  on  the  Saone,  southward  and  147  miles  distant  from 
Chalons  sur  Marne,  and  westward  and  72  miles  distant  from  Lyons,  with 
13,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are:  Tournus  (with 
4,000  inhabitants),  Cluny  or  Glugny  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Charolles  (with 
8,400  inhabitants),  Bourbon  Lancy  (with  2,700  inhabitants),  Louhans  (with 
3,000  inhabitants),  Autun  (with  10,800  inhabitants),  Creuzot  (with  1,600  in- 
habitants), and  Semur,  surnamed  en  Brionnais  (with  1,500  inhabitants). 
26.  The  Yonne  Department  contains :  -[-Auxeere,  chief  town,  on  the  Yonne, 
north-westward  and  78  miles  distant  from  Dijon,  with  14  churches,  among 
which  is  a  remarkable  cathedral,  important  wine  and  timber  trade,  and  12,500 
inhabitants.  Avallon,  a  town  on  the  Voisin,  with  5,700  inhabitants.  Cou- 
langes  les  Vineuses,  a  town  on  the  Yonne,  has  2,000  inhabitants,  and  is 
noted  for  its  wines.  The  small  town  of  Vezelay,  with  1,600  inhabitants,  is 
remarkable  in  history  for  that  the  holy  Bernard  preached  here  the  second 
crusade.  (The  other  towns  of  this  department  to  be  noticed,  see  under  the 
head  of  Champagne.)  27.  The  Ain  Department  contains :  +Bourg,  sur- 
named en  Bresse  (having  been  the  capital  of  the  Burgundian  district  of 
Bresse),  chief  town,  on  the  Reyssouse,  westward  and  46  miles  distant  from 
Geneva,  with  a  magnificent  Gothic  church,  and  10,000  inhabitants.    Bellet 

9* 


202  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  French  Provinces  of  Burgundy  and  Franche  Comle. 

a  town  on  the  Rhone,  with  4,400  inhabitants,  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
Burgundian  district  of  Bugey,  that  was  for  a  long  time  in  the  possession  of 
the  dukes  of  Savoy,  but  was  restored  to  France  in  1601,  and  to  which  be- 
longed moreover  the  towns  of  Nantua,  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Lagnieu 
(with  2,000  inhabitants),  St.  Rambert  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Oyonnar  (with 
2,000  inhabitants),  Seyssel  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  and  Ville  Bois,  surnamed 
sous  Belley  (with  2,000  inhabitants).  Trevoux,  a  town  on  the  Saone,  with 
3,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  watch-cases,  etc.  Trevoux 
was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  sovereign  principality  of  Dombes,  to  which 
moreover  belonged  the  towns  of  Toissey  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  and  St. 
Trivier  en  Dombes,  or  sur  Mognand  (with  1,400  inhabitants).  Other  towns 
of  the  Ain  department  are  :  Pont  de  Vaux  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Pont 
a"Ain  (with  1,400  inhabitants),  Pont  de  Veyle  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Mont- 
luel  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Chatillon  les  Do-mbes  (with  3,000  inhabi- 
tants). Gex,  a  town  at  the  Jura  Mountains,  is  noted  for  its  watch  manufac- 
tures, and  has  3,000  inhabitants.  At  about  2  miles  distance  from  Geneva  is 
situated  the  village  of  Ferney,  where  Voltaire  lived.  To  the  province,  or 
duchy  of  Burgundy  did  moreover  belong  the  town  of  Bar  sur  Seine, "with 
considerable  wine  trade,  and  2,700  inhabitants,  at  present  situated  within  the 
limits  of  the  Aube  Department  (see  Champagne),  and  the  town  of  Arc  en 
Barrois,  with  2,000  inhabitants,  at  present  situated  within  the  limits  of  the 
Upper  Marne  Department  (see  Champagne). 

XI.  Franche  Comte,  or  the  ancient  county  of  Burgundy,  situated  between 
the  duchy  of  Burgundy  and  Switzerland,  and  on  the  north  bordered  by  Lor- 
raine and  Alsace.  It  at  first  formed  a  constituent  part  of  the  Transjuranian 
kingdom  of  Burgundy  (see  above,  under  the  head  of  Burgundy),  became  since 
an  independent  county,  and  devolved  in  1384  by  inheritance  to  the  dukes  of 
Burgundy.  Though  the  male  line  of  these  dukes  became  extinct  in  1477,  the 
Franche  Comte  continued  to  form  part  of  the  Netherlandish  estates  of  the 
house  of  Burgundy,  until  in  1679  it  was  ceded  to  France.  Franche  Comte 
comprises  at  present  3  departments,  viz. :  the  Doubs  Department  (chief  town 
Besancon),  the  Jura  Department  (chief  town  Lons  le  Saulnier),  and  the  Upper 
Saone  Department  (chief  town  Vesoul).  28.  The  Doubs  Department  contains : 
-+-  Besancon  (in  German,  Bisanz),  fortified  former  capital  of  Franche  Comte, 
on  the  Doubs,  eastward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Dijon,  with  a  splendid 
Gothic  cathedral,  numerous  manufactures,  especially  of  watches,  and  32,000 
inhabitants.    Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  St.  Hippolyte  (with  5,000 


FRANCE.  203 


The  Provinces  of  Franche  Comte  and  Bourbonnais. 


inhabitants),  Quingey  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Pontarlier  (with  5,200  inhabi- 
tants), Ornans  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  and  Baume  les  Dames  (with  3,000 
inhabitants).  In  the  vicinity  of  Pontarlier  lies  on  a  steep  and  high  rock  the 
little  fortress  of  Joux,  which  formerly  served  as  state-prison.  (About  the 
town  of  Montbeliard  in  this  department,  see  below.)  29.  The  Jura  Depart- 
ment contains :  -|-  Lons  le  Saulnier,  chief  town  on  the  Vaille,  46  miles 
south-south-west  of  Besancon,  with  8,400  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this 
department  are :  St.  Claude  (with  5,600  inhabitants),  St.  Amour  (with  3,000 
inhabitants),  Septmoncel  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Morez  (with  2,000  inhabi- 
tants), Dole  (with  10,500  inhabitants),  Poligny  (with  6,000  inhabitants), 
Arbois  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  and  Salins  (with  8,500  inhabitants).  30.  The 
Upper  Marne  Department  contains :  -f-VESoux,  chief  town  on  the  Drugeon, 
northward  and  28  miles  distant  from  Besancon,  with  6,200  inhabitants.  Other 
towns  of  this  department  are :  Jussey  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Gray  (with 
7.000  inhabitants),  Luxeuil  (with  renowned  warm  baths,  and  4,000  inhabi- 
tants), and  Lure  (with  3,100  inhabitants). 

Within  the  limits  of  the  Doubs  Department  is  situated  the  former  county, 
or  principality,  of  Mompelgard  (in  French,  Montbeliard),  whose  first  sove- 
reigns became  extinct  with  Count  Henry,  in  1395.  Henry's  only  daughter 
and  heiress,  Harriet,  being  married  to  Count  Everard  of  Wirtemberg,  the 
house  of  Wirtemberg  became  possessed  of  the  principality  of  Mompelgard, 
and  retained  it  until  the  first  French  revolution,  when  the  French  seized  it 
without  any  further  ceremony.  By  the  treaty  of  peace,  concluded  at  Lune- 
ville  in  1801,  it  was  formally  ceded  to  France.  It  contains:  Mompelgard,  or 
(in  French)  Montbeliard,  the  former  capital  of  the  principality,  in  the  Doubs 
Department,  and  on  the  Alaine,  north-eastward  and  42  miles  distant  from 
Besancon,  and  south-westward  and  138  miles  distant  from  Stuttgart,  with 
watch  and  other  manufactures,  and  5,500  inhabitants.  Montbeliard  is  the 
birth-place  of  the  celebrated  late  naturalist  Cuvier.  Hericourt,  a  town,  with 
1.000  inhabitants. 

XII.  Bourbonnais. — This  province,  situated  at  the  south-western  boundary 
of  Burgundy,  was  for  a  long  time  ruled  by  barons  of  several  families,  until 
since  the  year  1327  the  descendants  of  Robert  of  Clermont,  youngest  son  of 
King  Louis  IX.  of  France,  were  invested  with  it  by  the  title  of  a  duchy, 
called  either  the  duchy  of  Bourbonnais,  or  Bourbon.  Duke  Louis  of  Bourbon 
had  two  sons,  of  whom  Peter  was  the  ancestor  of  the  house  of  Bourbon, 
reigning  in  Franee  since  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  (see  History  of  France), 


204  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


The  French  Provinces  of  Bourbonnoia,  Nivernais  and  Berry. 

while  the  other,  James,  propagated  the  collateral  line  of  the  dukes  of  Bourbon. 
Charles,  duke  of  Bourbon,  having  revolted  against  King  Francis  I.,  the  duchy 
of  Bourbonnais  was  reunited  with  the  crown.  Bourbonnais  comprises  at 
present : — 31.  The  Allier  Department,  containing :  -J-  Moulins,  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  duchy,  on  the  Allier,  south-  eastward  and  115  miles  distant  from 
Orleans,  and  north-westward  and  92  miles  distant  from  Lyons,  with  manufac- 
tures of  cutlery,  and  16,000  inhabitants.  Bourbon  j/Archambault  (in  the 
days  of  the  first  French  revolution  called  Bourges  les  Bains),  a  town,  with 
3,300  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  warm  baths,  much  resorted  to.  Other  towns 
of  this  department  are  :  St.  Pourcain  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Gannat  (with 
5,500  inhabitants),  Montlucon  (with  5,500  inhabitants),  and  La  Palisse  (with 
2,400  inhabitants).  The  town  of  St.  Amand  (or  St.  Amand  Montrond), 
with  7,800  inhabitants,  belongs  likewise  to  Bourbonnais,  but  is  situated  within 
the  limits  of  the  Cher  Department  (see  below,  under  the  head  of  Berry). 

XIII.  Nivernais. — This  province,  situated  to  the  north  of  Bourbonnais, 
was  since  the  end  of  the  9th  century  a  county,  which  by  E!ing  Francis  I.  was 
raised  to  a  duchy,  whose  dukes  bore  the  title  of  dukes  of  Nevers.  It  com- 
prises at  present: — 32.  The  Nievre  Department,  containing:  -(-Nbvers,  for- 
merly the  capital  of  Nivernais,  at  the  junction  of  the  Nievre  river  with  the 
Loire,  south-eastward  and  92  miles  distant  from  Orleans,  and  north-westward 
and  115  miles  distant  from  Lyons,  with  an  ancient  Gothic  castle,  once  the 
residence  of  the  dukes  of  Nevers,  a  magnificent  cathedral,  an  extensive  gun- 
foundry,  and  1*7,500  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  Pouilly 
(with  3,000  inhabitants),  La  Charite  (with  5,500  inhabitants),  Clameey  (with 
6,000  inhabitants),  Chateau- Chinon  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  Cos?ie  (with 
6,500  inhabitants). 

XIV.  Berry. — This  province,  situated  in  the  centre  of  France,  and  at  the 
southern  frontier  of  Orlcanais,  was  ruled  by  counts,  subsequently  viscounts, 
who  in  1094  sold  it  to  Philip  I.,  and  since  that  time  royal  princes  have  fre- 
quently been  invested  with  it.  The  last  prince,  who  bore  the  title  of  duke  of 
Berry,  was  the  youngest  son  of  Charles  X.  Berry  comprises  at  present  two 
departments,  viz. :  the  Cher  Department  (chief  town  Bourges),  and  the  Indre 
Department  (chief  town  Chateauroux).  33.  The  Cher  Department  contains : 
-[-Bourges,  the  former  capital  of  Berry,  at  the  junction  of  the  Auron  and 
Evre,  64  miles  south-south-east  of  Orleans,  with  a  remarkable  ancient  castle, 
town  walls  built  by  the  ancient  Romans,  a  magnificent  cathedral,  and  26,000 
inhabitants.     Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  Sancerre  (with  3,700  in- 


FRANCE. 


The  Provinces  of  Berry  and  Orleanais. 


habitants),  Vierzon  (with  7,500  inhabitants),  Henrichemont  (with  1,600  inhab- 
itants), Gray  le  Pre  (with  iron- works),  and  Boisbelle.  (St.  Amand  in  this 
department  belongs  to  Bourbonnais,  and  has  for  this  reason  already  been  de- 
scribed above.)  34.  The  Indre  Department  contains :  -{"Chateauroux,  chief 
town  on  the  Indre,  south-westward  and  37  miles  distant  from  Bourges,  with 
cloth  manufactures  and  14,500  inhabitants.  Valensai,  a  town  on  the  Nahon, 
60  miles  south-south-west  of  Orleans,  with  3,000  inhabitants,  and  a  palace, 
which  belonged  to  the  well-known  prince  of  Talleyrand,  and  where  Ferdinand 
VIL  of  Spain  and  his  brother,  Don  Carlos,  were  retained  as  prisoners  in  the 
period  from  1808  to  1814.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are:  Issoudun 
(with  12,500  inhabitants),  La  Chdtre  (with  4,800  inhabitants),  Le  Blanc  (with 
5,200  inhabitants),  and  Levroux  (with  3,000  inhabitants).  To  Berry  belongs 
also,  but  is  situated  within  the  limits  of  the  Loir  and  Cher  Department  (see 
below),  the  town  of  St.  Aignan,  with  cloth  manufactures,  and  3,000  inhabi- 
tants. 

XV.  Orleanais,  at  the  southern  frontier  of  Isle  de  France,  was  ever  be- 
longing to  the  crown,  that,  however,  frequently  invested  royal  princes  with 
this  province.  The  princes  then  bore  the  title  of  a  duke  of  Orleans,  as  it 
was  the  case  with  Louis  Philip  before  bis  accession  in  1830.  The  province  of 
Orleanais  comprises  at  present  3  departments,  viz. :  the  Loiret  Department 
(chief  town  Orleans),  the  Eure  and  Loir  Department  (chief  town  Chartres), 
and  the  Loir  and  Cher  Department  (chief  town  Blois).  35.  The  Loiret  De- 
partment contains  :  -{-Orleans,  the  former  capital  of  Orleanais,  on  the  Loire, 
southward  and  69  miles  distant  from  Paris,  with  a  beautiful  Gothic  cathedral, 
considerable  trade  and  42,000  inhabitants.  Montakgis,  a  town  on  the  Loing, 
with  a  mountain-castle,  cotton  manufactures,  and  8,000  inhabitants.  Other 
towns  of  this  department  are:  Beaugency  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Clery 
(with  a  church  containing  the  sepulchre  of  Louis  XL,  and  2,000  inhabitants), 
Meung  or  Mehun  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Gien  (with  5,500  inhabitants), 
Pithiviers  (with  4,200  inhabitants),  and  Briare  (with  2,000  inhabitants). 
36.  The  Eure  and  Loir  Department  contains :  -(-Chartres,  chief  town  on  the 
Eure,  46  miles  north-north-west  of  Orleans,  with  one  of  the  finest  Gothic 
cathedrals  in  France  (the  one  steeple  of  which  is  342  and  the  other  3*78  feet 
in  height),  important  grain  trade,  and  15,500  inhabitants.  Maintenox,  a 
town  on  the  Eure,  with  2,000  inhabitants.  As  is  known,  the  second  consort 
of  Louis  XIV.  bore  the  name  after  this  town.  Chdteaudun,  a  town  on  the 
Loire,  with  7,000  inhabitants.     (The  town  of  Dreux  in  this  department  be- 


206  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


The  French  Provinces  of  Orleanais,  Touraine  and  Anjou. 


longs  to  Isle  de  France,  and  has  been  described  under  this  head ;  while  about 
Nogent  le  Rotrou,  also  in  this  department,  see  below  under  the  head  of 
Perche.)  37.  The  Loir  and  Cher  Department  contains :  -{-Blois,  chief  town 
on  the  Loire,  south-westward  and  37  miles  distant  from  Orleans,  has  14,500 
inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  ancient  castle,  where  in  1588  the  duke  of 
Guise  and  his  brother  were  murdered  by  order  of  King  Henry  III.  Not 
far  from  here  is  the  celebrated  Gothic  palace  of  Chambord,  containing  440 
apartments,  and  reared  in  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  by  Francis  I. 
The  park,  belonging  to  it,  is  18  miles  in  circuit.  In  1821  it  was  bought  at 
the  price  of  1,542,000  francs  by  a  society  of  French,  and  given  to  the  duke  of 
Bordeaux  in  the  name  of  the  French  nation.  This  prince  bears  at  present 
the  title  of  a  count  of  Chambord.  Vendome,  a  town  on  the  Loire,  is  noted 
for  its  glove  manufactures,  and  has  8,500  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this 
department  are:  Romorantin  (with  7,500  inhabitants),  and  Savigny  sur 
Lraye  (with  2,000  inhabitants).  The  town  of  St.  Aignan,  within  the  limits 
of  the  Loir  and  Cher  Department,  belongs  to  Berry,  and  is  described  above* 

XVI.  Touraine,  at  the  south-western  frontier  of  Orleanais,  and  on  the 
south  bordering  upon  Poitou.  Touraine,  on  account  of  its  fertility  and  beauty 
of  sceneries  called  the  "garden  of  France,"  was  in  1044  annexed  to  the 
county  of  Anjou,  and  in  1202  united  with  the  French  crown,  and  comprises 
at  present: — 38.  The  Indre  and  Loire  Department,  containing:  -{-Tours, 
ancient  capital  of  Touraine,  on  the  Loire,  south-westward  and  69  miles  distant 
from  Orleans,  and  eastward  and  115  miles  distant  from  Nantes,  with  a  re- 
markable Gothic  cathedral,  various  manufactures,  and  27,500  inhabitants. 
Not  far  from  here  is  situated  the  ancient,  now  much  decayed,  palace  oiPlessis 
lex  Tours,  where  Louis  XL  spent  the  last  days  of  his  life,  and  died  in  1483. 
Between  Tours  and  Poitiers  (see  below)  it  was,  where  Charles  Martell  defeated 
the  Moors,  in  732.  Amboise,  a  town  on  the  Loire,  with  an  ancient  castle,  or 
palace  (where  Louis  XL  instituted  the  equestrian  order  of  St.  Michael,  and 
Charles  VIII.  died  in  1498),  and  5,600  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this 
department  are :  Loches  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  La  Haye  (with  2,100  inhab- 
itants), and  Ghinon  (noted  for  its  mustard,  with  7,400  inhabitants).  About 
the  town  of  Richelieu  within  this  department,  see  below. 

XVII.  Anjou,  on  the  west  bordering  upon  Brittany,  and  on  the  east  upon 
Touraine,  was  in  1356  raised  to  a  duchy  and  held  in  fee  by  several  royal 
princes,  among  them  Henry  III.,  before  his  accession  to  the  throne.  The 
province  of  Anjou  comprises  at  present : — 39.  The  Maine  and  Juoire  Depart- 


FRANCE.  207 


The  Provinces  of  Anjou,  Maine  and  Perche. 


uuut,  containing:  -{"Angers,  ancient  capital  of  Anjou,  on  the  Mayenne,  50 
miles  east-north-east  of  Nantes,  with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  37,000 
inhabitants.  In  the  neighborhood  are  celebrated  slate-quarries.  Other  towns 
of  this  department  are :  Pont  de  Ce  (with  4,000  inliabitants),  Chalonnes  (with 
5,500  inhabitants),  Ingrande  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Chateauneuf  (with  1,500 
inhabitants),  Done  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Chollet  (with  9,000  inhabitants), 
Durtal  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Segre  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  Chemille  (with 
4,000  inhabitants),  Beauge  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Pouance  (with  1,600 
inhabitants),  Beaufort  (with  6,500  inhabitants),  and  Beaupreau  (with  3,200 
inhabitants).  Saumur,  formerly  the  chief  town  of  a  government  of  the  same 
name,  which  comprised  parts  of  Anjou  and  Upper  Poitou,  is  situated  on  the 
Loire,  south-eastward  and  23  miles  distant  from  Angers,  and  has  12,500  inhab- 
itants. To  this  government  belonged  also  the  town  of  Richelieu  (formerly  a 
village,  but  in  1637  raised  to  a  town  by  the  cardinal  of  Richelieu,  has  at 
present  3,200  inhabitants),  at  present  situated  within  the  limits  of  the  Indre 
and  Loire  Department  (see  above). 

XVIII.  Maine  and  Perche,  two  former  counties  between  Orleanais  and 
Brittany,  forming,  together  with  the  county  of -Laval,  one  government,  until 
the  first  French  revolution.  Maine,  definitively  united  with  the  crown  in  1584, 
and  the  former  county  of  Laval  (that  belonged  to  the  house  of  Tremouille 
until  the  first  French  revolution)  comprise  at  present  2  departments,  viz. :  the 
Sarthe  Department  (chief  town  Le  Mans),  and  the  Mayenne  Department 
(chief  town  Laval).  40.  The  Sarthe  Department  contains :  -{-Le  Mans,  former 
capital  of  Maine,  on  the  Sarthe,  eastward  and  83  miles  distant  from  Rennes, 
and  south-westward  and  115  miles  distant  from  Paris,  with  a  remarkable 
Gothic  cathedral,  important  poultry  trade,  noted  wax-  and  linen-bleacheries, 
and  24,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  Sable  (with 
4,000  inhabitants),  Mamers  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  St.  Calais  (with  4,000 
inhabitants),  La  Ferte  Bernard  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Chateau  du  Loir 
(with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  La  Fleche  (with  6,800  inhabitants).  41.  The 
Mayenne  Department  contains :  -{-Laval,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  county 
of  Laval,  on  the  Mayenne,  between  Le  Mans  and  Rennes,  is  noted  for  its  linen 
manufactures,  and  has  18,500  inhabitants.  Mayenne,  a  town  on  the  Mayenne 
river,  with  important  linen  manufactures,  and  10,500  inhabitants.  Chdteau- 
Gonthier,  a  town  on  the  Mayenne  river,  is  noted  for  its  flax-  and  hemp-yarn, 
and  has  6,500  inhabitants. 

The  former  county  of  Perche,  reunited  with  the  French  crown  in  1226, 


EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


The  French  Provinces  of  Perche  and  Brittany. 


comprises  at  present  parts  of  the  Orne  Department  (see  under  the  head  of 
Normandy),  containing :  Mortagne  (ancient  capital  of  Perche,  with  important 
linen  trade,  and  6,000  inhabitants ;  in  its  vicinity  is  situated  the  celebrated 
convent  of  Cistercians  La  Trappe,  founded  in  1 140) ;  and  of  the  Eure  and  Loir 
Department  (see  above,  under  the  head  of  Orleanais),  containing :  Nogent  le 
Roteou,  a  town  on  the  Huisne,  with  various  manufactures,  and  7,000  inhabi- 
tants. 

XIX.  Brittany,  or  (in  French)  La  Bretagne. — This  province,  comprising 
the  great  western  peninsula  of  France,  has  derived  its  name  from  the  ancient 
Britons,  who  in  the  middle  of  the  5th  century  emigrated  from  their  native 
country  (see  History  of  Europe,  §  4)  to  this  Gaulic  peninsula,  at  that  time 
called  Armorica,  but  which  name  was  since  transmuted  into  that  of  Brittany, 
or  rather  Little  Brittany.  Towards  the  end  of  the  5  th  century  the  country 
was  subdued  by  King  Clovis,  but  since  the  death  of  Charlemagne  it  was 
ruled  by  independent  dukes.  The  sole  heiress  of  Brittany,  duchess  Ann,  was 
married  first  to  Charles  VIII.  and  then  to  Louis  XII.,  and  moreover  her 
daughter  Claudia  was  married  to  King  Francis  I.  of  France ;  and  in  this  way 
Brittany  was  annexed  to  the  .French  crown.  It  comprises  at  present  5  de- 
partments, viz. :  the  Hie  and  Vilaine  Department  (chief  town  Rennes),  the 
North  Coasts  Department  (chief  town  St.  Brieux),  the  Finisterre  Department 
(chief  town  Quimpei),  the  Morbihan  Department  (chief  town  Vannes),  and 
the  Lower  Loire  Department  (chief  town  Nantes).  42.  The  Hie  and  Vilaine 
Department  contains :  -]-Rennes,  ancient  capital  of  Brittany,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Hie  and  Vilaine,  202  miles  west-south-west  of  Paris,  with  important 
butter  trade,  and  36,500  inhabitants.  In  a  neighboring  ancient  feudal  castle 
the  celebrated  Bertrand  du  Guesclin  (-(-  in  1380)  was  born  in  1313.  St. 
Malo,  a  fortified  maritime  town  on  the  English  Channel,  with  numerous 
docks  where  merchant  vessels  are  built,  and  10,500  inhabitants.  Not  far 
from  here  is  situated  the  maritime  town  of  St.  Servan,  with  10,000  inhabi- 
tants. Between  this  town  and  the  coast  of  Normandy  is  the  Bay  of  Cancale, 
noted  for  its  oysters.  The  town  of  Cancale  has  5,000  inhabitants.  Other 
towns  of  this  department  are :  Fougeres  (with  10,000  inhabitants),  La  Guerche 
(with  4,000  inhabitants),  Vitre  (with  9,500  inhabitants),  Redon  (with  5,000 
inhabitants),  Montfort  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  Paimpont  (with  4,000  in- 
habitants). 43.  The  North  Coasts  Department  contains :  -f-ST.  Brieuc,  or  St. 
Brieux,  chief  town  near  the  coast,  north-westward  and  60  miles  distant  from 
Rennes,  with  11,800  inhabitants,  and  a  seaport  at  the  village  of  Legue  St. 


FRANCE.  209 


The  Province  of  Brittany. 


Brieuc.  The  town  of  Lamballe,  noted  for  its  parchment,  and  containing 
4,000  inhabitants,  was  until  the  first  French  revolution  the  capital  of  the 
duchy  of  Penthievre.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  Binic  (with 
2,000  inhabitants),  Quintin  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Guingamp  (with  6,200 
inhabitants),  Loudeac  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  Lannion  (with  5,700  inhabi- 
tants), Treguier  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Dinan  (with  8,200  inhabitants). 
44.  The  Finislerre  Department  contains :  -|-Quim?er,  or  Quimper  Corentin, 
chief  town  near  the  south  coast  of  Brittany,  westward  and  115  miles  distant 
from  Rennes,  with  a  fine  cathedral  and  10,500  inhabitants.  Brest,  a  fortified 
maritime  town  and  chief  naval  station  of  France,  on  the  Atlantic,  322  miles 
west-south-west  of  Paris,  with  a  very  fine  harbor,  a  magnificent  arsenal,  and 
31,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  Quvmperle  (with 
5,400  inhabitants),  Garhaix,  or  Keraes  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Morlaix 
(with  10,000  inhabitants),  St.  Pol  de  Leon  (with  6,300  inhabitants),  Concar- 
neau  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Ghdteaulin  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Lan- 
dernau  (with  5,000  inhabitants).  The  islands  of  Ouessant  (with  2,000  inhabi- 
tants), and  of  Sein  (with  500  inhabitants),  are  also  belonging  to  this  depart- 
ment. 45.  The  Morbihan  Department  contains :  -4-Vannes,  chief  town  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Bretagne,  south-eastward  and  92  miles  distant  from  Brest, 
with  12,000  inhabitants.  Lorient,  a  fortified  maritime  town  and  great  naval 
station,  westward  and  23  miles  distant  from  Vannes,  with  20,000  inhabitants. 
The  former  French  East  Indian  Company  had  its  seat  in  Lorient.  Other 
towns  of  this  department  are  :  Port  Louis  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Sarzeau 
(with  6,400  inhabitants),  Auray  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Quiberon  (with 
3,000  inhabitants),  Hennebon  (with  4,900  inhabitants),  Ploermel  (with  5,600 
inhabitants),  and  Pontivy  (with  important  linen  trade  and  6,000  inhabitants). 
Pontivy  was  before  the  first  French  revolution  the  chief  town  of  the  princi- 
pality of  Rohan.  The  islands  of  Belle  Isle  (with  7,000  inhabitants,  and  the 
chief  town  Palais),  of  Groix,  or  Grouaix  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  of  Houat 
and  Hordic,  are  belonging  to  this  department.  46.  The  Lower  Loire  Depart- 
ment contains:  -(-Nantes,  chief  town  on  the  Loire,  south-eastward  and  165 
miles  distant  from  Brest,  and  south-eastward  and  230  miles  distant  from 
Paris,  carries  on  a  very  important  commerce  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
has  90,000  inhabitants.  Nantes  is  moreover  noted  for  an  edict  of  Henry  IY. 
(issued  in  1598),  respecting  the  Protestants,  which  was  revoked  in  1685. 
The  seaport  of  Nantes  is  at  Paimboeuf,  a  town  near  the  mouth  of  the  Loire, 
and  at  25  miles  distance  from  Nantes,  with  4,000  inhabitants.     Other  towns 


210  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


The  French  Provinces  of  Brittany  and  Poitou. 


of  tliis  department  are :  Bourgneuf  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Querande,  or 
Guerande  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  Le  Crosic  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  St. 
Nazaire  (with  4.000  inhabitants),  Savenay  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Chateau- 
briand (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Nozay  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Ancenis 
(with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  St.  Philibert  (with  3,000  inhabitants). 

XX.  Porrou,  between  Bordeaux  and  Nantes,  along  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic. 
Poitou  was  by  Charlemagne  raised  to  an  earldom,  whose  heiress,  Eleanor,  was 
married  to  King  Henry  II.  of  England  (reigning  from  the  year  1154  to  1189), 
who  thus  became  possessed  of  it.  Not  before  the  year  1371  was  Poitou 
definitively  reunited  with  the  French  crown.  It  comprises  at  present  3 
departments,  viz.:  the  Vienne  Department  (chief  town  Poitiers),  the  Two 
Sevres  Department  (chief  town  Niort),  and  the  Vendee  Department  (chief  town 
Bourbon- Vendee).  47.  The  Vienne  Department  contains : -f-PoicriERS,  ancient 
capital  of  Poitou,  south-eastward  and  92  miles  distant  from  Nantes,  with  a 
beautiful  cathedral,  and  24,000  inhabitants.  Not  far  from  here  is  the  battle- 
field of  Maupertuis,  where  in  1356  King  John  of  France  was  defeated  by  the 
prince  of  Wales  (the  so-called  Black  Prince)  and  taken  prisoner.  The  town 
of  Lusignan  was  the  ancestral  seat  of  the  last  king  of  Jerusalem,  subsequently 
king  of  Cyprus,  Guido  of  Lusignan  (towards  the  end  of  the  12th  century). 
Chatelleraut,  a  town  on  the  Vienne,  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  cutlery, 
and  has  10,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  Civray 
(with  2,300  inhabitants),  Loudun  (with  5,300  inhabitants),  Montmorillon  (with 
4,200  inhabitants),  St.  Savin  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  and  Tremouille  (with 
1,200  inhabitants).  48.  The  Two  Sevres  Department  contains :  -(-Niort,  chief 
town,  on  the  Sevre  Niortaise,  42  miles  west-south-west  of  Poitiers,  with  18,500 
inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are:  Parthenay  (with  4,500 
inhabitants),  Bressuire  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Melle  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
Thouars  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  St.  Maixent  (with  4,500  inhabitants),  and 
Mauze  (with  2,000  inhabitants).  49.  The  Vendee  Department  contains : 
-[-Bourbon-Vendee  (before  the  first  French  revolution  called  Roche  svtt  Yon), 
chief  town  on  the  Yon,  southward  and  37  miles  distant  from  Nantes,  with 
5,400  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  Fontenay  le  Comte 
(with  8,000  inhabitants),  Lucon  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Beauvoir  sur  Mcr 
(with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  Sables  d'Olonne,  or  Les  Sables  d'Olonne  (with 
5,200  inhabitants).  To  Poitou  and  the  Vendee  Department  are  also  belonging 
the  islands  of  Noirmoutier  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  of  Dieu,  or  c/'  Yen  (with 
2,000  inhabitants),  of  Pilier,  and  Bouin.     To  Poitou  belongs,  moreover,  the 


FRANCE.  211 


The  Provinces  of  Aunis,  Saintonge  and  Angoumnis. 


town  of  Rochechouart,  with  4,400  inhabitants,  situated  within  the  limits  of 
the  Upper  Vienne  Department  (see  under  the  head  of  Limousin). 

XXI.  Aunis  and  Saintonge. — These  two  provinces,  situated  between  Poitou 
and  Guyenne,  and  separated  from  each  other  by  the  Charente  river,  were, 
together  with  Poitou,  reunited  with  the  French  crown  by  King  Charles  V. 
(see  History  of  France).  Before  the  first  French  revolution,  Aunis  formed  a 
government  by  itself,  while  Saintonge  was  conjointly  with  Angoumais  (see 
below)  under  the  administration  of  another  governor.  At  present,  Aunis  and 
Saintonge  comprise  in  substance : — 50.  The  Lower  Charente  Department, 
containing :  -|-La  Rochelle,  ancient  capital  of  Aunis,  on  the  Atlantic,  between 
Bordeaux  and  Nantes,  is  strongly  fortified,  and  has  16,000  inhabitants.  La 
Rochelle  is  noted  in  history  for  its  siege  of  thirteen  months,  sustained  in  1627 
and  1628.  At  the  outside  of  the  harbor  of  La  Rochelle  lies  the  island  of  Re 
(area:  64  square  miles ;  population:  18,000  inhabitants).  Rochefoet,  a  for- 
tified town  on  the  Charente,  14  miles  south-south-east  of  La  Rochelle,  was 
founded  in  1664  by  Louis  XIV.,  is  noted  for  its  naval  depot,  and  has  16,500 
inhabitants.  In  Rochefort  it  was  where  Napoleon  in  1815,  after  the  battle  of 
Waterloo,  embarked,  and  then  fell  into  the  power  of  the  English.  Before  the 
mouth  of  the  Charente,  lies  the  island  of  Oleron,  with  16,000  inhabitants,  and 
the  town  of  Chateau  du  Bourg.  On  the  Sevre  Niortaise  is  situated  the  town 
of  Marans,  with  4,600  inhabitants.  Saintes,  formerly  the  capital  of  Saintonge, 
on  the  Charente,  south-eastward  and  23  miles  distant  from  Rochefort,  with 
10,800  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  Saintonge  and  the  Lower  Charente 
Department  are:  Marennes  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Brouage  (with  1,000 
inhabitants),  Ionzac  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Royan  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
Tonnay- Charente  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  St.  Jean  d'Angely  (with  6,200 
inhabitants).  To  Saintonge  belongs  also  the  town  of  Barbezieux,  noted  for 
its  linen  cloth,  capons,  and  truffles,  has  3,000  inhabitants,  and  is  situated  within 
the  limits  of  the  Charente  Department  (see  below). 

XXII.  Angoumais,  along  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  two  last-named  prov- 
inces, and  at  the  northern  frontier  of  Guyenne,  was  united  with  the  French 
crown  by  King  Charles  V.,  and  comprises  at  present: — 51.  The  Charente 
Department,  containing :  -[-Angouleme,  former  capital  of  Angoumais,  on  the 
Charente,  72  miles  north-north-east  of  Bordeaux,  with  a  remarkable  cathedral, 
important  wine  and  brandy  trade,  and  18,000  inhabitants.  Cognac,  a  town 
on  the  Charente,  is  noted  for  its  brandy,  and  has  4,000  inhabitants.  Jarnac, 
a  village  in  the  vicinity  of  Cognac,  is  noted  in  history  for  the  battle  of  the 


212  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

The  French  Provinces  of  La  Marche,  Limousin  and  Auvergue. 

year  1569,  in  winch  the  prince  of  Conde  was  killed.  Ruffec  (with  3,000 
inhabitants),  Confolens  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Aubeterre  (with  1,000  inhabi- 
tants), and  La  Rochefoucauld  (with  2,700  inhabitants),  towns  in  this  depart- 
ment, within  whose  limits  lies,  moreover,  Barbezieux,  belonging  to  Saintonge 
(see  above). 

XXIII.  La  Marche. — This  province,  situated  near  the  centre  of  France 
and  the  southern  frontier  of  Berry,  has  since  the  year  1531  been  united  with 
the  French  crown,  and  comprises  at  present: — 52.  The  Creuse  Department, 
containing :  -4-Gueret,  formerly  the  capital  of  La  Marche,  near  the  head  of 
the  Gartempe  river,  southward  and  115  miles  distant  from  Orleans,  with 
5,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  Ahun  (with  2,000 
inhabitants),  Bourganeuf  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  Aubusson  (with  6,000  inhab- 
itants), Felletin  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Boussac  (with  1,000  inhabitants). 
The  towns  of  Bellao  (with  3,000  inhabitants)  and  Dorat  (with  2,000  inhabi- 
tants), situated  within  the  limits  of  the  Upper  Vienne  Department,  do  likewise 
belong  to  La  Marche. 

XXIV.  Limousin,  situated  at  the  north-eastern  frontier  of  Guyenne,  and 
once  an  earldom,  was  by  King  Henry  IV.  united  with  the  French  crown,  and 
comprises  at  present  2  departments,  viz.:  the  Upper  Vienne  Department  (chief 
town  Limoges),  and  the  Correze  Department  (chief  town  Tulle).  53.  The 
Upper  Vienne  Department  contains :  -(-Limoges,  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
Limousin,  on  the  Vienne  river,  north-eastward  and  115  miles  distant  from 
Bordeaux,  is  noted  for  its  horse-marts,  and  has  30,500  inhabitants.  Near  the 
town  of  Chains  (with  1,500  inhabitants)  was  in  the  middle  ages  a  castle,  in 
the  siege  of  which  King  Richard  of  the  Lion  Heart  was  killed  by  an  arrow 
in  1199.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are:  St.  Leonard  (with  6,000 
inhabitants),  St  Junien  (with  6,400  inhabitants),  St.  Yrieix  (with  7,500  inhabi- 
tants), Eymoutiers  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Magnac-Laval  (with  3,000 
inhabitants).  54.  The  Correze  Department  contains :  -{-Tulle,  chief  town  on 
the  Correze,  south-eastward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Limoges,  is  noted  for 
its  manufactures  of  point  net,  and  has  10,000  inhabitants.  Drive  la  Gaillarde, 
a  town  on  the  Correze,  with  important  truffle  trade,  and  9,500  inhabitants. 
The  little  town  of  Turenne  is  noted  for  its  ancient  castle,  one  of  the  oldest  and 
most  important  fortresses  in  France.  The  fine  palace  in  the  village  of  Pom- 
padour was  the  property  of  the  well-known  marchioness  of  Pompadour.  The 
town  of  Ussel  is  situated  on  the  Sarsonne,  and  has  4,300  inhabitants. 

XXV.  Auvergne, — This  province,  once  an  earldom,  which  was  in  1360 


FRANCE.  o13 


The  Provinces  of  Auvergne  and  Lyonn:ii?. 


raised  to  the  rank  of  a  duchy,  and  in  1531  united  with  the  crown,  comprises 
at  present  2  departments,  viz. :  the  Puy  de  Dome  Department  (chief  town 
Clermont),  and  the  Cantal  Department  (chief  town  Aurillac),  both  named 
after  the  highest  peaks  of  the  mountains  of  Auvergne  (see  Introduction,  or 
General  View  of  Europe,  §  7,  h).  65.  The  Puy  de  Dome  Department  con- 
tains :  -{-Clermont,  surnamed  en  Auvergne,  ancient  capital  of  Auvergne,  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Puy  de  Dome,  westward  and  83  miles  distant  from  Lyons, 
consists  properly  of  two  towns,  lying  near  each  other,  viz. :  Clermont  and 
Mont/errand,  which  since  the  first  French  revolution  are  united  by  the  common 
name  of  Clermont-Ferrand.  This  united  city  has  34,000  inhabitants,  and  is 
noted  for  the  council,  or  synod,  held  here  in  1095,  which  gave  the  principal 
cause  to  the  crusades.  Riom,  a  town  with  13,000  inhabitants,  is  situated 
northward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Clermont,  in  the  beautiful  and  fertile 
plain  known  by  the  name  of  Limagne.  The  town  of  Aigueperse,  with  3,200 
inhabitants,  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Montpensier.  Other 
towns  of  this  department  are :  Volvic  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Pont  du 
Chateau  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Vodable  (with  900  inhabitants),  Issoire  (with 
6,200  inhabitants),  Sauxillanges  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Besse  (with  2,000 
inhabitants),  Billom  (with  5,800  inhabitants),  Ambert  (with  8,500  inhabitants), 
Arlant  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Marsac  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Ihiers  (with 
1 1,000  inhabitants,  and  important  manufactures  of  paper  and  cutlery),  St.  Remy 
(with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  Maringues  (with  4,000  inhabitants).  56.  The 
Cantal  Department  contains :  -{-Aurillac,  chief  town,  on  the  Jourdane,  south- 
westward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Clermont,  with  various  manufactures,  trade 
with  mules,  and  11,500  inhabitants.  The  town  of  Chaudes-Aigues,  with  2,300 
inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  warm  mineral  baths.  Other  towns  of  this  depart- 
ment are :  St.  Flour  (with  6,500  inhabitants),  Murat  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
Vic  sur  Cere  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Maurs  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Mauriac 
(with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  Salers  (with  1,800  inhabitants).  The  towns  of 
Briodde  (with  5,500  inhabitants)  and  Langeac  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
situated  within  the  limits  of  the  Upper  Loire  Department  (see  under  the 
head  of  Languedoc),  do  likewise  belong  to  Auvergne. 

XXVI.  Lyonnais. — This  province  is  situated  between  Auvergne  and  Dau- 
phiny.  It  did  at  first  form  part  of  the  primary  kingdom  of  Burgundy  (see 
above,  under  the  head  of  Bourgogne),  and  was  since  under  the  Frankish  sway 
ruled  by  governors  who,  in  the  course  of  time,  made  themselves  independent, 
assuming  the  title  of  earls.     Since  the  year  1173  they  possessed  only  the  dis- 


214  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


The  French  Provinces  of  Lyonnais  and  Guyenne. 


tricts  of  Forez  and  Beaujolais,  while  the  archbishop  of  Lyons  exercised  the 
sway  over  Lyonnais  proper.  These  three  districts  were  united  with  the 
French  crown  respectively  by  King  Philip  IV.,  and  in  the  years  1369  and 
1531.  The  province  of  Lyonnais  comprises  at  present  2  departments,  viz. : 
the  Rhone  Department  (chief  town  Lyons),  and  the  Loire  Department  (chief 
town  Montbrison).  57.  The  Rhone  Department  contains :  -{"Lyons,  once  the 
capital  of  Lyonnais,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Saone  and  Rhone,  south-eastward 
and  2*70  miles  distant  from  Paris,  and  northward  and  166  miles  distant 
from  Marseilles,  is  the  second  French  city  in  population  and  manufactures, 
and  has  (including  the  suburbs  of  la  Guillotiere  and  la  Croix  Rousxe)  210,000 
inhabitants.  Its  40,000  silk-looms  employ  80,000  men,  and  are  annually  pro- 
ducing silks  at  the  value  of  100  million  francs.  The  town  of  Villefranche 
(noted  for  its  cattle-fairs,  and  having  8,000  inhabitants)  was  formerly  the  cap- 
ital of  Beaujolais  (see  above).  Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  St.  Genis- 
Laval  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Givors  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Tarare  (with 
7,000  inhabitants),  Condrieu  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Belleville  (with  2,300 
inhabitants),  and  Beaujeu  (with  1,800  inhabitants).  58.  The  Loire  Depart- 
ment contains :  -(-Montbrison,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Forez 
(see  above),  on  the  Vizezy,  westward  and  37  miles  distant  from  Lyons,  with 
6,500  inhabitants.  The  city  of  St.  Etienne  is  noted  for  its  extensive  manu- 
factures of  fire-arms,  hardware,  and  silk  riband,  and  has  54,000  inhabitants. 
Roanne,  a  town  on  the  Loire,  with  10,500  inhabitants,  is  the  centre  of  the 
inland  trade  between  Marseilles,  Lyons,  and  Paris.  Other  towns  of  this 
department  are  :  St.  Gahnier  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  St.  Symphorien  de  Lay 
(with  3,000  inhabitants),  St.  Chamond  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  and  Rive  de 
Gier  (with  10,500  inhabitants). 

XXVII.  Guyenne. — This  province,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Garonue, 
formed  before  the  first  French  revolution  one  government  together  with 
Gascony  lying  on  the  south  side  of  this  river,  and  was  by  the  Romans  called 
Aquitania,  on  account  of  its  mineral  waters  (aquae).  In  the  5th  century  the 
Visigoths  settled  here  and  founded  an  empire,  whose  capital  was  Toulouse. 
During  a  short  period  in  the  8th  century  the  name  of  Septimania  was  used 
instead  of  Aquitania.  In  778  Charlemagne  appointed  his  son  Louis  king  of 
Aquitania,  which  however  subsequently  was  divided  into  the  duchies  of 
Guyenne  (Aquitania)  and  Gascogne,  and  in  1155,  by  way  of  marriage,  came 
under  the  sway*  of  the  English  kings,  who  remained  in  possession  for  almost 
300  years.     In  1453  both  duchies  were  united  with  the  French  crown.     It 


FRANCE.  215 


The  Province  of  Guyenne. 


&* 


must  be  still  observed  that  Guyenne  was  divided  into  six  districts,  viz. :  Bour- 
delois  (capital  Bordeaux),  Perigord  (chief  town  Perigueux),  Agenois  (chief 
town  Agen),  Quercy  (chief  town  Cahors),  Rouergue  (chief  town  Rhodez),  and 
Bazadois  (chief  town  Bazas).  At  present  Guyenne  is  divided  into  6  depart- 
ments, which  in  substance  correspond  to  those  districts.  59.  The  Gironde 
Department  contains :  -{-Bordeaux,  formerly  the  capital  of  Guyenne,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Garonne,  is  the  emporium  of  the  south-west  provinces  and 
chief  seat  of  the  French  wine  trade,  is  handsomely  built,  and  has  1 20,000 
inhabitants.  Previous  to  the  first  French  revolution,  the  annual  export  of 
wines  from  Bordeaux  was  100,000  tons,  while  in  1831  only  24,000  tons  of 
this  staple  were  exported.  The  district  of  Medoc  is  noted  for  its  wines,  and 
contains  the  towns  of  Lesparre  (with  1.000  inhabitants),  Medoc  or  St.  Laurent 
de  Medoc  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Paulliac  (with  3,000  inhabitants).  The 
towns  of  Barsac  (with  2,700  inhabitants),  Langon  (with  3,500  inhabitants), 
and  Podensac  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  are  likewise  noted  for  their  wines. 
Blaye,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Gironde,  with  4,000  inhabitants,  and  a  citadel 
where  the  duchess  of  Berry  was  kept  prisoner  from  1832  to  1833.  Other 
towns  of  this  department  are  :  Buch  or  La  Teste  de  Buck  (with  3,000  inhabi- 
tants), Castres  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Bourg  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Con- 
trast (with  3,200  inhabitants),  Libourne  (with  10,500  inhabitants),  Castillon 
(with  3,000  inhabitants),  La  Reole  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  Bazas 
(formerly  the  chief  town  of  the  district  of  Bazadois,  with  4,600  inhabitants). 
60.  The  Dordogne  Department  contains :  -j-Perigueux,  formerly  chief  town 
of  Perigord,  on  the  Isle,  north-eastward  and  69  miles  distant  from  Bordeaux,  is 
noted  for  its  truffles,  and  has  12,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  depart- 
ment are:  Riberac (with  4,000  inhabitants), Mncidan (with  1,500  inhabitants), 
Bergerac  (with  9,500  inhabitants),  Exideuil  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Sarlat 
(with  6,200  inhabitants),  and  Nontron  (with  3,700  inhabitants).  61.  The  Lot 
and  Garonne  Department  contains:  -|-Agen,  chief  town  on  the  Garonne, 
south-eastward  and  74  miles  distant  from  Bordeaux,  is  noted  for  its  prunes, 
and  has  14,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are  :  Tonneins 
(with  8,000  inhabitants),  Aiguillon  (with  3,700  inhabitants),  Marmande  (with 
7,000  inhabitants),  and  Villeneuve  oVAgen  (with  11,500  inhabitants).  62.  The 
Lot  Department  contains :  -{"Cahors,  formerly  the  capital  of  Quercy  (see 
above),  on  the  Lot,  115  miles  east-south-east  of  Bordeaux,  is  noted  for  its 
wines,  and  has  a  remarkable  ancient  cathedral,  and  13,500  inhabitants. 
The  village  of  Lamothe  Fenelon  is  the  birthplace  of  the  renowned  archbishop 


216  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

The  French  Provinces  of  Guyanne  and  Gascony. 


Fenelon  (born  in  1651),  and  lies  near  Souillao,  a  town  on  the  Dordogne,  with 
3,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are  :  Gourdon  (with  5,000 
inhabitants),  Rocamadour  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  and  Figeac  (with  6,800  in- 
habitants). 63.  The  Tarn  and  Garonne  Department  contains  :  -J-Montauban, 
chief  town,  on  the  Tarn,  northward  and  32  miles  distant  from  Toulouse,  with 
a  cathedral  founded  in  739,  considerable  inland  trade,  and  25,000  inhabitants. 
Moissac,  a  town  on  the  Tarn,  with  important  inland  trade,  and  11,000  inhabi- 
tants. (Oastel  Sarrazin,  within  the  limits  of  this  department,  belongs  to 
Languedoc.)  64.  The  Aveyron  Department  contains:  -4-Rodez,  formerly  the 
capital  of  Rouergue  (see  above),  on  the  Aveyron,  166  miles  east-south-east 
of  Bordeaux,  is  noted  for  its  beautiful  cathedral  with  a  steeple  290  feet  high, 
and  has  10,000  inhabitants.  St.  Geniez,  or  St.  Geniez  de  Rivedolt,  a  town 
on  the  Lot,  with  numerous  manufactures  of  cloth,  etc.,  and  4,000  inhabitants. 
Other  towns  of  this  department  are :  Guiole  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Milhaud 
(with  11,000  inhabitants),  Aubin  (with  3,100  inhabitants),  Espalion  (with 
4,000  inhabitants),  St.  Affrique  (with  6,400  inhabitants),  and  Villefranche 
(with  10,000  inhabitants). 

XXVIII.  Gascony. — The  name  of  this  province,  situated  between  the 
Garonne  and  the  Pyrenees,  is  derived  from  the  ancient  Gasconians,  or  Vas- 
conians,  whose  descendants  are  the  Basques  (see  Introduction,  §  12),  and  who 
from  their  primitive  seat  on  the  south  side  of  the  Pyrenees,  partly  emigrated 
to  the  present  province  of  Gascony  at  the  end  of  the  6th  century.  Since  the 
11th  century  Gascony  shared  the  fate  of  Guyenne  (see  above).  Previous  to 
the  first  French  revolution  Gascony  was  divided  into  the  districts  of  Armag- 
nac  (chief  town  Auch),  Labour,  or  the  Country  of  the  Basques  (chief  town 
Bayonne),  Landes  (comprising  the  duchy  of  Albret),  Condomois  (chief  town 
Condom)  and  Marsan  (chief  town  Mpnt  de  Marsan).  At  present  Gascony 
comprises  3  departments,  viz. :  the  Gers  Department  (chief  town  Auch),  the 
Upper  Pyrenees  Department  (chief  town  Tarbes),  and  the  Heaths  Department 
(chief  town  Mont  de  Marsan).  65.  The  Gers  Department  contains :  -J-Auch, 
ancient  capital  of  Gascony,  south-eastward  and  106  miles  distant  from  Bor- 
deaux, with  a  splendid  cathedral,  and  11,000  inhabitants.  Condom,  formerly 
chief  town  of  Condomois  (see  above),  with  7,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns 
of  this  department  are :  Lectoure  (with  6,700  inhabitants),  Mirande  (with 
2,700  inhabitants),  Lombez  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  Eauze  (with  3,500 
inhabitants).  66.  The  Upper  Pyrenees  Department  contains:  -(-Tarbes, 
chief  town,  on  the  Adour,  115  miles  south-south-east  of  Bordeaux,  with  a 


FRANCE.  217 


The  Province  of  Gascony. 


valuable  stud,  and  13,000  inhabitants.  The  towns  of  Lourdes  (with  4,000  in- 
habitants), Argeles  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  and  Lus  (with  2,200  inhabitants), 
are  situated  in  the  romantic  valley  of  Lavedan.  The  not  less  romantic  valley 
of  Campan  contains  the  towns  of  Campan  (with  4,500  inhabitants),  and  Bay- 
neres,  surnamed  de  Bigorre  (with  8,500  inhabitants).  The  village  of  Bareges, 
in  the  valley  of  the  same  name,  is  noted  for  its  mineral  baths  and  its  webs 
of  silk  and  wool,  known  by  the  name  of  Bareges.  The  village  of  Cautercts, 
in  the  Pyrenees,  is  noted  for  its  warm  mineral  baths.  67.  The  Heatlts  De- 
partment contains :  -J-Mont  de  Marsan,  chief  town,  on  the  Douze,  north  east- 
ward and  60  miles  distant  from  B:iyonne,  with  4,200  inhabitants.  Other 
towns  of  this  department  are  :  Roquefort  de  Marsan  (with  2.000  inhabitants), 
Aire  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  St.  Sever  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  and  Dax 
(with  5,000  inhabitants).  To  Gascony  belong  moreover  several  towns  lying 
within  the  limits  of  other  departments.  First,  from  the  Lower  Pyrenees  De- 
partment (see  below) :  Bayonne,  a  fortified  maritime  and  commercial  town, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Adour,  115  miles  south-south-west  of  Bordeaux,  is 
noted  for  its  smoked  hams,  carries  on  an  important  trade,  especially  with 
Spain,  and  has  16,000  inhabitants.  In  1679  the  bayonets  were  invented  here. 
The  palace  of  Marrac,  where  in  1808  the  royal  family  of  Spain  resigned  in 
favor  of  Napoleon,  has  been  destroyed  by  fire.  St.  Jean  de  Luz,  a  maritime 
town  near  the  Spanish  frontier,  with  3,800  inhabitants.  Not  far  from  here  is 
in  the  Bidassoa  river  the  little  Pheasant,  or  Conference  Island,  where  the 
treaty  of  peace  of  the  year  1669  was  concluded  between  France  and  Spain. 
Haspaeon,  or  Hasparren,  an  industrious  town  with  5,000  inhabitants.  Mau- 
leon,  a  town  on  the  Gave,  with  1,400  inhabitants.  Secondly,  from  the  Lot 
and  Garonne  Department  (see  above,  under  the  the  head  of  Guyenne) : 
Nekac,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  ancient  duchy  of  Albret,  on  the  Baise, 
18  miles  west-south-west  of  Agen,  is  noted  for  its  truffle-pies,  and  has  7,000 
inhabitants,  and  an  old  palace,  once  the  residence  of  the  kings  of  Navarre 
and  the  dukes  of  Albret,  and  where  also  King  Henry  IV.  resided  for  a  time 
with  his  consort  Margaret  of  Valois.  From  the  town  of  Albeet  the  duchv 
had  derived  its  name.  Thirdly,  from  the  Upper  Garonne  Department  (see 
below,  under  the  head  of  Languedoc) :  Mueet,  a  town  on  the  Garonne,  south- 
westward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Toulouse,  with  4,000  inhabitants.  Other 
towns  of  this  same  department  are :  St.  Gaudens  (with  6,500  inhabitants), 
St.  Martory  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  St.  Beat  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  and 
St.  Bertrand  de  Comminges  (with  1,200  inhabitants).     Finally,  belongs  to 

10 


218  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  French  Provinces  of  Navarre,  Beam  and  Foix. 


Gascony  the  town  of  St.  Girons,  with  4,500  inhabitants,  situated  within  the 
limits  of  the  Ariege  Department  (see  below  under  the  head  of  Foix). 

XXIX.  Navarre  and  Bearn,  along  the  Pyrenees,  and  surrounded  by 
Gascony.  In  the  description  of  Spain,  it  has  already  been  related  (page  197) 
that  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Navarre  was  since  1234  in  the  possession  of  the 
French  descendants  of  Count  Theobald  of  Champagne,  and  that  in  1512  King 
Ferdinand  of  Aragon  wrested  from  them  the  southern  part  of  it.  The  heiress 
of  the  northern  part  was  in  1548  married  to  the  Duke  Anton  of  Bourbon  (see 
Bourbonnais),  and  from  this  matrimony  sprung  King  Henry  IV.,  who  inherited 
at  the  same  time  the  principality  of  Beam,  connected  with  the  duchy  of 
Albret.  From  Navarre  and  Beam  has  been  formed : — 68.  The  Lower  Pyre- 
nees Department,  containing :  -|-Pau,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  principality 
of  Bearn,  on  the  Gave,  55  miles  east-south-east  of  Bayonne,  with  an  ancient 
palace,  where  Henry  IV.  was  born  in  1553,  and  13,000  inhabitants.  The 
town  of  Pontac  is  noted  for  its  wines,  and  has  2,000  inhabitants.  Oloron,  or 
Oleron,  a  town  with  7,000  inhabitants,  carries  on  an  important  trade  with 
timber  and  lumber.  The  towns  of  Orthez  (with  8,000  inhabitants)  and  Salies 
(with  6,800  inhabitants)  are  noted  for  their  hams,  Laruns  for  its  sulphur 
baths,  and  Moneins  (with  5,500  inhabitants)  for  its  wines.  St.  Jean  Pied  de 
Port,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  (French)  kingdom  of  Navarre,  on  the  high 
road  from  France  to  Spain,  south-eastward  and  28  miles  distant  from  Bayonne* 
with  a  strong  citadel,  and  4,000  inhabitants.  St.  Palais,  a  town  on  the 
Bidouse,  with  1 ,200  inhabitants.  La  Bastide  de  Clarence,  a  town  with  2,000 
inhabitants.  (The  other  towns  within  the  limits  of  this  department,  viz  : 
Bayonne,  St.  Jean  de  Luz,  Biaritz,  Hasparren,  and  Mauleon,  are  already 
described  under  the  head  of  Gascony,  to  which  they  belong.) 

XXX.  The  earldom  of  Foix,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  was  since  the 
11th  century  ruled  by  counts  or  earls,  and  in  1589  united  with  the  French 
crown  by  Henry  IV.,  whose  ancestors  had  inherited  it.  At  present  it  forms : — 
69.  The  Ariege  Department,  containing:  -f-Foix,  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
earldom,  on  the  Ariege,  southward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Toulouse,  with 
5,000  inhabitants.  The  town  of  Ax,  situated  in  a  romantic  valley  of  the 
Pyrenees,  is  noted  for  its  mineral  waters,  and  has  2,000  inhabitants.  Pamiers 
and  Tarascon,  towns,  with  respectively  7,400  and  2,000  inhabitants. 

Between  the  French  province  of  Foix  and  the  Spanish  province  of  Catalonia 
lies,  in  the  Pyrenees,  the  neutral  country  of  Andorra,  or  Andorre,  occupying  a 
tract  of  only  192  square  miles,  with  16,000  inhabitants,  and  forming  from  old  a 


FRANCE.  219 


The  Provinces  of  Rousillon  and  Langueduc. 


kind  of  republic,  whose  independence  has  ever  been  respected  by  France  and 
Spain.  On  the  7th  of  November,  1846,  a  new  code  of  law  was  solemnly 
promulgated.  It  comprises  54  villages,  among  which  the  capital,  bearing  the 
name  of  Andorre  la  vielle. 

XXXL  Roussillon,  the  most  southern  province  of  France,  between  Foix 
and  the  Mediterranean.  The  Frankish  governors,  appointed  here  since  796, 
made  themselves  independent  in  the  course  of  time,  and  assumed  the  title  of 
earls.  The  last  of  them  bequeathed  the  earldom  to  King  Alphonso  of  Aragon, 
in  1173.  King  John  II.  of  Aragon  mortgaged  Roussillon,  in  1463,  to  King 
Louis  XL  of  France,  for  the  sum  of  350,000  gold  dollars,  which  sum  was  not 
repaid,  so  that  in  the  treaty  of  1659,  Roussillon  was  formally  ceded  to  France. 
It  forms  at  present : — 70.  The  East  Pyrenees  Department,  containing :  -f-PEa- 
pignan,  the  ancient  capital  of  Roussillon,  near  the  Mediterranean,  south-west- 
ward and  138  miles  distant  from  Marseilles,  is  the  most  southerly  town  of 
France,  and  has  20,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are : 
Port  Vendre  (with  2,300  inhabitants),  Rivesaltes  (with  3,200  inhabitants), 
Collioure  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  St.  Laurent  de  Cerdans  (with  2,000  inhabi- 
tants), Prades  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Ceret  (with  3,000  inhabitants). 
The  little  town  of  Mont-Louis,  founded  in  1681,  has  only  400  inhabitants,  but 
is  strongly  fortified,  and  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  French  Cerdagne, 
which  in  1660  was  ceded  to  France  by  the  Spanish  crown. 

XXXII.  Languedoc,  between  Guyenne  and  Provence,  on  the  south  bounded 
by  the  Mediterranean,  has  an  area  of  17,679  square  miles,  and  derived  its 
name  from  a  French  idiom,  in  the  middle  ages.  Languedoc,  since  the  5th 
century  possessed  by  the  Visigoths,  and  in  the  8th  by  the  Moors,  was  by 
Pepin  the  Little  brought  under  the  sway  of  the  Franks.  In  the  9th  century, 
the  governors  of  Languedoc  assumed  their  independence  and  the  title  of  earls 
of  Ibulonse,  and  ruled  for  a  long  while  over  a  great  part  of  Provence  likewise. 
In  1361,  Languedoc  was  united  with  the  French  crown.  It  comprises  at 
present  8  departments,  whose  preliminary  enumeration  would  take  up  too 
much  room  here.  71.  The  Upper  Garonne  Department  contains :  -4-Toitlouse, 
ancient  capital  of  Languedoc,  on  the  Garonne,  south-eastward  and  138  miles 
distant  from  Bordeaux,  with  many  remarkable  ancient  buildings  (among  them, 
especially,  the  city  hall  and  the  cathedral),  numerous  manufactures,  and  80,000 
inhabitants.  The  town  of  Bagneres  de  Lnckon,  with  2,000  inhabitants,  is  noted 
for  its  warm  mineral  baths.  Villefranche,  a  town,  with  3,000  inhabitants. 
(Other  towns  within  the  limits  of  this  department,  as  St.  Gaudens,  Muret,  etc., 


220  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  French  Province  of  Lanfmedoc. 

belonging  to  Gascony,  are  already  described  there.)  12.  The  Tarn  Depart- 
ment contains :  +  Alby,  chief  town,  on  the  Tarn,  north-eastward  and  42  miles 
distant  from  Toulouse,  with  a  beautiful  cathedral,  and  12,500  inhabitants. 
Here,  and  in  the  surrounding  country,  called  Albigeois,  the  Albigenses  (who 
in  some  points  had  the  same  religious  creed  as  the  Waldenses  mentioned  under 
the  head  of  Italy)  had  their  chief  seat.  Castres,  a  town  on  the  Agout,  is 
noted  for  its  cloth  manufactures,  and  has  18,500  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of 
this  department  are :  Gaillac  (with  9,000  inhabitants),  Soreze  (with  2,900 
inhabitants),  Lavaur  (with  7,100  inhabitants),  Mazamet  (with  7,000  inhabi- 
tants), Graulhet  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Rabastens  (with  7,000  inhabitants), 
Hautpovl  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  and  Lautrec  (with  3,600  inhabitants). 
73.  The  A ude  Department  contains:  -["Carcassonne,  chief  town  on  the  Aude, 
south-eastward  and  54  miles  distant  from  Toulouse,  is  renowned  for  its  cloth 
manufactures,  and  has  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  19,500  inhabitants.  The 
city  of  Narbonne  (with  various  remarkable  ancient  buildings,  and  11,500 
inhabitants)  was  in  the  middle  ages  the  emporium  of  Languedoc,  and  in  the 
8th  century  the  seat  of  a  Moorish  governor.  Castelnaudary,  a  town  on  the 
South  canal,  with  cloth  manufactures,  and  11,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns 
of  this  department  are :  La  Grasse  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Sijean  (with 
3,000  inhabitants),  Leucate  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Alet  (with  1,200  inhabi- 
tants), Limoux  (with  7,500  inhabitants).  74.  The  Herault  Department  con- 
tains :  -(-Montpellier,  chief  town,  near  the  Mediterranean,  eastward  and  1 24 
miles  distant  from  Toulouse,  was  in  the  middle  ages  the  seat  of  a  renowned 
medical  school,  is  at  present  the  resort  of  invalids  for  its  salubrious  air,  and 
has  37,000  inhabitants.  As  the  seaport,  of  Montpellier  is  to  be  considered 
Cette,  a  maritime  town  on  the  Mediterranean,  is  noted  for  its  wines  and  salt- 
works, and  has  11,000  inhabitants.  The  towns  of  Frontignan  (with  2,000 
inhabitants)  and  Lnnel  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  are  noted  for  their  excellent 
wines.  Lodeve,  a  town  at  the  foot  of  the  Sevennes,  is  from  old  renowned  for 
its  cloth  manufactures,  and  has  11,500  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this 
department  are :  Ganges  (with  4,500  inhabitants),  Clermont- Lodeve,  or  Cler- 
mont V  Herault  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Agde  (with  8,500  inhabitants),  Pezenas 
(with  9,000  inhabitants),  Beziers  (with  17,500  inhabitants),  Bedarieux  (with 
6,000  inhabitants),  and  St.  Pons,  surnamed  de  Tomiers  (with  7,500  inhabitants). 
75.  The  Gard  Department  contains :  -4-Nimes,  chief  town,  pleasantly  situated 
north-eastward  and  28  miles  distant  from  Montpellier,  has  numerous  manu- 
factures of  silks,  woollen,  etc.,  and  45,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  a 


FRANCE.  221 


The  Province  of  Languedoc. 


highly  remarkable  aqueduct,  called  Pont  du  Gard,  and  reared  by  the  ancient 
Romans.  Beaucaire,  a  town  on  the  Rhone,  north-westward  and  54  miles 
distant  from  Marseilles,  is  noted  for  its  important  annual  fair,  and  has  10,000 
inhabitants.  Aigues  Mortes,  a  town  near  the  Mediterranean,  with  3,000  in- 
habitants, salt-works,  and  a  seaport,  where  Louis  IX.  embarked  for  the  6th 
and  7th  crusade,  in  1248  and  1269.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are: 
Uzes  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  St.  Gilles  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Sommieres 
(with  4,000  inhabitants),  Villeneuve  d Avignon  (with  3,600  inhabitants),  Roque- 
maure  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Alais  (with  14,500  inhabitants),  Bagnols,  or 
Baignoh  (with  5,200  inhabitants),  Pont  St.  Esprit  (with  5,000  inhabitants), 
Remoulins  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Anduze  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  St. 
Hippolyte  (with  5,800  inhabitants),  and  Le  Vigan  (with  5,000  inhabitants). 
76.  The  Lozere  Department  contains :  -}-Mende,  chief  town,  on  the  Lot,  north- 
eastward and  138  miles  distant  from  Toulouse,  with  manufactures  of  serge, 
and  6,200  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  department  are  :  Marvejols  (with 
4,200  inhabitants),  Florae  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  Langogne  (with  3,000  inhab- 
itants), and  Chdteauneuf  de  Random  (with  2,500  inhabitants).  The  towns  of 
Villcfort  and  Vialas  are  noted  for  their  lead  mines.  77.  The  Ardeche  Depart- 
ment contains :  -j-Privas,  chief  town,  on  the  Ouveze,  southward  and  69  miles 
distant  from  Lyons,  with  4,600  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  department 
are :  Tournon  (with  4,300  inhabitants),  St.  Peray  (with  2,000  inhabitants), 
Vernoux  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  La  Voulte  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Anno- 
nay  (with  9,500  inhabitants),  Largentieres  (with  3,100  inhabitants),  Aubenas 
(with  5,500  inhabitants),  Vals  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Villeneuve  de  Berg 
(with  2,400  inhabitants),  Bourg  St.  Andeol  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  and 
Rockemaure  (with  1,500  inhabitants).  Viviers  (on  the  Rhone,  with  2,000 
inhabitants)  was  formerly  chief  town  of  the  district  of  Vivarais.  78.  The 
Upper  Loire  Department  contains :  -f"LiE  Puy,  surnamed  en  Velay,  chief  town, 
near  the  Loire,  north-eastward  and  164  miles  distant  from  Toulouse,  and 
south-westward  and  65  miles  distant  from  Lyons,  with  a  beautiful  cathedral, 
various  manufactures,  and  15,500  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  depart- 
ment are :  Tence  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Monistrol  (with  4,000  inhabitants), 
Yssingeaux,  or  Issengeaux  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  and  Polignac  (with  the 
ruins  of  the  ancestral  seat  of  the  princes  of  Polignac).  To  Languedoc  belongs 
likewise  the  town  of  Castel  Sarrazin,  on  the  Garonne,  35  miles  north-north- 
west of  Toulouse,  with  7,700  inhabitants,  situated  within  the  limits  of  the 
Tarn  and  Garonne  Departments  (see  above,  under  the  head  of  Guyenne). 


222  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

The  French  Provinces  of  Languedoc  and  Dauphiny. 

The  towns  of  Brioude  and  Langeac,  within  the  limits  of  the  Upper  Loire 
Department,  belonging  to  Auvergne,  are  already  described  there. 

XXXIII.  Dauphiny,  between  the  Rhone  and  Italy,  on  the  south  bordering 
upon  Provence.  At  first  forming  part  of  the  Burgundian  kingdom,  Dauphiny 
was  subsequently  ruled  by  earls,  who  since  the  beginning  of  the  11th  century 
bore  the  title  of  Dauphins  of  Viennois.  The  last  of  them,  Humbert  II.,  be- 
queathed in  1343  the  country  to  King  Philip  VI.  of  France,  upon  the  condi- 
tion that  every  French  crown-prince  should  bear  the  title  of  Dauphin.  This 
custom  has  been  observed  until  1830.  Dauphiny  comprises  at  present  3  de- 
partments, viz. :  the  Isere  Department  (chief  town  Grenoble),  the  Upper  Alps 
Department  (chief  town  Gap)  and  the  Drome  Department  (chief  town  Va- 
lence). 79.  The  Isere  Department  contains :  -{-Grenoble,  ancient  capital  of 
Dauphiny,  on  the  Isere,  south-eastward  and  54  miles  distant  from  Lyons,  is 
noted  for  its  manufactures  of  gloves,  and  has  30,000  inhabitants.  About  13 
miles  north  of  Grenoble  is  situated  in  a  dreary  mountainous  tract  the  princi- 
pal monastery  of  the  Carthusians,  called  Grande  Chartreuse,  and  founded  in 
1084  by  the  holy  Bruno.  Vienne,  a  town  on  the  Rhone,  southward  and  13 
miles  distant  from  Lyons,  is  noted  for  its  high  antiquity  and  for  its  many  rem- 
nants of  Roman  architecture,  and  has  17,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of 
this  department  are:  Sassenage  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Vif  {with  4,000  in- 
habitants), Vizille  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Rives  (with  2,000  inhabitants), 
Voiron  (with  8,500  inhabitants),  Allemont  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  St.  Mar- 
cellin  (with  3,100  inhabitants),  La  Tour  du  Pin  (with  2,600  inhabitants), 
Bourgain  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Pont  Beauvoisie  (with  2,000  inhabitants), 
and  La  Balme  (with  1,200  inhabitants).  80.  The  Upper  Alps  Department 
contains  :  -{-Gap,  chief  town,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Bonne  and  Luie,  50 
miles  south  south-east  of  Grenoble,  with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  8,000 
inhabitants.  Brianc/on,  a  town  near  the  head  of  the  Durance  and  in  a  tract 
of  the  Alps,  which  is  elevated  7,374  feet  above  the  sea,  is  noted  for  its  strong 
fortifications,  and  has  3,600  inhabitants.  Mont  Dauphin,  a  town  and  fortress, 
with  500  inhabitants.  Embrun,  a  town  on  the  Durance,  with  a  remarkable 
ancient  cathedral,  and  3,400  inhabitants.  81.  The  Drome  Department  con- 
tains: -[-Valence,  chief  town,  on  the  Rhone,  southward  and  54  miles  distant 
from  Lyons,  with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  11,500  inhabitants.  Other 
towns  of  this  department  are:  Die  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Tain  (with 
2,000  inhabitants),  Romans  (with  7,300  inhabitants),  Dieu  le  Fit  (with  4,000 
inhabitants),  Montelimart   (with    8,400    inhabitants),  Chabeuil  (with   4,000 


FRANCE.  223 


The  Provinces  of  Dauphiny  and  Provence. 


inhabitants),  Crest  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  and  Nyons  (with  3,500  inhabi- 
tants). 

To  the  government  of  Dauphiny  did  also  belong  the  principality  of  Oeange, 
which  lies  between  Dauphiny  and  Provence  along  the  Rhone.  Since  the  11th 
century  it  was  under  the  sway  of  earls,  who  assumed  the  princely  title,  and 
became  extinct  in  1531  with  Prince  Philibert,  who  bequeathed  the  country 
to  lus  nephew,  Renatus  of  Nassau.  Since  that  time  the  at  present,  in  Hol- 
land, reigning  line  of  the  house  of  Nassau  has  been  called  Nassau-Orange,  or 
the  house  of  Orange.  In  the  treaty  of  peac  e  concluded  at  Utrecht  in  1713, 
the  principality  was  ceded  to  France  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  who  had  inher- 
ited it  from  the  prince,  William  III.,  of  Orange  (and  king  of  England).  At 
present  the  principality  of  Orange  forms  part  of  the  Vaucluse  Department 
(see  below),  and  contains  the  towns  of  Orange  (formerly  its  capital,  near  the 
Rhone,  northward  and  16  miles  distant  from  Avignon,  with  9,500  inhabitants), 
and  Courteson  (with  2,500  inhabitants). 

XXXIV.  Provence,  along  the  Mediterranean,  between  the  Rhone  and 
the  Sardinian  continent.  About  its  history,  see  under  the  head  of  Bourgogne, 
or  Burgundy ;  and  it  needs  only  to  be  remarked  that  in  1481  Provence  was 
definitively  united  to  the  French  crown.  At  present  it  comprises  3  depart- 
ments, viz. :  the  Rhone-mouths  Department  (chief  town  Marseilles),  the  Var 
Department  (chief  town  Draguignan)  and  the  Lower  Alps  Department  (chief 
town  Digne).  82.  The  Rhone-mouths  Department  contains :  Aix,  the  ancient 
capital  of  Provence,  on  the  Arc,  northward  and  13  miles  distant  from  Mar- 
seilles, with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  26,000  inhabitants.  -{-Marseilles, 
the  capital  of  the  department  and,  in  some  respect,  the  first  commercial  city 
of  France,  on  the  Mediterranean,  between  the  mouths  of  the  Rhone  and 
Toulon,  has  160,000  inhabitants,  a  great  many  fine  houses  and  public  build- 
ings, is  the  seat  both  of  literary  institutions  and  manufactures,  and  its  com- 
merce with  the  Levant  is  very  extensive.  Marseilles  was  founded  600  years 
before  the  Christian  era  by  Greek  colonists.  Arles,  a  town  on  the  Rhone, 
north-westward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Marseilles,  has  22,000  inhabitants, 
and  many  remarkable  ancient  buildings,  and  was  since  933  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Arelat  (see  History  of  Burgundy  above).  Other  towns  of  this 
department  are :  Martigues  (with  7,800  inhabitants),  Berre  (with  2,000  inhab- 
itants), St.  Chamas  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Salon  (with  6,000  inhabitants), 
Lambesc  (with  4,400  inhabitants),  Jstres  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Tarascon 
(with  12,000  inhabitants),  St.  Remy  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  La  Ciotat  (with 


224  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  French  Provinces  of  Provence  and  Avignon. 

5,000  inhabitants),  Cassis  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Aubagne  (with  6,000  in- 
habitants), Auriol  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Gardanne  (with  3,000  inhabitants) 
Organ  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Chateau- Renard  (with  3,600  inhabitants). 
83.  The  Var  Department  contains :  -J-Draguignan.  chief  town,  at  the  foot  of 
the  Alps,  60  miles  north-north-east  of  Marseilles,  with  10,500  inhabitants. 
Toulon,  a  strongly  fortified  town  and  chief  naval  station,  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean, with  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  Europe,  great  naval  stores,  etc.,  and 
37,000  inhabitants.  On  the  16th  of  August,  1793,  an  English  fleet  under  ad- 
miral Hood  took  possession  of  Toulon,  which  however  was  reconquered  on 
the  18th  of  December,  of  the  same  year.  Other  towns  of  this  department 
are :  Seyne,  or  La  Seyne  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  Brignolles  (with  6,500  in- 
habitants), St.  Barjols  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  St.  Maximin  (with  4.0U0  in- 
habitants), Grasse,  or  La  Grasse  (with  1 3,500  inhabitants),  Ollioules  (with 
3,000  inhabitants),  Frejns  (with  3,300  inhabitants),  St.  Trope*  (with  4,000  in- 
habitants), Antibes  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Cannes  (with  4,500  inhabitants), 
St.  Laurent  les  Var  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  and  Hyeres  (with  8,000  inhabi- 
tants). Near  the  coast  lie  the  Hyerian  and  Lerinian  Islands.  On  the  isle 
of  Sainte  Marguerite  (belonging  to  the  latter)  it  was,  where  the  mysterious 
man  with  the  iron  mask  was  kept  prisoner  from  the  year  1661  to  1691.  He 
died  in  1704  in  the  Bastile  of  Paris,  and  it  is  presumed  that  he  was  a  twin 
brother  of  Louis  XIV.  84.  The  Lower  Alps  Department  contains :  -{-Digne, 
chief  town,  on  the  Blcone,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  north-eastward  and 
72  miles  distant  from  Marseilles,  with  6,600  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this 
department  are  :  Colmars  (with  1,300  inhabitants),  Sisteron  (with  4,000  in- 
habitants), Forcalquier  (with  3,300  inhabitants),  Riez  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
Manosque  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Barcelonette  (with  2,400  inhabitants), 
Entrevaux  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  and  Castellane  (with  2,200  inhabitants). 
The  town  of  Apt,  with  6,400  inhabitants,  situated  within  the  limits  of  the 
Vaucluse  Department,  belongs  likewise  to  Provence. 

XXXV.  Avignon  and  Venaissin,  along  the  Rhone,  and  surrounded  by 
Provence.  In  the  history  of  the  States  of  the  Church  (page  194)  it  has 
already  been  related,  in  which  way  the  Apostolic  See  became  possessed  of 
the  city  of  Avignon  and  the  county  of  Venaissin.  The  popes  resided  in 
Avignon  during  the  period  from  1305  to  1377.  Since  the  year  1791  Avignon 
and  Venaissin  have  continued  to  form  a  constituent  part  of  France,  and  are 
comprised  by : — 85.  The  Vaucluse  Department,  containing :  -["Avignon,  chief 
town,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhone,  north-westward  and  54  miles  distant 


FRANCE.  225 


The  Provinces  of  Avignon  and  Corsica. 


from  Marseilles,  with  numerous  remarkable  ancient  buildings,  important  mad- 
der trade,  and  32,500  inhabitants.  In  the  14th  century,  when  the  pope  re- 
sided here,  the  population  amounted  to  100,000  inhabitants.  Carpentras, 
formerly  the  capital  of  the  county  of  Venaissin,  north-eastward  and  13  miles 
distant  from  Avignon,  with  10,500  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  depart- 
ment are :  Venasque  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  Vaison  (with  2,900  inhabitants), 
Cavaillon  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  and  L'lsle  (with  6,000  inhabitants). 

XXXVL  Corsica. — This  island  (area:  3,791  square  miles;  population: 
221,800  inhabitants),  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  at  about  90  miles  distance 
from  the  coast  of  Provence,  was  since  the  year  237  B.  C.  under  the  sway  of 
the  Romans,  and  subsequently  changed  hands  until  first  in  806,  and  then  in 
1284  the  Genuese  took  possession  of  it  and  kept  it  for  nearly  500  years.  The 
Genuese  treated  in  a  very  despotic  manner  the  Corsicans,  who  since  1729  re- 
volted at  several  times,  and  in  1735,  declaring  their  independence,  eleoted  a 
German  baron,  Theodor  of  Neuhof,  their  king.  But  he  was  not  able  to  main- 
tain himself,  and  died  in  England  in  1756.  The  Corsicans  meanwhile  con- 
tinued to  revolt,  so  that  at  last  the  Genuese  republic  thought  it  best  to  cede 
the  island  to  France,  which  occurred  in  1768.  In  1790  the  government  of 
the  island  was  transformed  into : — 86.  The  Department  Corsica,  containing : 
-4-Ajaccio,  chief  town,  on  the  western  coast,  is  remarkable  as  the  birth-place 
of  Napoleon,  and  has  10,000  inhabitants.  Bastia  was  formerly  the  capital 
of  Corsica,  and  has  13,500  inhabitants.  Other  towns  on  the  island  are: 
Corte  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Calvi  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  San  Fiorenzo,  or 
St.  Florent  (with  600  inhabitants),  Aleria  (with  800  inhabitants),  Sartene  (with 
3,000  inhabitants),  Porto  Vechio  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  Bonifacio  (with 
3,300  inhabitants). 

The  French  Colonies  are  the  following  : — 

1.  In  Africa:  Algeria  (area  estimated  at  191,700  square 
miles,  and  population  at  3,500.000  inhabitants),  the  island  of 
Bourbon  (area:  2,386  square  miles;  population:  110,000  inhabi- 
tants), settlements  on  the  Senegal,  etc. 

2.  In  Asia:  The  cities  and  towns  of  Pondichery,  Karikal, 
Make,  and  Chandenagor,  occupying  together  532  square  miles, 
with  180,000  inhabitants. 

3.  In  America:   French  Guyana,  or  Cajenne  (with  30,000 

10* 


226  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  French  Colonies. 

inhabitants),  the  "West  Indian  islands  of  Guadeloupe  (682  square 
miles,  and  120,000  inhabitants),  Martinique  (362  square  miles, 
and  1 16,000  inhabitants),  etc.,  and  the  isles  of  St.  Pierre,  Miquelon, 
and  Langley,  near  Newfoundland. 

4.  In  Polynesia,  the  French  government  has  assumed  a  mock 
protectorate  over  Otaheite  and  other  islands,  but  nowhere  estab- 
lished a  regular  colony. 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 

Area:  117,921  square  miles. 
Population  :  28,500,000  inhabitants. 

The  united  kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (as  it  is 
officially  styled)  comprises  two  large  islands  (with  several  groups 
of  smaller  ones),  lying  right  opposite  to  the  middle  part  of  con- 
tinental Europe,  and  separated  from  it  by  the  Strait  of  Dover. 

The  largest  of  the  two  islands,  embracing  England  (with  Wales) 
and  Scotland,  is  called  Great  Britain  since  the  year  1603,  when, 
by  the  accession  of  King  James  VI.  of  Scotland  to  the  English 
throne,  both  kingdoms  were  united. 

The  other  and  smaller  of  the  two  islands  is  Ireland,  which  in 
1172  was  conquered  by  the  English,  and  ever  since  has  formed  a 
constituent  part,  first  of  the  kingdom  of  England,  and  since  1603 
of  the  united  kingdom. 

About  the  seas,  bays,  etc.,  washing  the  shores  of  the  British 
islands,  see  Introduction,  §  8,  pages  19  and  20. 

According  to  the  census  of  1841,  the  total  population  was 
26,861,464  inhabitants  ;  and  according  to  that  of  1845,  the  popu- 
lation of  Great  Britain  (exclusive  Ireland)  amounted  to  19,572,574 
inhabitants.  The  nation  is  divided  into  three  classes:  the 
nobility,  gentry,  and  commonalty.  The  first  comprises  dukes, 
marquises,  earls,  viscounts,  and  barons  ;  the  second,  all  who  are 
distinguished  for  wealth,  education,  talents,  or  office ;  and  the 
third,  tradesmen,  artificers,  and  laborers.  With  regard  to  reli- 
gious concerns,  the  Church  of  England  is  established  by  law ;  its 


228  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Wales. 

supreme  head  is  the  sovereign,  and  under  him  are  2  archbishops, 
25  bishops,  60  archdeacons,  and  more  than  10.000  deans,  vicars, 
rectors,  etc.  The  members  of  other  churches  are  called  dis- 
senters, and  they  comprise  Methodists,  Baptists,  Independents, 
etc.  This  has,  however,  regard  only  to  England  (and  Wales). 
In  Ireland,  there  are  four  fifths  of  the  people  Roman  Catholics, 
and  nearly  one  half  of  the  other  fifth  Presbyterians.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  Scotland  the  established  religion  is  Presbyterian- 
ism,  the  fundamental  principle  of  which  is  the  equality  of  the 
clergy,  in  opposition  to  Episcopacy  and  Prelacy.  Lately  a  divi- 
sion has  taken  place,  one  half  of  the  preachers  having  seceded, 
and  formed  the  "  Free  Church  of  Scotland,"  in  which  the  min- 
isters are  elected  by  their  hearers. 

About  the  principal  mountain  ranges  in  Great  Britain,  see 
Introduction,  §  7,  k.  While  thus  Wales  and  most  of  the  western 
counties  of  England  are  mountaiuous,  the  rest  of  England  is 
diversified  with  beautiful  hills,  vales,  and  plains  ;  as  it  is  for  the 
most  part  also  the  case  with  Ireland,  where,  however,  about  an 
eighth  part  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  bogs,  while  in  the  south- 
west are  mountains  of  about  3.000  feet  high.  Scotland  is  divided 
into  the  Highlands  and  Lowlands,  which  latter  embrace  the 
counties  south  of  the  rivers  Forth  and  Clyde,  and  some  tracts 
north  of  them. 

About  the  principal  rivers,  see  Introduction,  §  10.  England  is 
intersected  by  numerous  canals,  which  extend  about  2,800  miles 
in  length.  Most  of  them  are  of  the  most  costly  and  perfect 
construction.  In  Scotland  and  Ireland  are  likewise  excellent 
canals.  At  present  England  is,  as  it  were,  covered  with  a  net  of 
rail-roads,  many  of  which  have  also  been  constructed  in  Ireland 
and  Scotland. 

The  climate  is  generally  healthful,  though  moist  in  England 
and  Ireland,  and  cold  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland.     In  Ireland 


GREAT  BRITAIN   AND  IRELAND.  229 

The  Products  of  England  and  Scotland. 

it  is  more  mild  than  ia  England,  and  produces  there  a  beautiful 
and  continued  verdure.  The  soil  is,  upon  the  whole,  fertile, 
though,  especially  in  the  Scotch  Highlands,  generally  poor. 

With  the  exception  of  timber  and  wine,  the  British  islands  are  supplied 
with  natural  products  in  such  quantities  that,  in  case  of  necessity  (as  was  the 
ca^e  in  the  period  of  the  continental  system  from  1806  to  1813),  they  can  dis- 
pense with  any  importation  from  the  European  continent  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  are  but  few  articles  of  this  kind,  which  can  be  exported  without 
prejudice  to  the  home  consumption.  Until  the  last  quarter  of  the  last  century, 
England,  indeed,  was  enabled  to  export,  upon  an  average,  about  two  million 
bushels  of  grain  annually ;  but  since  the  year  1793  it  could  never  afford  that, 
although  agriculture  is  conducted  here  with  a  skill  almost  unrivalled,  and  most 
of  the  grain  is  raised  here.  The  chief  products  of  England,  in  this  and  similar 
other  respects,  are,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  hops,  etc.  In  Scotland,  oats  are  the 
staple  agricultural  production.  In  Ireland,  agriculture  is  in  a  less  improved 
state  than  in  England  or  Scotland ;  barley,  oats,  wheat,  and  flax,  are  exten- 
sively cultivated ;  but  potatoes  are  the  chief  product,  and  form  the  principal 
food  of  the  poor.  The  rearing  of  cattle  is  in  a  high  state  of  perfection 
throughout  most  parts  of  the  islands.  There  are  about  11,500,000  head  of 
cattle,  more  than  50,000,000  sheep  of  more  or  less  improved  breed,  about 
2,250,000  horses,  etc.  In  Ireland,  grazing  and  the  dairy  are  the  best  managed 
parts  of  husbandry.  The  British  coal  mines  may  be  considered  as  inexhausti- 
ble. The  tin  mines  of  Cornwall  have  been  renowned  ever  since  the  days  of 
the  Phoenicians.  The  lead  mines  of  Cornwall  yield,  beside  the  lead,  from 
12,000  to  20,000  marks  of  silver  annually.  Other  productions  from  the  mineral 
kingdom  are,  copper  (Cornwall,  Wales,  and  Anglesea  island),  iron  (of  which 
in  1842  about  1,500,000  tons  were  produced  in  England  and  Scotland),  and 
black  lead. 

England  (and  in  some  respects,  Scotland  too)  is  the  first  man- 
ufacturing country  in  the  world.  The  chief  articles  are  cotton 
and  woollen  goods,  hardware,  earthen  ware,  silks,  and  leather. 
These  six  articles  give  employment  to  about  2,000,000  persons, 
who  manufacture  them  to  the  value  of  about  $500,000,000  an- 
nually.    In  Scotland,  the  principal  manufactures  are  fine  cotton 


230  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

Commerce — Education,  etc. 

goods,  and  coarse  linens  ;  and  in  Ireland,  it  is  linen,  which,  for 
instance,  in  Ulster  is  made  in  almost  every  village  and  family. 
In  1844,  the  aggregate  value  of  the  exported  English  cotton  goods 
was  estimated  at  £18,823,402.  In  the  years  1840  and  1841  there 
were  imported  respectively  50,002,979  and  53,130,446  pounds  of 
wool,  and  exported  woollen  goods  at  the  value  of  respectively 
£5,780,810  and  £6,276,888  ;  and  in  1844  this  value  had  increased 
to  more  than  £9,300,000.  The  value  of  other  articles  exported 
in  the  years  1840  and  1841,  was  more  than  £3,300,000  for  linenj 
respectively  £1,349, 137  and  £1,625,191  for  hardware,  respectively 
£792,648  and  £786,066  for  silks,  respectively  £573,184  and 
£590,772  for  porcelain  and  earthen  ware,  respectively  £417.178 
and  £421,271  for  glass  wares,  etc. 

The  commerce  is  superior  to  that  of  any  other  nation,  and 
extends  to  all  quarters  of  the  world.  The  capital  vested  in  it  is 
estimated  at  £1,500,000,000,  or  at  more  than  $6,000,000,000.  In 
1844,  the  exports  were  in  value  of  £50,615,265.  The  commerce 
with  the  colonies  was,  in  1840,"  in  value  of  £17,852,600.  The 
British  merchant  vessels  (exclusive  those  of  the  colonies)  were 
on  the  1st  of  January,  1845,  23,253  in  number  (among  them,  897 
steam  vessels),  of  the  burthen  of  2,995,196  tons.  In  the  colonies, 
were  3,579  merchant  vessels,  of  the  burthen  of  214,878  tons,  in 
1837. 

With  regard  to  the  means  of  education,  there  are,  upon  the  whole, 
8  universities,  viz. :  3  in  England,  1  in  Ireland,  and  4  in  Scotland. 
About  the  English  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  it  has 
already  been  observed  in  the  History  of  Europe  (§  17,  /),  that 
they  were  founded  in  a  very  early  period  of  the  middle  ages ;  yet, 
commonly,  the  years  1249  (for  Oxford)  and  1279  (for  Cambridge) 
are  considered  as  those  when  they  were  first  formally  and  per- 
manently organized.  In  1841,  Oxford  numbered  5,204,  and 
Cambridge  5.530  students.     In  1828,  a  third  English  university 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND   IRELAND.  231 


Government  and  Financespof  Great  Britain. 


was  founded  in  London,  but  on  a  different  system  than  the  other 
two;  in  1842,  it  was  frequented  by  886  students.  The  Irish 
university,  founded  in  1591,  is  in  Dublin,  and  numbered  1,350 
students  in  1841.  The  annual  revenues  of  the  universities  of 
Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  Dublin,  amount  to  £834,038.  The 
Scotch  universities  are,  St.  Andrews  (founded  in  1411,  and  in 
1841  with  200  students),  Glasgow  (founded  in  1454,  and  in  1841 
with  1,570  students),  Aberdeen  (founded  in  1471,  and  in  1841  with 
510  students),  and  Edinburgh  (founded  in  1581,  and  in  1841 
with  2,140  students).  The  higher  seminaries  of  learning  are 
numerous  ;  but  the  common  schools  are  by  far  not  in  so  high  a 
state  of  improvement  as,  for  instance,  in  Germany.  Those  of 
Scotland  are  in  general  better  arranged  and  managed,  than  those 
of  Ireland,  and  even  England. 

The  government  is  a  limited  hereditary  monarchy,  the  supreme 
power  being  vested  in  a  King  (at  present,  a  Queen),  and  Parlia- 
ment. The  Parliament  consists  of  two  houses,  viz. :  a  House  of 
Lords,  composed  of  bishops  (i.  e.,  of  the  established  church),  and 
hereditary  peers  of  the  above-stated  five  different  ranks,  and  a 
House  of  Commons,  composed  of  more  than  600  representatives 
elected  by  the  people. 

In  the  financial  year,  from  the  5th  July,  1845,  to  the  5th 
July,  1846,  the  public  expenditure  amounted  to  49,895,800  pounds 
sterling,  and  the  revenue  to  £52,715,871,  which  yielded  a  surplus 
of  nearly  £3,000,000.  But  since,  in  consequence  of  political 
events  and  other  circumstances,  the  revenue  has  in  the  same 
degree  decreased,  as  the  expenditure  has  increased  j  so  that,  upon 
the  whole,  the  ratio  of  the  public  charges  is  thus,  that  every 
inhabitant  of  the  united  kingdoms  has  to  contribute  to  them  about 
$9  00  annually.  The  public  debt  had,  on  the  5th  of  January,  1844, 
attained  the  enormous  height  of  790,576,393  pounds  sterling,  the 
interest  of  which  amounted  to  £28,161,959. 


232  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  Early*  History  of  England. 

The  army  comprises  about  122,000  men.  inclusive  more  than 
30,000  which  the  government  keep  in  India,  besides  the  troops 
of  the  East  Indian  Company.  The  navy  numbered  in  1845,  upon 
the  whole,  680  vessels,  125  of  which  were  steamers,  99  were  ships 
of  the  line,  80  frigates,  etc. 

The  British  orders  of  honor,  are  the  following: — 1.  The  garter, 
instituted  in  1349  by  Edward  III. ;  it  is  the  highest  order  of 
English  knighthood.  2.  The  order  of  Bath,  instituted  in  1399  by 
Richard  II.,  and  renewed  in  1725  by  George  I.,  in  3  classes  since 
1815.  3.  The  Scotch  thistle  order,  or  order  of  St.  Andrew,  from 
the  year  787,  but  renewed  in  1540  by  James  V.  of  Scotland,  and 
in  1703  by  Queen  Anne.  4.  The  Irish  order  of  St.  Patrick,  insti- 
tuted in  1783.  5.  The  order  of  St.  Michael  and  GW^-e,  instituted 
in  1818,  only  for  Malta.  6.  The  order  of  British  India,  insti- 
tuted in  1837,  only  for  officers  in  India. 

History. — About  the  early  part  of  British  history,  see  History  of  Europe, 
§§  4  and  15.  William  the  Conqueror  reigned  from  1066  to  1087,  and  was 
succeeded  by  two  of  his  sons,  first  by  William  II.  (1087-1 100),  then  by  Henry  I. 
(1100-1135).  After  the  death  of  Henry  I. — who  left  an  only  daughter  mar- 
ried to  Godfrey  Plantagenet,  earl  of  Anjou — a  civil  war  broke  out  on  account 
of  Henry's  nephew,  Stephen  of  Blois,  having  mounted  the  English  throne,  in- 
stead of  Henry's  grandson  (son  of  his  daughter),  Henry  Plantagenet.  At 
last  a  conciliation  was  brought  about,  and  in  1154  Henry  Plantagenet  mounted 
the  throne  by  the  name  of  Henry  II.  He  in  1172  conquered  Ireland,  died 
in  1189,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Richard  I,  surnamed  of  the  Lion 
Heart,  who  died  in  1199,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  John  (surnamed 
without  land).  John  was  as  weak  and  feeble  as  cruel,  and  was  in  1215  com- 
pelled by  the  English  barons  to  sign  the  Magna  Charta,  the  foundation  of 
the  British  constitution.  He  died  in  1216,  and  his  successors  of  the  principal 
line  of  the  house  of  Plantagenet  were  the  following  kings :  Henry  HI.  (1216- 
1272),  Edward  I.  (1272-1307),  Edward  II.  (1307-1327),  Edward  III.  (1327- 
1377),  and  Richard  II.  (1377-1399).  The  last-named  king,  son  of  the  Black 
Prince  and  grandson  of  Edward  III.,  was  by  his  cousin,  Henry  of  Lancaster 
(likewise  a  grandson  of  Edward  III.),  taken  prisoner  and  compelled  to  resign, 


GREAT  BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND.  233 

Historical  Sketch  of  England. 

after  which  his  cousin  mounted  the  throne  by  the  name  of  Henry  IV.  (1399- 
1413).  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Henry  V.  (1413-1422).  Against  his 
son  Henry  VI.  (1422-1461),  rose  his  cousin,  the  duke  Richard  of  York  (great- 
grandson  of  Edward  III.),  pretenJing  that  he  had  nearer  claims  upon  the 
throne  than  Henry.  Thus  began  (in  1455)  the  war  of  the  Roses,  or  between 
the  Yorkists  (wearing  white  roses  as  emblems)  and  the  Lancastrians  (wearing 
red  rose*;  Richard  of  York  was  killed  in  a  battle,  but  his  son  mounted  the 
throne  by  the  name  of  Edward  IV.  (1461-1483).  The  whole  house  of  Lan- 
caster was  exterminated,  with  the  exception  of  Henry  Tudor,  earl  of  Rich- 
mond, who  made  his  escape  to  France.  Edward  IV.  died  in  1483,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Edward  V.,  who  however,  together  with  his 
younger  brother,  was  murdered  by  his  uncle,  the  duke  Richard  of  Gloucester, 
who  mounted  the  throne  by  the  name  of  Richard  III.  but  only  reigned  until 
1485,  when  he  was  subdued  and  killed  in  the  battle  of  Bosworth  by  Henry 
Tudor,  the  last  descendant  of  the  house  of  Lancaster.  Henry  ascended  the 
throne  by  the  name  of  Henry  VII.  He  died  in  1509,  and  has  the  followit.g 
successors  from  the  house  of  Tudor  (Lancaster) :  Henry  VIII.  (1509-1547), 
Edward  VI.  (1547-1553),  Mary  (1553-1558),  and  Elizabeth  (1558-1603). 
With  Elizabeth  the  house  of  Tudor  became  extinct,  and  as  her  father's 
(Henry  V Ill's)  sister  Margaret  had  been  married  to  James  IV.  of  Scotland, 
the  great-grandson  of  the  latter,  James  VI.  of  Scotland  (son  of  Mary  Stuart), 
ascended  the  English  throne  by  the  name  of  James  I.  (1603-1625),  and  thus 
united  both  kingdoms.  He  died  in  1625,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Cliarles  I,  who  after  a  very  troublesome  reign  leading  to  a  civil  war,  was  be- 
headed on  the  30th  of  January,  1649.  The  government  was  now  called  a 
republic,  although  Oliver  Cromwell  exercised  an  almost  absolute  power  until 
his  death,  which  occurred  in  1658.  His  son  Richard  succeeded  him  in  the 
dignity  of  a  Lord  Protector  of  the  Commonwealth  of  England,  but  resigned 
spontaneously,  upon  which  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  I.  ascended  the  throne 
by  the  name  of  Charles  II.  (1660-1685).  He  died  in  1685,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  James  II,  who  only  reigned  until  1688,  when  he  was 
dethroned,  and  his  sister  Mary,  or  rather  her  consort  William  of  Orange,  in- 
vested with  the  royal  power.  After  William's  death  (in  1702)  his  sister-in- 
law,  Anne,  ascended  the  throne,  and  when  she  died  (in  1714),  she  was  suc- 
ceeded by  George  I,  elector  of  Hanover  and  great-grandson  of  James  I. 
(whose  daughter  Elizabeth,  married  to  the  elector  of  the  Palatinate,  had  a 
daughter  who  was  the  mother  of  George  I.).     George  I.  died  in  1727,  and 


234  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


England:   its  Geographical  Divisions 


has  had  until  now  the  following  successors :  George  II.  (1727-1760),  George 
III.  (1760-1820),  George  IV.  (1820-1830),  William  IV.  (1830-1837),  and 
Victoria,  who  is  still  reigning. 

The  British  empire  proper  embraces  the  three  united  king- 
doms of  England  (inclusive  Wales),  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  which 
are  divided  into  counties,  or  shires  (as  they  in  England  and  Scot- 
land are  called  by  preference).  The  capitals  of  the  counties  will 
be  found  marked  with  a  cross  (+). 


A.— THE  KINGDOM  OF  ENGLAND. 

It  comprises  the  southern  half  of  the  great  eastern  island,  and 
consists  of  two  unequal  parts,  the  greater  of  which  being  England 
proper,  and  the  by  far  smaller  part  constituting  what  is  called 
Wales.  The  total  area  amounts  to  58,468  square  miles — England 
having  an  extent  of  51,205  square  miles,  and  Wales  of  7,263 
square  miles.  The  total  population  is  about  17,000,000  inhabi- 
tants— 1 5,975,000  in  England,  and  1 ,000,000  in  Wales.  England 
proper  contains  40  counties  or  shires. 

1.  Middlesex,  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Thames,  containing :  -{-London, 
the  metropolis  of  the  British  empire,  and  greatest  city  in  Europe,  on  the 
Thames,  40  miles  from  its  mouth,  had  in  1844  a  population  of  2,007,550,  and 
at  present  more  than  2,250,000  of  inhabitants.  The  number  of  the  houses  is 
estimated  at  more  than  300,000 ;  that  of  the  streets,  lanes,  etc.,  at  14,000. 
London  embraces,  besides  the  city  proper,  where  the  chief  shops  and  ware- 
houses are,  Westminster  (containing  the  royal  palaces,  houses  of  Parliament, 
the  grand  Gothic  edifice  known  by  the  name  of  Westminster  Abbey,  etc.), 
and  Southwark  (on  the  south  side  of  the  Thames,  and  containing  the  usaul 


GREAT  BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND. 


England :   iu  Geographical  Divisions. 


residence  of  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  called  Lambe  th  palace,  King's  Bench, 
etc.),  and  numerous  other  districts  with  distinct  names,  covering  a  space  of 
nearly  50  square  miles.  The  most  remarkable  public  buildings  are,  besides 
Westminster  Abbey,  especially,  St.  Paul's  cathedral  (next  to  St  Peter's  at 
Rome,  the  greatest  structure  in  Cliristendoin),  the  Tower,  the  Bank  of  England, 
St  James'  palace  (royal  residence  in  the  period  from  1695  to  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century),  Mansion  house,  Guildhall,  eta  The  bridges  of  London 
are  seven  in  number,  all  built  of  stone,  except  one,  which  is  constructed  of 
iron ;  one  of  these  is  a  suspension  bridge.  The  Tunnel  under  the  Thames,  is 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  works  of  the  age.  London,  which  was  already 
in  the  days  of  the  Roman  emperor  Nero,  a  considerable  trading  town,  became 
the  capital  of  England  during  the  reign  of  King  Alfred.  The  ancient  royal 
palace  of  Hampton  Court,  in  the  vicinity  of  London,  was  reared  by  the  cardinal 
Wolsey,  and  in  1516  ceded  by  him  to  King  Henry  VIII.  Another  royal 
palace  is  at  Kensington,  a  town,  with  24,000  inhabitants.  Above  London,  on 
the  Thames,  is  Chelsea,  a  town,  with  36,000  inhabitants,  and  containing  the 
great  national  asylum  for  invalid  soldiers. 

2.  Berkshire,  at  the  western  frontier  of  Middlesex,  and  on  the  south  side  of 
the  Thames,  containing :  -(-Reading,  a  town,  with  20,000  inhabitants.  Windsor, 
a  town  22  miles  from  London,  has  8,000  inhabitants,  and  is  celebrated  for  its 
castle,  which  was  originally  erected  nearly  8  centuries  ago,  and  has  been 
the  chief  and  favorite  residence  of  most  of  the  sovereigns  of  England.  Newbury 
(with  6.000  inhabitants),  and  Isley  (noted  for  its  sheep  fairs),  towns. 

3.  Bucks,  or  Buckinghamshire,  separated  from  the  former  shire  by  the 
Thames,  containing :  -[-Buckingham,  a  town  on  the  Ouse,  with  4,000  inhabi- 
tants. Eton,  a  town  on  the  Thames,  right  against  Windsor,  is  noted  for  its 
college,  and  has  4,000  inhabitants.  In  its  vicinity  is  situated  the  village  of 
Slough,  where  the  renowned  astronomer  Herschel  had  his  observatory,  and 
died  in  1822.     Aylesbury,  a  town,  with  5,000  inhabitants. 

4.  Surrey,  between  Berkshire  and  Greenwich,  containing :  -{-Guildford,  a 
town  on  the  Wye,  with  5,000  inhabitants.  The  village  of  Epsom  (with  4,000 
inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  culture  of  hops,  and  that  of  Addiscombe  for  its 
military  school  of  the  British  East  Indian  Company.  At  Kingston  (a  town 
with  5,000  inhabitants),  the  Saxon  kings  used  to  be  crowned.  The  town  of 
Croydon  has  1 3,000  inhabitants.  That  above-mentioned  part  of  London,  called 
Southwark,  containing  150,000  inhabitants,  is  situated  within  the  limits  of  this 
ehire. 


236  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

England  :  its  Geographical  Divisions. 

5.  Kent,  the  most  extensive  and  finest  of  the  southern  counties,  contains : 
-(-Canterbury,  the  ecclesiastical  metropolis  of  England,  on  the  Stour,  north- 
westward and  14  miles  distant  from  Dover,  and  92  miles  east-south-east  of 
London,  with  a  highly  remarkable  cathedral,  and  15,000  inhabitants.  Green- 
wich, a  town  on  the  Thames,  is  famous  for  its  naval  hospital  for  infirm  seamen, 
and  its  observatory,  from  which  longitude  is  reckoned,  and  has  76,000  inhabi- 
tants. Dover,  a  town  on  the  Straits  of  Dover  (here  21  miles  wide),  has 
25,000  inhabitants,  is  the  station  of  packets  for  France,  and  one  of  the  so-called 
Cinque  Ports,  to  which,  moreover,  belong  the  towns  and  seaports  of  Sandwich 
(with  9,000  inhabitants),  Romney,  and  Hythe  (the  four  others :  Winchelsea, 
Rye,  Hastings,  and  Seaford,  are  situated  within  the  limits  of  Sussexshire). 
Other  remarkable  towns  of  this  county  are :  Maidstone  (with  33,000  inhabi- 
tants), Tunbridge  (with  8,000  inhabitants,  and  the  watering-place,  Tunbridge 
Wells),  Deptford  (with  26,000  inhabitants,  noted  for  its  naval  depot),  Woolwich 
(noted  for  its  immense  train  of  artillery,  has  18,000  inhabitants),  Chatham 
(noted  for  its  great  arsenal  of  the  navy,  has  18,000  inhabitants),  Gravesand 
(with  6,000  inhabitants),  Rochester  (with  10,000  inhabitants),  Ramsgate  (with 
9,000  inhabitants),  and  Margate  (with  11,000  inhabitants). 

6.  Sussex,  on  the  English  Channel, containing:  -(-Chichester,  a  town  on  the 
Levant,  eastward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Portsmouth,  with  9,000  inhabi- 
tants. The  towns  and  seaports  of  Hastings  (with  11,000  inhabitants,  and 
noted  for  the  battle  in  1066),  Winchelsea  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  Rye  (with 
6,000  inhabitants),  and  Seaford  (which,  however,  is  to  be  considered  as  a  part 
of  Hastings),  belong  to  the  above-mentioned  Cinque  Ports.  Brighton,  a 
splendid  city  since  the  days  of  George  IV.,  whose  favorite  residence  it  was, 
has  50,000  inhabitants,  and  is  much  resorted  to  for  sea-bathing. 

7.  Essex,  along  the  northern  bank  of  the  Thames,  containing :  -(-Chelms- 
ford, a  town  32  miles  east-north-east  of  London,  with  6,000  inhabitants. 
Harwich,  a  maritime  town  on  the  North  Sea,  formerly  the  station  of  packets 
for  Sweden,  Hamburg,  and  Holland,  has  18,000  inhabitants.  Colchester,  a 
maritime  town,  noted  for  its  oysters,  has  20,000  inhabitants. 

8.  Suffolk,  on  the  north  side  of  Essexshire,  containing :  -(-Ipswich,  a  town 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Orwell,  with  22,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this 
county  are:  Bury  St.  Edmunds  (with  15,000  inhabitants),  Lowestoff  (with 
12,000  inhabitants),  Sudbury  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  and  Woodbridge  (with 
4,000  inhabitants). 

9.  Norfolk,  on  the  north  side  of  Suffolkshire,  containing :  -(-Norwich,  the 


GREAT  BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND.  257 

England:  its  Geographical  Divisions. 


finest  city  in  the  east  of  England,  on  the  Winsder  and  Yare,  north-eastward 
and  129  miles  distant  from  London,  is  noted  for  its  ancient  and  beautiful  ca- 
thedral, and  its  woollen  goods,  and  has  62,000  inhabitants.  Yarmouth,  a 
maritime  town,  is  noted  for  its  herring  fishery,  and  has  24,000  inhabitants. 
Other  towns  of  this  county  are:  Lynn  Regis  (with  17,000  inhabitants),  Swaff- 
ham  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Downham  (with  2,000  inhabitants). 

10.  Cambridgeshire,  bordering  upon  the  two  former  counties,  and  contain- 
ing :  -(-Cambridge,  a  town  on  the  Cam,  northward  and  50  miles  distant  from 
London,  is  celebrated  for  its  university,  and  has  25,000  inhabitants.  New- 
market, a  town  with  3,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  horse-races,  and  Ely,  a 
town  with  6,000  inhabitants,  for  its  splendid  cathedral,  whose  steeple  is  400 
feet  in  height.      Wisbeach,  a  town  with  7,000  inhabitants. 

11.  Huntingdonshire,  partly  surrounded  by  Cambridgeshire,  contains: 
-{-Huntingdon,  a  town  on  the  Ouse,  northward  and  40  miles  distant  from 
London,  with  4,000  inhabitants.  Cromwell  was  born  here  in  1599.  St.  Ives 
is  a  fine  village,  or  town,  on  the  Ouse,  with  3,000  inhabitants. 

12.  Lincolnshire,  between  Cambridgeshire  and  the  Humber,  containing : 
-{-Lincoln,  a  city  on  the  Witham,  northward  and  119  miles  distant  from 
London,  is  celebrated  for  its  venerable  cathedral  with  3  high  steeples,  and 
has  36,500  inhabitants.  Another  beautiful  Gothic  church  is  in  the  town  of 
Boston,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Witham  into  the  Wash,  with  35,000  inhabitants. 
In  the  neighboring  village  of  Woolsthorpe  the  celebrated  Sir  Isaac  Newton 
(+1727)  was  born  in  1642.  Grimsby,  a  maritime  town  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Humber,  with  6,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  county  are :  Spalding 
(with  7,000  inhabitants),  Gainsborough  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  and  Stam- 
ford (with  6,000  inhabitants). 

13.  Hertfordshire,  between  Cambridge  and  London,  containing :  -{-Hert- 
ford, a  town  northward  and  23  miles  distant  from  London,  with  6,000  in- 
habitants, and  an  institution  where  civil  officers  of  the  East  Indian  Company 
are  instructed  and  prepared  for  their  future  destination  in  India.  St.  Albans, 
a  town  with  a  remarkable  Gothic  church  and  6,000  inhabitants. 

14.  Oxfordshire,  bordering  upon  Middlesex,  and  containing:  -{-Oxford,  a 
town  on  the  Thames,  is  celebrated  for  its  university,  and  has  22,000  inhabi- 
tants. Other  towns  of  this  county  are :  Woodstock  (with  2,000  inhabitants), 
and  Banbxiry  (with  6,000  inhabitants). 

15.  Bedfordshire,  between  Oxford  and  Cambridgeshire,  containing:  -(-Bed- 
ford, a  town  on  the  Ouse,  23  miles  west-south-west  of  Cambridge,  with  8,000 


238  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


England:  its  Geographical  Divisions. 


inhabitants.     Woburn,  a  borough  with  2,000  inhabitants,  and  the  splendid 
mansion  of  the  family  of  Russell,  called  Woburn  Abbey. 

16.  Hants  or  Hampshire,  between  Berkshire  and  the  English  Channel,  con- 
taining: -{-Winchester,  a  city  on  the  Itching,  south-westward  and  65  miles 
distant  from  London,  with  a  cathedral  reared  by  the  Saxon  kings,  and  10,000 
inhabitants.  During  part  of  the  middle  ages  Winchester  was  the  capital  of 
England,  and  is  at  present  noted  for  its  college.  Portsmouth,  a  strongly 
fortified  city  on  the  southern  coast,  has  64,000  inhabitants,  and  the  best  har- 
bor in  Great  Britain,  is  the  great  arsenal  and  rendezvous  of  the  navy,  and 
situated  near  the  famous  roadstead  of  Spithead.  The  maritime  town  of 
Southampton,  with  2*7,500  inhabitants,  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  with 
the  Norman  islands  and  the  south  of  France,  and  is  much  resorted  to  for  sea- 
bathing. Gosport  (with  14,000  inhabitants),  and  Chrislchurch  (with  5,000  in- 
habitants), boroughs.  The  fertile  Isle  of  Wight  (192  square  miles,  and 
36,000  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  it  beautiful  and  romantic  sceneries. 

17.  Dorsetshire,  on  the  southern  coast,  contains :  -{-Dorchester,  a  town  on 
the  Frome,  westward  and  65  miles  distant  from  Portsmouth,  with  5,000  in- 
habitants. Other  towns  of  this  county  are  :  Weymouth  (with  4,000  inhabi- 
tants), Bridport  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Poole  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  and 
Shaftsbury  (with  4,000  inhabitants).  The  fertile  Bill  of  Portland  is  noted 
for  its  quarries. 

18.  Devonshire,  between  Dorsetshire  and  Cornwall,  contains :  -{-Exeter,  a 
city  on  the  mouth  of  the  Exe,  westward  and  115  miles  distant  from  Portsmouth, 
and  north-eastward  and  42  miles  distant  from  Plymouth,  with  a  magnificent 
cathedral,  and  32,000  inhabitants.  Plymouth,  a  fortified  city  on  the  English 
Channel,  with  76,000  inhabitants,  is  one  of  the  great  naval  stations,  and  noted 
for  its  breakwater,  which  cost  more  than  $5,000,000.  The  city  embraces  at 
present  Plymouth  proper,  Devonport  (formerly  called  Plymouth  Dock),  and 
Stonehouse.  At  about  14  miles  distance  from  the  roadstead  of  Plymouth 
on  a  solitary  cliff,  stands  the  well-known  lighthouse  of  Eddystone.  There  are 
many  beautiful  and  splendid  country-seats  in  Devonshire,  among  them  Mount 
Edgecombe  and  Ugbrook.  Remarkable  towns  are,  among  others :  Tavistock 
(with  6,000  inhabitants),  Dartmouth  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Teignmouth  (with 
6,000  inhabitants),  Barnstable  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  Tiverton  (with  10,500 
inhabitants),  Biddeford  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  and  Sidmouth  (with  3,000 
inhabitants). 

19.  Cornwall,  forming  a  peninsula  at  the  south-western  extremity  of  Eng- 


GREAT  BRITAIN   AND  IRELAND.  239 


England  :  its  Geographical  Divisions. 


land,  is  celebrated,  even  since  the  time  of  the  Phoenicians,  for  its  tin,  and 
since  the  middle  ages,  for  its  copper  also.  At  an  early  period  it  was  ruled 
by  earls,  but  at  the  beginning  of  the  9th  century  subdued  by  King  Egbert. 
Edward  III.  promoted  the  county  of  Cornwall  to  the  rank  of  a  duchy,  in 
favor  of  his  son,  the  renowned  Black  Prince ;  and  since  that  time  the  first- 
born royal  prince  assumes  the  title  of  a  duke  of  Cornwall,  after  which  he  is 
oreated  prSce  of  Wales.  It  contains :  -{-Launcestox,  a  town  on  the  Tamar, 
with  5,000  inhabitants.  Falmouth,  a  maritime  town  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Fal,  46  miles  west  south-west  of  Plymouth,  is  a  stopping  place  of  steamers 
for  Spain  and  the  West  Indies,  and  has  8,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of 
Cornwall  are :  Truro  (with .  8,000  inhabitants),  Penzance  (with  7,000  inhabi- 
tants), and  Penryn  (with  5,000  inhabitants).  The  south-western  extremity 
of  Cornwall  is  known  by  the  name  of  Land's  End,  and  its  southern  extremity 
by  that  of  Cape  Lizard,  or  Lizard  Point.  Not  far  from  Land's  End  are  lying 
in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  the  Scilly  Isles,  six  of  which  are  inhabited,  having  a 
total  population  of  3,000  inhabitants.  To  the  Phoenicians  and  other  people  of 
antiquity  they  were  known  by  the  name  of  Cassiterides,  or  Tin-Islands. 

20.  Wilts,  or  Wiltshire,  towards  the  interior,  containing :  -(-Salisbury,  a  city 
on  the  Avon,  70  miles  west-south-west  of  London,  is  celebrated  for  its  elegant 
Gothic  cathedral,  the  spire  of  which  is  410  feet  high,  and  has  10,000  inhabi- 
tants. Bradford,  a  town  on  the  Avon,  with  12,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for 
its  manufactures  of  fine  cloth.  Other  towns  are  :  Wilton  (with  8,000  inhabi- 
tants) and  Chippenham  (with  6,000  inhabitants).  Near  Wilton  is  the  splendid 
country  seat  of  Lord  Pembroke,  called  Wiltonhouse.  Another  one,  belonging 
to  the  family  of  Radnor,  and  called  Longford,  is  noted  for  its  fine  collection 
of  pictures. 

21.  Somersetshire,  between  Wilts  and  the  Bristol  Channel,  containing : 
-{-Bristol,  a  city  on  a  branch  of  the  Severn,  westward  and  115  miles  distant 
from  London,  has  120,000  inhabitants,  and  is  the  third  commercial  town  in 
England.  About  9  miles  from  here  is  Bath,  a  city,  with  70,000  inhabitants, 
is  noted  for  its  hot  mineral  waters,  and  visited  by  persons  (sometimes  to  the 
number  of  8,000  in  the  season)  in  quest  of  health  and  pleasure.  The  Gothic 
cathedral  of  Bath  is  very  remarkable,  as  is  also  that  of  Wells,  a  town,  with 
7,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  Somerset,  for  the  most  part  noted  for  their 
woollen  manufactures,  are:  Calne  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Froome  (with 
25,000  inhabitants),  Taunton  (with  33,500  inhabitants),  and  Bridgewater  (with 
10,000  inhabitants).     The  town  of  Glastonbury  is  noted  for  the  ruins  of  a 


240  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

England :   its  Geographical  Divisions. 

monastery  which  covered  sixty  acres,  and  whose  foundation  was  laid  in  a  very 
early  period  of  the  Christian  era ;  at  least,  King  Arthur,  son  of  Uther  Pen- 
dragon,  who  reigned  from  516  to  542,  was  buried  here. 

22.  Gloucestershire,  bordering  upon  Oxfordshire,  contains:  -4- Gloucester,  a 
city  on  the  Severn,  north-eastward  and  37  miles  distant  from  Bristol,  with  a 
remarkable  ancient  cathedral  (where  William  the  Conqueror  and  Edward  II. 
are  buried),  manufactures  of  puis,  and  27,000  inhabitants.  Cheltenham,  noted 
for  its  mineral  waters,  and  Stroud,  for  its  cloth  manufactures,  are'towns,  with 
respectively  40,500  and  10,000  inhabitants.  Tewkesbury,  a  town,  with  8,000 
inhabitants,  has  a  Gothic  church  with  the  sepulchres  of  the  English  king  of 
the  house  of  Plantagenet.  Berkeley,  a  town,  with  5,000  inhabitants,  is  remark- 
able as  the  birth-place  of  the  renowned  Dr.  Jenner. 

23.  Monmouthshire,  between  Wales  and  Gloucestershire,  contains:  -{-Mon- 
mouth, a  town  in  a  romantic  situation,  northward  and  23  miles  distant  from 
Bristol,  with  6,000  inhabitants.  In  its  vicinity  are  the  highly  interesting 
ruins  of  Tintern  Abbey,  and  of  Ragland  Castle,  which  latter  was  once  the 
residence  of  the  dukes  of  Beaufort.  Chepstow  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Newport 
(with  8,000  inhabitants),  and  Abergavenny  (with  5,000  inhabitants). 

24.  Herefordshire,  at  the  northern  frontiers  of  Gloucestershire,  containing : 
-{-Hereford,  a  city  on  the  Wye,  northward  and  42  miles  distant  from  Bristol, 
with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  34,500  inhabitants.  Leominster,  or  Lempster, 
a  town  on  the  Lugg,  with  6,000  inhabitants.  Ross,  a  borough  on  the  Wye, 
with  4,000  inhabitants.     Here  lived  Pope's  "  man  of  Ross." 

25.  Worcestershire,  towards  the  interior,  containing :  -j- Worcester,  a  city  on 
the  Severn,  north-westward  and  105  miles  distant  from  London,  is  noted  for 
its  porcelain,  and  has  a  highly  remarkable  cathedral,  and  27,500  inhabitants. 
Kidderminster,  a  manufacturing  town  on  the  Stour,  with  30,000  inhabitants. 
Other  towns  of  this  county  are  :  Stourbridge  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  Dudley 
(with  24,000  inhabitants),  and  Droitwich  (with  3,000  inhabitants). 

26.  Warwickshire,  at  the  northern  frontier  of  Oxfordshire,  containing : 
-(-Warwick,  a  town  on  the  Avon,  north-westward  and  82  miles  distant  from 
London,  with  9,500  inhabitants.  Near  it  lies  on  a  rock  Warwick  Castle, 
belonging  to  the  earl  of  Warwick,  and  reared  in  the  middle  ages.  Coventry, 
a  manufacturing  town,  noted  for  its  watches  and  ribbons,  has  31,500  inhabi- 
tants. Kenilworth,  a  borough,  with  3.000  inhabitants,  and  the  ruins  of  the 
once  so  renowned  castle  of  the  same  name,  reared  in  the  12th  century  by  King 
Henry  I.     Stratford,  a  town  on  the  Avon,  with  6,000  inhabitants,  is  remark- 


GREAT  BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND.  241 

Enghtud  :  its  Geographical  Divisions. 

able  as  the  birth-place  of  Shakspeare.  The  borough  of  Leamington,  with 
6,000  inhabitants,  is  much  resorted  to  on  account  of  its  mineral  baths.  Rugby, 
a  town,  with  2,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  college.  Birmingham,  a  city, 
with  183,000  inhabitants,  about  half  way  between  Liverpool  and  London,  is 
the  great  centre  of  the  manufacture  of  hardware,  including  fire-arms,  steam 
engines,  locks,  screws,  buttons,  and  such  a  variety  of  small  articles  that  it  has 
been  styled  the  "  toy-shop  of  Europe."  Similar  manufactures  are  at  Soho, 
which  is  considered  as  a  suburb  of  Birmingham,  though  it  is  situated  within 
the  limits  of  Staffordshire. 

27.  Staffordshire,  at  the  northern  frontier  of  the  former,  contains :  -(-Staf- 
ford, a  town,  north-westward  and  23  miles  distant  from  Birmingham,  with 
8,000  inhabitants.  Burslem,  a  town  on  the  Great  Trunk  Canal  with  14,000 
inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  earthen  ware,  and  is  at  the  same 
time  the  centre  of  the  so-called  Potteries,  a  district  comprising  numerous 
villages  (among  them,  that  of  Etruria),  where  the  Wedgewood  ware  is  fabri- 
cated. Burton,  surnamed  upon  Trent,  a  town  on  the  Trent,  is  noted  for  its 
excellent  ale,  and  has  10,000  inhabitants.  Lichfield,  a  town,  with  8,000  inhab- 
itants, and  a  renowned  college,  instituted  by  Edward  VI.  Wolverhampton, 
a  city,  with  a  remarkable  Gothic  church,  and  50,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for 
its  hardware,  and  Bradley  for  its  iron  works.  Other  towns  of  this  county 
are :  Walsall  (with  16,000  inhabitants),  Wednesbury  (with  9.000  inhabitants), 
Newcastle  under  Lyne  (with  9,000  inhabitants),  Bilston  (with  16,000  inhabi- 
tants), and  Tamworth  (with  8,000  inhabitants). 

28.  Northamptonshire,  on  the  northern  side  of  Oxfordshire,  containing: 
-f-NoRTHAMPTON,  a  town  on  the  Nen,  64  miles  north-north-west  of  London, 
with  28,500  inhabitants.  In  its  neighborhood  is  Althorp,  the  ancestral  seat 
of  the  earl  of  Spencer.  Peterborough,  a  town  with  7,000  inhabitants,  and  a 
remarkable  cathedral,  where  the  unfortunate  Scottish  queen,  Mary  Stuart, 
lies  buried.  She  was  beheaded  on  the  8th  of  February,  1587,  in  the  neigh- 
boring castle  of  Fotheringay,  which,  by  order  of  her  son,  James  L,  was 
entirely  demolished.     Stamford,  a  town,  with  5,000  inhabitants. 

29.  Rutland,  northward  from  Northamptonshire,  containing:  -(-Oakham,  a 
town  in  the  fertile  valley  of  Cathross,  92  miles  north-north-west  of  London, 
with  4,000  inhabitants.     Uppingham,  a  town  with  2,500  inhabitants. 

30.  Leicestershire,  on  the  western  side  of  Rutland,  containing :  -(-Leicester, 
a  city  on  the  Sour,  37  miles  east-north-east  of  Birmingham,  with  manufac- 
tures of  stockings,  and  61,000  inhabitants.    The  borough  of  Lutterworth  is 

11 


242  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT 


England:  its  Geographical  Divisions. 


remarkable  as  the  birth-place  of  Wickliffe ;  and  Belvoir  is  the  splendid  coun- 
try-seat of  the  duke  of  Rutland.  Loughborough  (with  25,000  inhabitants), 
and  Melton  Mowbray  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  towns. 

31.  Shropshire,  or  Salop,  at  the  frontier  of  Wales,  containing :  -{-Shrews- 
bury, a  town  on  the  Severn,  southward  and  56  miles  distant  from  Liverpool, 
with  the  beautiful  remains  of  an  ancient  castle,  and  22,000  inhabitants. 
Other  towns  of  this  county  are :  Ludlow  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  Broseley 
(with  5,000  inhabitants),  Bridgenorth  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  and  Oswestry 
(with  10,000  inhabitants).  The  borough  of  Shiffnall  (with  4,000  inhabitants), 
and  the  extensive  village  of  Colebrookdale  are  noted  for  their  iron- works. 

32.  Cheshire,  or  the  Palatinate  of  Chester,  at  the  frontier  of  Wales,  and 
northward  from  Shropshire,  containing:  -(-Chester,  a  city  on  the  Dee, 
southward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Liverpool,  is  noted  for  its  cheese,  and 
has  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  23,000  inhabitants.  The  town  of  Mac- 
clesfield (with  25,000  inhabitants),  is  noted  for  its  silks.  Other  towns  of 
this  county  are :  Northwlch  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Nantwich  (with  6,000 
inhabitants),  and  Stockport  (with  numerous  manufactures,  and  86,000  inhabi- 
tants). 

33.  Nottinghamshire,  between  Cheshire  and  Leicester,  containing :  -(-Not- 
tingham, a  city  on  the  Trent,  south-eastward  and  70  miles  distant  from  Liver- 
pool, is  noted  for  its  stockings  and  ale,  and  has  54,000  inhabitants.  Another 
manufacturing  town  is  Newark,  with  10,000  inhabitants.  The  town  of 
Worksop  (with  6,000  inhabitants)  may  be  considered  as  the  chief  place  of 
the  so-called  Dukeries,  comprising  many  country-seats,  among  others,  Work- 
sop Manor  (the  property  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk),  Clumber  Park  (of  the 
duke  of  Newcastle),  Welbeck  Abbey  (of  the  duke  of  Portland),  and  Newstead 
Abbey  (formerly  belonging  to  Lord  Byron).  Mansfield,  a  borough  with  11,000 
inhabitants. 

34.  Derbyshire,  at  the  northern  frontier  of  Nottinghamshire,  containing: 
-1-Derby,  a  town  on  the  Derwent  and  Trent,  westward  and  14  miles  distant 
from  Nottingham,  with  various  manufactures  and  35,500  inhabitants.  Other 
towns  of  this  county  are :  Chesterfield  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Castleton 
(with  1,500  inhabitants),  Buxton  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  Matlok  (with 
4,000  inhabitants).  Chatsworth  is  the  splendid  country-seat  of  the  duke  of 
Devonshire. 

35.  Lancashire,  or  the  Palatinate  of  Lancaster,  at  the  northern  frontier  of 
Wales,  and  comprising  part  of  the  English  west  coast,  contains:  -{-Lancaster, 


GREAT  BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND.  243 


England  :  its  Geographical  Divisions. 


a  town  on  the  Lancaster  Bay,  northward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Liverpool, 
with  36,000  inhabitants.  Liverpool,  a  city  with  295,000  inhabitants,  and 
nearly  25,000  houses,  on  the  river  Mersey,  near  its  mouth,  is  next  to  London 
in  commerce,  the  great  depot  of  the  trade  with  America  and  Ireland,  and 
noted  for  the  most  costly  docks  in  the  world.  In  1833  the  custom-house  of 
Liverpool  had  a  revenue  of  not  less  than  3,555,955  pounds  sterling.  There 
are  many  splendid  public  edifices  in  this  city,  which  in  the  16th  century  was 
yet  an  insignificant  place.  Manchester,  a  city  on  the  Irrwell,  eastward  and 
30  miles  distant  from  Liverpool,  is  the  great  centre  of  the  cotton  manufacture, 
and  has  310,000  inhabitants.  The  following  cities  and  towns  are  also  more 
or  less  noted  for  their  cotton  manufactures :  Blackburn  (with  75,000  inhabi- 
tants), Bolton  (with  98,000  inhabitants),  Oldham  (with  68,000  inhabitants), 
Rochdale  (with  60,000  inhabitants),  Wigan  (with  66,500  inhabitants),  Bury 
(with  78,000  inhabitants),  Preston  (with  77,500  inhabitants),  Warrington 
(with  32,000  inhabitants),  and  Ashton  under  Line  (with  130,500  inhabitants, 
inclusive  the  parish).  The  town  of  Prescot  (with  8,000  inhabitants)  is  noted 
for  its  manufactures  of  watch-wheels,  clock-works,  etc.,  and  the  borough  of 
St.  Helen' 8  for  its  manufactures  of  looking-glasses. 

36.  Yorkshire,  along  the  eastern  coast,  is  the  most  extensive  county  of 
England  (5,985  square  miles,  and  1,600,000  inhabitants),  and  subdivided  into 
three  districts,  or  Ridings,  viz. :  North  Riding,  East  Riding,  and  West  Riding, 
containing :  -}-York,  the  second  city  of  the  kingdom  in  rank,  being  the  resi- 
dence of  the  archbishop  of  York,  is  situated  in  an  extensive  plain  on  the 
Ouse,  northward  and  184  miles  distant  from  London,  is  noted  for  its  splendid 
cathedral  (reared  in  the  12th,  but  not  completed  before  the  14th  century),  and 
has  36,000  inhabitants.  To  East  Riding  belong  the  following  cities  and 
towns :  Hull  (noted  for  its  trade  to  the  Baltic,  and  the  whale  fishery,  has 
50,000  inhabitants),  Goole  (with  12,000  inhabitants),  Beverley  (with  10,000 
inhabitants),  Bridlington  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  and  Howden  (with  2,000 
inhabitants).  North  Riding  comprises :  Scarborough,  a  maritime  and  com- 
mercial town  on  the  North  Sea,  with  10,000  inhabitants ;  Whitby,  another 
commercial  town,  with  12,000  inhabitants,  much  engaged  in  the  coal  trade. 
The  town  of  Richmond  (with  6,000  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  lead  mines, 
and  the  borough  of  Gisborough  (with  2,500  inhabitants)  for  its  canvass  manu- 
factures, and  alum  works.  West  Riding  comprises  the  following  manufac- 
turing cities  and  towns :  Leeds  (famous  for  its  manufactures  of  cloth  and  other 
woollen  goods,  with  170,000  inhabitants,  Huddcrsfield  and  Halifax  (each  with 


244  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

England:  its  Geographical  Divisions. 

110,000  inhabitants,  and  both  noted  for  their  cloth  manufactures),  Wakefield 
(also  with  important  cloth  manufactures,  corn  and  cattle  fairs,  and  46,000 
inhabitants);  Sheffield  (noted  for  cutlery  and  plated  goods,  with  85,000 
inhabitants),  Bradford  (with  14,000  inhabitants),  and  Keighley  (with  68,000  in- 
habitants, both  noted  for  their  manufactures  of  woollen  goods),  and  finally 
Knaresborough  (noted  for  its  linen,  and  mineral  waters,  with  8,000  inhabitants). 
The  village  of  Harrowgate  is  likewise  resorted  to  for  its  mineral  waters. 

37.  Durhamshire,  at  the  northern  frontier  of  Yorkshire,  containing :  -(-Due- 
ham,  a  city  on  the  Wear,  54  miles  north-north-west  of  York,  with  a  remark- 
able cathedral  (reared  in  the  11th  century),  manufactures  of  carpets,  etc.,  and 
39,000  inhabitants.  The  towns  of  Sunderland  and  Wearmouth,  situated  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  Wear  at  its  mouth,  are  joined  together  by  a  very 
remarkable  iron  bridge,  are  largely  engaged  in  the  coal  trade,  and  have  a  total 
population  of  57,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  county  are :  Stockton 
(with  10,000  inhabitants),  and  Darlington  (with  9,000  inhabitants). 

38.  Northumberland,  the  most  northerly  county,  containing :  -{-Newcastle, 
surnamed  upon  Tyne,  a  city  on  the  Tyne,  south-eastward  and  92  miles  distant 
from  Edinburgh,  is  famous  for  its  coal-pits,  various  manufactures,  and  the 
whale  fishery,  and  has  72,000  inhabitants.  The  town  of  Shields  (with  im- 
portant coal  trade,  and  30,000  inhabitants)  consists  properly  of  two  parts,  viz. : 
North  Shields  in  Northumberland,  and  South  Shields  in  Durham.  Berwick, 
a  town  on  the  Tweed,  and  at  the  frontier  of  Scotland,  with  16,000  inhabi- 
tants, was  by  James  VI.  (of  Scotland)  declared  neutral  territory,  though  a 
Scotch  county  bears  its  name.  Other  towns  of  Northumberland  are :  Tyne- 
mouth  (with  25,000  inhabitants),  Hexham  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Morpeth 
(with  6,000  inhabitants),  and  Alnwick  (with  6,000  inhabitants,  and  a  splendid 
Gothic  castle  of  the  duke  of  Northumberland). 

39.  Cumberland,  on  the  west  coast,  and  bordering  upon  Scotland,  contains : 
-(-Carlisle,  a  city  on  the  Eden,  westward  and  54  miles  distant  from  Newcastle, 
with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  various  manufactures,  and  36,500  inhabitants. 
Whitehaven,  a  maritime  town,  largely  engaged  in  the  coal  trade,  has  30,000 
inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  county  are :  Workington  (with  7,000  inhabi- 
tants), Maryport  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  and  Penrith  (with  5,000  inhabi- 
tants). The  borough  of  Keswick  (with  3,000  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  lead 
pencils. 

40.  Westmoreland,  between  Cumberland  and  Lancashire,  containing :  -(-Ap- 
pleby, a  borough  on  the  Eden,  northward  and  80  miles  distant  from  Liverpool, 


GREAT  BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND.  245 

Wales  :   its  Geographical  Divisions. 

with  3,000  inhabitants.     Kendal,  a  town,  with  numerous  manufactures  of 
woollen  and  other  goods,  and  35,000  inhabitants. 

The  principality  of  Wales  (area :  7,263  square  miles  ;  popula- 
tion: 1,000,000  inhabitants)  forms  indeed  a  constituent  part  of 
the  kiDgdom  of  England,  but  is  in  all  public  acts  denominated 
discriminately.  It  comprises  that  part  of  the  English  west  coast 
situated  between  Bristol  and  Liverpool,  is  inhabited  by  descend- 
ants of  the  ancient  Britons,  and  continued  to  be  an  independent 
kingdom  for  several  centuries,  until  in  1282  it  was  subdued  by 
the  English  king  Edward  I,  though  first  since  the  year  1536  it 
has  permanently  been  united  with  England.  The  eldest  son  of 
the  sovereign  of  England,  is  styled  Prince  of  Wales.  Most  of 
the  people  talk  the  Welsh  language,  and  excel  chiefly  in  the 
manufacturing  of  flannel.  Iron,  lead,  copper,  and  coal,  abound. 
Wales  is  divided  into  12  counties,  6  of  which  are  in  South  Wales, 
and  6  in  North  Wales. 

South  Wales  comprises  the  following  six  counties : — 

41.  Pembrokeshire,  containing:  + Pembroke,  a  town  on  the  Milford  Haven, 
with  8,000  inhabitants,  and  the  ruins  of  a  remarkable  ancient  castle,  reared 
in  the  beginning  of  the  11th  century.  St.  David's,  the  ecclesiastical  capital 
of  South  "Wales,  with  4,000  inhabitants.  Haverfordwest,  a  town,  with  6,000 
inhabitants.  Milford,  a  borough  noted  for  its  fine  harbor,  with  3,000  inhabi- 
tants. 

42.  Caermarthenshire,  containing :  -{-Caermarthen,  an  important  commer- 
cial town  on  the  Tawey,  with  10,000  inhabitants.  Llanelly  and  Kidwelly, 
towns  on  the  Bristol  Channel,  with  respectively  4,000  and  2,000  inhabitants. 

43.  Glamorganshire,  containing :  -{-Cardiff,  a  town  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Severn,  with  7,000  inhabitants.  Swansea,  an  important  commercial  town  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Tawey,  is  at  the  same  time  a  noted  resort  for  sea-bathing, 
and  has  40,000  inhabitants.  Merthyr  Tydvil,  a  town,  with  30,000  inhabi- 
tants, is  noted  for  its  iron  works  and  mines,  and  coal-pits.  Llandajf,  the  resi- 
dence of  a  bishop,  with  2,000  inhabitants.  Neath,  a  town  on  the  river  of  the 
same  name,  with  coal-pits,  iron  and  copper  mines,  and  8,000  inhabitants. 


246  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Wales:  its  Geographical  Divisions. 

44.  Brecon,  or  Brecknockshire,  containing :  -{-Brecknock,  a  town  on  the 
Uske,  with  manufactures  of  cloth  and  stockings,  and  8,000  inhabitants. 
Crickhowel,  a  borough,  with  flannel  manufactures,  and  1,500  inhabitants. 

45.  Radnorshire,  containing :  -J-Presteign,  a  town  with  3,000  inhabitants. 
Radnor,  or  properly  New  Radnor,  a  town  with  2,500  inhabitants. 

46.  Cardiganshire,  containining :  -{-Cardigan  (with  coasting  trade  and 
3,000  inhabitants),  and  Aberystwith  (with  sea-bathing,  and  5,000  inhabitants), 
towns  on  the  Cardigan  Bay. 

North  Wales  comprises  the  following  six  counties : 

47.  Montgomeryshire,  containing :  -(-Montgomery,  a  town  at  the  frontier 
of  Shropshire,  with  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  castle,  and  2,000  inhabitants. 
Welshpool,  a  town  with  6,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of 
flannel.     Llanydloes,  a  town  with  3,000  inhabitants. 

48.  Merionetshire,  containing :  -j-Bala,  a  town  on  the  Pimple  lake,  or  Bala 
pool,  with  fishery,  manufactures  of  flannel,  and  2,500  inhabitants.  Dolgelly 
(with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Harleigh,  or  Harlech  (with  2,500  inhabitants). 

49.  Flintshire,  containing :  -(-Flint,  a  town  on  the  Dee,  with  4,000  inhabi- 
tants, and  the  ruins  of  a  castle,  where  Richard  II.  was  in  1399  kept  prisoner 
and  killed.  Flint  is  much  resorted  to  for  sea-bathing.  The  neighboring  town 
of  Holywell  (with  10,000  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  lead  mines,  brass-  and 
copper- works.  St.  Asaph  is  the  residence  of  a  bishop,  and  has  4,000  inhabi- 
tants. Near  the  town  of  Mold  (with  8,000  inhabitants)  are  lead  mines  and 
coal-pits. 

50.  Denbighshire,  containing :  -(-Denbigh,  a  town  near  the  Cluyd,  and  in  a 
highly  fertile  valley,  with  a  remarkable  castle  and  5,000  inhabitants.  Wrex- 
ham, a  town  with  7,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  flannel  and  iron-  and  brass- 
works.     Ruthin,  a  town  with  4,000  inhabitants. 

51.  Caernarvonshire,  containing:  -(-Caernarvon,  a  town  on  the  Menai 
Strait,  has  9,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  stately  castle,  reared  in  the 
13th  century  by  Edward  L  •  Bangor  and  Aberconway,  towns  with  respectively 
5,000  and  2,000  inhabitants. 

52.  Anglesea,  a  county  comprising  the  island  of  this  name,  which  has 
186  square  miles  in  extent,  and  a  population  of  50,000  inhabitants,  and  ia 
separated  from  Wales  by  the  Menai  Strait.  This  strait  is  crossed  by  the 
Menai  bridge,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  kind  in  the  world  ;  it  con- 
sists of  strong  iron  chains,  which  connect  arches  of  masonry,  560  feet  apart ; 
thus  forming  a  safe  and  useful  structure.     The  island  of  Anglesea,  noted  fur 


GREAT  BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND.  217 

The  Isle  of  Man.  the  Norman  Islands,  and  the  Isle  of  H«lifoUa  I. 

its  copper  mines,  contains :  -{-Beaumaris,  a  town  with  3.U00  inhabitants.  In 
its  vicinity  is  the  romantically  situated  mansion  of  Baron  Hill.  The 
borough  of  Holyhead  (with  5,500  inhabitants)  is  a  chief  station  of  packets 
for  Ireland. 

To  England,  but  to  none  of  its  counties,  belong  the  following 
islands : 

(a.)  The  isle  of  Man  (224  square  miles,  and  45,000  inhabitants),  lying  in  the 
Irish  Sea,  at  about  equal  distance  from  each  of  the  three  united  kingdoms. 
Its  natives  are  called  Manxmen,  and  their  language  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  native  Irish.  Their  ancestors  were  subdued  in  the  10th  century  by  the 
Danes,  and  in  the  11th  by  the  Normans  (from  Normand) ).  In  the  13th  cen- 
tury the  Scotch,  and  in  the  14th  the  English  conquered  the  island,  with  which 
in  the  15th  century  the  earls  of  Derby  were  invested,  and  since  styled  kings. 
In  the  16th  century,  however,  the  duke  of  Athol  became  possessed  of  the 
island,  which  in  1765  was  purchased  by  the  British  government,  in  order  to 
put  an  end  to  the  smuggling  which  was  carried  on  here  upon  the  largest 
scale.  The  capital  of  the  island  is  Castleton,  on  the  southern  coast,  with 
3,000  inhabitants.  It  was  formerly  called  Sodor.  The  residence  of  the 
ancient  kings  of  Man  was  in  Castle  Rushen.  The  most  important  town  of 
the  isle  is  Douglas,  residence  of  a  bishop,  with  7,000  inhabitants.  Another 
town  is  Ramsay,  with  2,000  inhabitants. 

(b.)  The  Norman  Islands  (total  area :  266  square  miles  ;  total  population : 
80,000  inhabitants),  situated  in  the  English  Channel,  near  the  French  coast 
of  Normandy.  They  are  the  only  possession  left  to  the  English  of  what 
they  formerly  had  wrested  from  France.  They  have  a  mild  climate  and  a 
fertile  soil,  and  are  the  following: — 1.  Jersey  (149  square  miles,  and  41,000 
inhabitants),  containing,  among  others,  the  towns  of  St.  Helier  (with  22,000 
inhabitants),  and  St.  Aubin  (with  2,000  inhabitants).  2.  Guernsey  (96  square 
miles,  and  34,000  inhabitants),  containing,  among  others,  St.  Pierre,  or  St.  Peter's 
Port  (with  20,000  inhabitants).  3.  Alderney,  or  Aurigny  (16  square  miles, 
and  4,000  inhabitants),  containing  the  borough  of  the  same  name,  with  1,000 
inhabitants.  4.  Sark  (5  square  miles,  and  1,000  inhabitants),  is  in  French 
called  Cers,  or  Sereg,  and  contains  the  fortified  seaport  of  Longy. 

(c.)  The  Scilly  Isles  (see  above,  under  the  head  of  Cornwall). 

The  Isle  of  Heligoland  (5  square  miles,  and  3,500  inhabi- 


248  EUROPE,  PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

Scotland:  its  History. 

tants),  lying  in  the  North  Sea,  before  the  mouths  of  the  Weser, 
Elbe,  and  Eider,  is  inhabited  by  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Friselanders,  was  in  1714  subdued  by  the  Danes  and  annexed 
to  the  duchy  of  Sleswick,  and  in  1814  ceded  by  Denmark  to 
the  British  crown.  Heligoland  is  much  resorted  to  for  sea- 
bathing. 


B.— THE  KINGDOM  OF  SCOTLAND. 

It  comprises  the  northern  smaller  half  of  the  great  eastern 
island,  has  31,268  square  miles  in  extent,  and  a  population  of 
2,840,000  inhabitants.  Little  is  known  about  the  aborigines  of 
Scotland  ;  they  were  called  Caledonians  by  the  Romans,  who 
conquered  a  part  of  the  country.  The  Picts,  mentioned  at  a  later 
period,  seem  to  have  been  identical  with  the  Caledonians  ;  while 
the  Scots  had  their  primitive  home  in  Ireland,  from  whence  they 
emigrated  at  an  early  period  of  the  Christian  era.  They  sub- 
dued, in  836,  the  Picts,  and  became  since  the  ruling  people, 
though  since  the  8th  century  intermingled  with  the  Angles  and 
Saxons.  From  the  9th  to  the  13th  century,  they  were  ruled  by 
kings  of  the  house  of  Kenneth,  which  became  extinct  in  1289. 
Now  a  long  struggle  arose  for  the  crown  between  the  two  mighty 
families  of  Baliol  and  Bruce,  when  finally  the  latter  became 
possessed  of  it.  In  1371,  it  was  transferred  to  Robert  Stuart,  a 
nephew  of  King  David  of  the  house  of  Bruce.  That  James  VI., 
son  of  Mary  Stuart,  ascended  the  English  throne  in  1603,  thus 
uniting  both  kingdoms,  is  already  related  in  the  British  history. 

Scotland  is,  by  the  Grampian  hills,  divided  into  the  Highlands 
and  Lowlands,  and  politically  into  32  shires,  or  counties,  inclusive 


GREAT  BRITAIN    AND   IRELAND.  249 

Scotland  :   its  Geographical  Divisions. 

numerous  islands.     The  latter,  however,  we  shall  describe  sepa- 
rately, in  order  to  get  a  clearer  view  of  them. 
The  Lowland  counties  are  the  following  : — 

1.  Mid- Lothian,  or  Edinburghshire,  containing :  -{-Edinburgh,  the  metrop- 
olis of  Scotland,  quite  near  the  Frith  of  Forth,  396  miles  north  by  west  of 
London,  with  about  13,000  houses,  and  190,000  inhabitants  (including  Leith). 
The  new  town,  on  the  north,  regularly  laid  out  and  built  of  freestone,  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  towns  of  Europe.  The  most  remarkable  public  edifices 
of  the  city  are,  Holyrood,  once  the  residence  of  the  Scottish  kings  (the  rooms 
inhabited  by  Mary  Stuart  are  left  in  their  former  condition  and  arrangement), 
and  Edinburgh  Castle,  likewise  conspicuous  in  Scottish  "history.  Edinburgh 
has  but  few  manufactures,  yet  it  has  long  been  noted  for  its  science  and  learn- 
ing, and  especially  its  university  is  distinguished  Leith,  its  seaport,  was 
formerly  2  miles  distant,  but  is  now  joined  to  Edinburgh  by  continuous  ranges 
of  buildings.  Musselburgh  (with  10,000  inhabitants)  and  Dalkeith  (with  7,000 
inhabitants),  towns. 

2.  West  Lothian,  or  Linlithgowshire,  containing:  -{-Linlithgow,  a  town 
about  5  miles  distant  from  the  Frith  of  Forth,  with  6,000  inhabitants,  and  an 
ancient  royal  palace,  where  Mary  Stuart  was  born  in  1542.  Borrowstownness 
(in  common  life,  Bo'ness)  and  Bathgate,  towns,  with  respectively  8,000  and 
4,000  inhabitants. 

3.  East  Lothian,  or  Haddingtonshire,  containing :  -{-Haddington,  a  town 
on  the  Tyne,  with  6,000  inhabitants.  Dunbar,  a  maritime  town,  32  miles 
east-north-east  of  Edinburgh,  is  noted  for  the  battle  on  the  3d  of  September, 
1650,  and  has  5,500  inhabitants.  Prestonpans,  a  town  noted  for  a  battle  in 
1745,  has  3,000  inhabitants. 

4.  Berwickshire,  or  Mersc,  containing :  -{-Greenlaw,  a  borough  on  the  Black 
Adder,  with  2,000  inhabitants.  The  town  of  Dunse,  with  4,000  inhabitants, 
is  noted  for  its  cattle  fairs.  The  renowned  scholar  of  the  middle  ages, 
Duns  Scotus  (-(-  1308),  was  born  here  in  1274.  Coldstream,  a  borough  on  the 
Tweed,  with  3,000  inhabitants.  The  British  Coldstream  Regiment  bears  its 
name  from  this  place. 

5.  Roxburghshire,  or  Teviotdale,  containing :  -{-Hawick,  a  town  on  the  Teviot, 
with  6,000  inhabitants.  The  village  of  Melrose  is  noted  for  an  ancient  Gothic 
monastery,  founded  in  the  12th  century  by  David  I.  Kelso,  a  borough,  with 
5,000  inhabitants.    Jedburgh,  a  town,  with  7,000  inhabitants. 

11# 


250  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Scotland:   its  Geographical  Divisions. 

6.  Selkirkshire,  containing :  -(-Selkirk,  a  borough  on  the  Ettrick,  with  4,000 
inhabitants.     Galoshields,  a  village  on  the  Galowater,  with  1,500  inhabitants. 

7.  Peeblesshire,  or  Tweeddale,  containing:  -[-Peebles,  a  borough  on  the 
Tweed,  with  3,000  inhabitants.  The  villages  of  Innerleithen  and  Newlands, 
are  noted  for  their  mineral  waters. 

8.  Dumfriesshire,  containing :  -(-Dumfries,  a  town  on  the  Nith,  southward 
and  64  miles  distant  from  Edinburgh,  is  noted  for  its  cattle  fairs,  and  has 
15,000  inhabitants.  The  borough  of  Moffat,  on  the  Evan,  with  mineral  waters, 
and  3,000  inhabitants,  is  much  resorted  to  as  a  bathing  place.  Other  boroughs 
of  this  county  are  :  Langholm  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Sanquhar  (with  3,500 
inhabitants),  and  Wanlockhead  (with  lead  mines).  The  village  of  Gretna 
Green,  in  the  extreme  south,  on  the  English  border,  is  famous  for  marriages 
of  runaway  lovers  from  England.  Annan,  a  town  on  the  Solway  frith,  with 
6,000  inhabitants. 

9.  Kirkcudbrightshire,  or  East  Galloway,  containing:  -(-Kirkcudbright,  a 
town  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dee,  and  on  the  Solway  frith,  with  5,000  inhabi- 
tants. New  Galloway  (with  1,500  inhabitants)  and  Creetown  (with  3,000 
inhabitants),  boroughs. 

10.  Wigtonshire,  or  West  Galloway,  containing:  -(-"Wigton,  a  town  on  the 
Wigton  Bay,  with  3,500  inhabitants.  Port  Patrick,  a  borough  on  the 
North  Channel,  is  a  station  of  packets  for  Ireland,  and  has  4,000  inhabitanta 
Stranrawer,  or  Stranraer  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  and  Newton  Stuart  (with 
4,000  inhabitants),  towns. 

11.  Ayrshire,  containing:  -(-Ayr,  a  town  on  the  Frith  of  Clyde,  with  con- 
siderable leather  manufactories,  and  9,000  inhabitants.  In  the  time  of 
Wallace  and  Bruce,  viz. :  at  the  end  of  the  13th,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
14th  century,  Ayr  was  the  scene  of  great  events.  Newton  upon  Ayr,  a 
borough,  with  4,000  inhabitants.  Kilmarnock,  a  town  on  the  Irwin,  is  noted 
for  its  carpets,  and  has  18,000  inhabitants.  Irwin  (with  7,000  inhabitants), 
Androssan  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  Saltcoats  (with  4,000  inhabitants), 
boroughs. 

12.  Lanarkshire,  ox  Clydesdale,  containing :  -(-Lanark,  a  town  on  the  Upper 
Clyde,  with  9,000  inhabitants,  and  an  important  wool-spinning  factory  at  New 
Lanark  Glasgow,  a  city  on  the  Clyde,  westward  and  46  miles  distant  from 
Edinburgh,  has  280,000  inhabitants,  and  is  thus  the  largest  city  in  Scotland, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  first  in  commerce  and  manufactures,  and  especially 
noted  for  fine  cotton  goods.    Its  university  is  celebrated,  and  its  cathedral  is 


GREAT  BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND.  261 


Scotland:   its  Geographical  Divisions. 


the  best  preserved  specimen  of  Gothic  architecture  in  Scotland.  In  the 
neighborhood  are  the  celebrated  Clyde  Iron  Works,  and  the  lead  mines 
known  by  the  name  of  Leadhills,  which  belong  to  the  earl  of  Hopetoun. 
Cambusneath,  a  borough  with  4,000  inhabitants.  Hamilton,  a  town  on  the 
Clyde,  with  10,000  inhabitants,  and  a  splendid  palace  of  the  duke  of  Hamilton. 

13.  Renfrewshire,  containing :  -[-Renfrew,  a  borough  on  the  Clyde,  with 
3,500  inhabitants.  Paisley,  a  manufacturing  town,  on  the  Cart,  with  60,000 
inhabitants,  is  especially  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  the  finest  cotton  goods, 
and  for  the  intelligence  of  her  operative  weavers.  Once  there  was  a  celebra- 
ted abbey  here.  Greenock,  a  maritime  town,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Clyde, 
is  the  principal  seaport  of  the  Scotch  west  coast,  and  has  36,000  inhabitants. 
Port  Glasgow  is  the  seaport  of  Glasgow.  The  villages  of  Kilbarchan  (with 
4,500  inhabitants),  Johnstown  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  Eaglesham  (with 
2,500  inhabitants),  are  noted  for  their  cotton  manufactures. 

14.  Stirlingshire,  containing :  -["Stirling,  a  town,  on  the  Forth,  32  miles 
west-north-west  of  Edinburgh,  is  noted  for  its  castle,  anciently  one  of  the 
bulwarks  of  the  kingdom,  and  has  9,000  inhabitants.  Not  far  from  here  is 
Bannockburn,  where  on  the  14th  of  June,  1314,  King  Edward  II.  of  England 
was  totally  defeated  by  the  Scotch  under  Robert  Bruce.  Falkirk,  a  town, 
on  the  Carron,  is  noted  for  its  cattle  fairs,  and  has  15,000  inhabitants.  Near 
Falkirk  are  the  considerable  iron-works  in  the  village  of  Carron.  The 
borough  of  Grangemouth,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Carron,  has  4,000  inhabitants, 
Buchanan,  a  beautiful  country-seat  of  the  duke  of  Montrose. 

15.  Dumbartonshire,  containing:  -}-Dumbarton,  a  town,  on  the  Clyde,  14 
miles  west-north  west  of  Glasgow,  has  5,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its 
castle,  the  ancient  stronghold  of  the  Scots,  towering  on  the  summit  of  a  per- 
pendicular rock  500  feet  in  height.  The  village  of  Helensburgh  (with  1,200 
inhabitants),  is  noted  for  sea-bathing. 

16.  Clackmannanshire,  containing :  -{-Clackmannan,  a  town,  on  the  Forth, 
with  5,000  inhabitants.  Alloa,  or  Alloway,  a  town,  on  the  Forth,  with  7,000 
inhabitants.  Tillicoultry,  a  romantically  situated  village,  on  the  Devon,  with 
1,500  inhabitants. 

17.  Fife,  or  Fifeshire,  containing :  -(-Cupar,  a  town,  on  the  Eden,  with  linen 
manufactures,  and  7,000  inhabitants.  St.  Andrews,  a  city  on  the  coast,  be- 
tween the  friths  of  Forth  and  Tay,  with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  a  university, 
canvass  and  linen  manufactures,  and  8,000  inhabitants  Before  the  reforma- 
tion St.  Andrews  was  the  ecclesiastical  metropolis  of  Scotland.    The  neigh- 


252  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Scotland:  its  Geographical  Divisions. 

boring  town  of  Dunfermline  (with  20,000  inhabitants),  is  noted  for  its  cotton 
and  linen  manufactures,  and  was  anciently  very  often  the  residence  of  the 
Scottish  kings.  Kirkaldy,  a  town,  on  the  Frith  of  Forth,  with  linen  manufac- 
tures, sea-bathing,  and  6,000  inhabitants.  Burntisland,  a  borough,  on  the 
Frith  of  Forth,  with  3,500  inhabitants. 

18.  Kinross-shire,  containing:  -{-Kinross,  a  town,  with  linen  and  cotton 
manufactures,  and  4,000  inhabitants,  is  romantically  situated  on  the  Lochleven, 
a  lake  with  an  isle,  on  which  are  the  ruins  of  a  castle  where  Mary  Stuart 
was  in  1567  kept  prisoner  for  a  while. 

19.  Buteshire,  comprising  the  following  islands  in  the  frith  of  Clyde,  hav- 
ing a  total  area  of  213  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  18,000  inhabitants : 
the  small  but  fertile  isle  of  Bute,  containing  Rothsay,  with  5,000  inhabitants, 
much  resorted  to  for  sea-bathing ;  the  larger  isle  of  Arran,  where  Ossian 
shall  have  lived,  containing  Lamlash,  a  borough,  with  a  fine  harbor,  and 
6,000  inhabitants  ; — Ailsa  and  the  Cumbrays,  very  small  isles. 

20.  Forfaxshire,  or  Angus,  containing :  -(-Forfax,  a  town  on  a  lake  of  the 
same  name,  northward  and  23  miles  distant  from  Dundee,  with  9,000  inhabi- 
tants. Dundee,  a  city  on  the  frith  of  Tay,  northward  and  46  miles  distant 
from  Edinburgh,  has  64,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  sail-cloth  and 
other  manufactures  of  hemp  and  coarse  linen.  Dundee  is  at  the  same  time 
one  of  the  principal  seaports  of  Scotland,  as  is  also  Montrose,  a  town  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Esk,  with  various  manufactures,  and  14,000  inhabitants.  Bre- 
chin, a  town  on  the  Esk,  with  1,000  inhabitants.  Arbroath,  or  Aberbrothik, 
a  maritime  town,  with  8,000  inhabitants,  and  the  ruins  of  a  once  stately 
abbey.  In  the  vicinity  is  a  celebrated  light-house,  on  the  solitary  rook 
called  Bellrock. 

21.  Kinkardine,  or  Mearns,  containing :  -|-Stonehaven,  a  maritime  town, 
between  Aberdeen  and  Montrose,  with  5,000  inhabitants.  Bervie,  or  Inver- 
bervie, a  borough,  with  1,500  inhabitants.  Laurencekirk  (with  1,000  inhabi- 
tants), and  Finnan,  villages. 

22.  Aberdeenshire,  containing :  + Aberdeen,  the  largest  city  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Forth,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dee,  100  miles  north-north-east  of 
Edinburgh,  has  70,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  university,  and  as  the  chief 
ship-building  port  in  Scotland.  Peterhead,  a  maritime  town,  with  8,000  inhabi- 
tants, mineral-waters,  sea-bathing,  and  herring  fishery.  Frasersburgh,  a 
borough,  with  3,000  inhabitants,  is  situated  near  Kinnaird's  Head,  where  the 
Scottish  coast  takes  a  westerly  direction. 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND   IRELAND.  253 

Scotland:  its  Geographical  Divisions. 

23.  Banffshire,  containing :  -(-Banff,  a  town  on  the  North  Sea,  42  miles 
north-north-west  of  Aberdeen,  is  noted  for  its  linens,  and  herring  fishery,  and 
has  8,000  inhabitants.  St.  Fergus  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  Garmouth 
(with  2,500  inhabitants),  boroughs  on  the  North  Sea.  Other  boroughs  are 
Portsoy,  Cullen,  Fochabers,  and  Findhorn. 

24.  Elginshire,  or  Moray,  containing :  -(-Elgin,  a  town  on  the  Lossie,  with 
an  ancient,  yet  very  remarkable  Gothic  cathedral,  and  8,000  inhabitants. 
Forres,  a  borough,  with  4,000  inhabitants. 

25.  Nairnshire,  containing:  -(-Nairn,  a  town  on  the  Murray  frith,  with 
4,000  inhabitants,  and  sea-bathing. 

The  Highland  counties  are  the  following : — 

26.  Perthshire,  containing :  -(-Pjerth,  a  town  on  the  Tay,  westward  and  23 
miles  distant  from  Dundee,  is  noted  for  its  schools,  and  for  its  cotton  and  linen 
manufactures,  and  has  22,000  inhabitants.  In  the  ancient  castle  of  Scone, 
about  5  miles  distant  from  Perth,  the  Scottish  kings  used  to  be  crowned.  The 
ancient  castle  of  Glammis  is  supposed  to  be  that  where  King  Duncan  was 
murdered  by  Macbeth,  while  the  latter  shall  have  resided  in  the  castle  of 
Dunsinan.  The  lake  known  by  the  name  of  Loch  Katerine,  has  become 
celebrated  by  Walter  Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake.  Dunkkld,  a  borough  on  the 
Tay,  with  1,500  inhabitants,  was  anciently  the  capital  of  the  Caledonian  king- 
dom, and  is  the  pride  of  Scotland  for  grand  and  picturesque  scenery.  The 
borough  of  Abernethy,  on  the  Tay,  was  once  the  capital  of  the  Picts. 

27.  Inverness-shire,  containing :  -(-Inverness,  considered  as  the  capital  of  the 
Highlands,  is  situated  at  the  head  of  Murray  frith,  and  noted  for  its  schools, 
and  manufactures  of  tartans,  linen,  and  cotton  goods;  its  population  is  18,000 
inhabitants.  Inverlochy  Castle  shall  once  have  been  the  residence  of  the 
Caledonian  kings.  About  the  Hebrides,  the  middlemost  isles  of  which  belong 
to  this  county,  see  below. 

28.  Argyleshire,  or  the  Western  Highlands,  containing :  -[-Inverary,  a  town 
on  the  Loch  Fyne,  north-westward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Glasgow,  with 
8,000  inhabitants,  herring  fishery,  and  the  splendid  palace  of  the  duke  of 
Argyle.  Appin,  a  borough  on  the  Loch  Linnhe,  with  2,500  inhabitants. 
Campbelltown,  a  commercial  town,  with  10,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its 
herring  fishery,  and  situated  on  the  long  and  narrow  peninsula  of  Cantyre. 
The  beautiful  valley  of  Coe,  or  Glen-Coe,  was,  according  to  a  tale  of  ancient 


254  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Scotland  :   its  Geographical  Divisions  and  its  Islands. 


times,  the  birth-place  of  Ossian.    About  the  Hebrides,  whose  southernmost  isles 
belong  to  this  county,  see  below. 

29.  Cromarty,  containing :  -{"Cromarty,  a  town  on  the  Murray  frith,  north- 
ward and  23  miles  distant  from  Inverness,  is  noted  for  its  fishery,  and  has 
5,000  inhabitants. 

30.  Ross,  containing:  -{-Dingwall,  a  town  on  the  Cromarty  frith,  with 
4,000  inhabitants.  Tain,  a  town  on  the  Dornoch  frith,  with  3,500  inhabi- 
tants. About  the  Hebrides,  whose  northernmost  isles  belong  to  this  county, 
see  below. 

31.  Sutherland,  containing :  -j-Dornoch,  a  town  on  the  frith  of  the  same 
name,  with  3,000  inhabitants.  Edderachyllis,  a  borough,  with  1,800  inhabi- 
tants. 

32.  Caithness,  the  northernmost  county  of  Scotland,  containing :  -{-Thurso, 
a  maritime  and  the  northernmost  town  of  the  British  main  land,  with  6,000 
inhabitants.  John  o' Groat's  house  is  the  most  northern  residence  on  this  main 
land.  The  maritime  town  of  Wick  (with  10,000  inhabitants),  is  noted  for  the 
herring  fishery. 

The  chief  groups  of  the  Scottish  islands,  are  the  following : — 

(a.)  The  Hebrides,  or  Western  Islands,  between  200  and  300  in  number,  with 
a  total  population  of  90,000  inhabitants,  who,  for  the  most  part,  are  Roman 
Catholics.  In  the  9th  century,  the  Hebrides  were  conquered  by  the  Norwe- 
gians, but  subsequently  subjected  to  the  sway  of  the  Scottish  kings.  The 
most  remarkable  of  the  islands  are :  Islay,  or  Isla  (the  southernmost,  84  square 
miles  in  extent,  and  with  10,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  black-colored 
cattle,  and  linen  manufactures) ;  Jura  (only  with  1,200  inhabitants) ;  Mull 
(341  square  miles,  and  10,000  inhabitants,  who  are  chiefly  engaged  in  hus- 
bandry) ;  Staffa  (only  half  a  mile  in  diameter,  but  remarkable  for  one  of  the 
greatest  curiosities  in  nature,  called  FingaTs  Cave,  which  is  more  than  200 
feet  long,  and,  at  its  opening,  42  feet  wide :  on  each  side  it  is  bounded  by 
splendid  basaltic  columns  in  perpendicular  ranges,  supporting  at  the  top  a 
roof,  66  feet  above  the  water,  and  formed  by  the  broken  ends  of  other  basaltic 
columns ;  the  cave  was  accidentally  discovered  in  1772,  by  an  Irishman) ;  Iona, 
or  Icolmkill  (near  Staffa,  is  noted  in  history  as  the  residence  of  monks,  who 
lived  in  a  monastery  founded  by  St.  Columban  about  the  middle  of  the  6th 
century,  and  diffused  the  light  of  learning  and  Christianity  through  many 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND   IRELAND.  255 


Scottish  Islands. 


parts  of  northern  Europe)  ;  Coll  (with  1,300  inhabitants) ;  Tyree  (with  3,200 
inhabitants) ;  Skye  (788  square  miles,  but  only  with  20,000  inhabitants,  and 
the  neighboring  little  isles  of  Rum  and  Canna) ;  Lewis  (894  square  miles,  yet 
with  not  more  than  15,000  inhabitants,  and  the  borough  oiStornoway) ;  North 
Uist,  and  South  Uist  (with  respectively  4,000  and  5,000  inhabitants);  St. 
K>lda  (a  solitary  isle,  21  square  miles  in  extent,  and  inhabited  by  about  150 
industrious  islanders,  who  are  much  engaged  in  catching  sea-fowl). 

(b.)  The  Orkney  Islands,  separated  from  the  northern  extremity  of  Scottish 
main  land  by  the  Pentland  Frith  They  are  67  in  number,  29  of  which  are 
inhabited,  with  a  total  population  of  40,000  inhabitants.  These  islands  are 
the  resort  of  vast  numbers  of  sea-fowl,  which  the  islanders  catch  by  descend- 
ing with  ropes,  from  the  high  cliffs  to  which  the  birds  resort  The  Orkneys 
were  in  the  9th  centuiy  conquered  by  the  Norwegians,  and  subsequently  ruled 
by  native  earls,  until  they  became  subjected  to  the  crown  of  Scotland.  The 
principal  island  is  Pomona  (213  square  miles,  and  15,000  inhabitants),  whose 
capital,  Kirkwall  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  was  anciently  the  residence  of  the 
sovereign  earls  of  the  Orkneys.     Stromness  is  the  chief  seaport  of  the  island. 

(c.)  The  Shetland  Islands,  north-eastward  from  the  former,  86  in  number 
(yet  only  40  are  inhabited),  with  a  total  area  of  980  square  miles,  and  a 
total  population  of  30,000  inhabitants.  The  little  horses  of  Shetland,  known 
by  the  name  of  ponie9,  are  of  great  use  in  mountainous  districts.  The  wool- 
len stockings  knitted  by  the  islanders,  are  an  article  much  in  demand.  The 
Shetland  Islands,  conquered  by  the  Norwegians  in  the  9th  century,  were 
given  in  dowry  to  a  Norwegian  princess,  who  towards  the  end  of  the  15  th 
century  was  married  to  King  James  III.  of  Scotland.  The  principal  island 
is  Shetland,  or  Mainland,  with  16,000  inhabitants,  and  the  borough  and  sea- 
port of  Lerwick  (with  1,200  inhabitants).  The  most  fertile  and  beautiful 
island  is  Yell  (149  square  miles,  and  2,000  inhabitants).  The  northernmost 
is  Unst  (43  square  miles,  and  2,400  inhabitants). 


256  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Ireland  :  Historical  Sketch  and  Geographical  Divisions. 


C— THE  KINGDOM  OF  IRELAND. 

It  comprises  the  great  island  of  the  same  name,  lying  west  of 
Great  Britain,  has  an  area  of  28,095  square  miles,  and  a  popu- 
lation of  8,600,000  inhabitants.  The  Romans  did  never  set  a 
foot  on  the  Irish  shore,  and  for  this  reason  the  early  history  of 
this  country  is  but  little  known  until  the  4th  century,  when  the 
Irish,  in  that  period  called  Scots,  began  to  make  their  inroads 
into  Scotland.  So  early  as  in  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century 
Christianity  was  introduced  in  Ireland,  especially  by  Patricius, 
or  St.  Patrick.  The  country  was  then  ruled  by  many  chiefs ; 
subsequently  the  four  present  provinces  were  independent  king- 
doms. That  Ireland  in  1172  was  conquered  by  the  English,  has 
already  been  related  above. 

Ireland  is  divided  into  the  4  provinces  of  Leinster,  Ulster,  Con- 
naught,  and  Munster,  which  are  subdivided  into  32  counties. 

I.  The  province  of  Leinster,  comprising  the  south-eastern  part  of  Ireland, 
is  divided  into  12  counties,  viz.: — 1.  The  county  of  Dublin,  containing: 
-)-DuBLiN,  the  capital  of  Ireland,  on  both  sides  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
LifFey,  with  310,000  inhabitants,  numerous  and  beautiful  public  edifices  (among 
■which  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  the  Bank  of  Ireland,  the  Exchange,  and  the 
Four  Courts,  are  conspicuous),  a  university,  6  monasteries,  7  nunneries,  many- 
manufactures  of  linen,  silks,  cotton  goods,  etc.,  and  an  extensive  commerce. 
With  its  seaport,  Kingston,  Dublin  is  connected  by  an  atmospheric  railway. 

2.  The  county  of  Wicklow,  containing :  -j-Wickxow,  a  maritime  town,  on  the 
Irish  Sea,  with  3,500  inhabitants.  Arklow,  a  town,  with  2,000  inhabitants. 
Bray,  and  Rathdrum,  boroughs  with  respectively  2,000  and  1,800  inhabitants. 

3.  The  county  of  Wexford,  containing :  -{-Wexford,  a  town  on  St.  George's 
Channel,  with  mineral  waters,  and  12,000  inhabitants.  Enniscorthy,  and 
New  Ross,  towns  with  respectively  7,000  and  9,000  inhabitants.  4.  The 
county  of  Kilkenny,  containing :   -J-Kilkenny,  a    town    on  the  Norr,  with 


GREAT  BRITAIN   AND  IRELAND.  257 

Ireland  :  its  Geographical  Divisions. 


30,000  inhabitants,  a  stately  castle  of  the  earl  of  Ormond,  and  one  of  the 
finest  cathedrals  in  Ireland.  Moreover,  Kilkenny  is  noted  for  its  beautiful 
white  and  black  marble.  The  borough  of  Castle  Comer  is  noted  for  its  coal. 
5.  The  county  of  Carlow,  or  Catherlagh,  containing:  -J-Carlow,  a  town  on 
the  Barrow,  with  a  remarkable  ancient  abbey,  and  10,000  inhabitants.  Tul- 
low,  a  town  on  the  Slaney,  with  3j000  inhabitants.  6.  The  county  of  Kildare, 
containing :  -J-Kildare,  a  town  on  the  so-called  Curragh  of  Kildare,  is  noted 
for  horse-races,  and  has  6,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  county  are  : 
Athy  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Naas  (with  an  ancient  castle,  once  the  resi- 
dence of  the  kings  of  Leinster,  and  3,500  inhabitants),  and  Maynooth  (with 
a  noted  Catholic  college,  and  2,000  inhabitants.  7.  Queen's  County,  contain- 
ing :  -{"Maryborough,  Gr  Queenstown,  a  town  south-westward  and  60  miles 
distant  from  Dublin,  with  4,000  inhabitants.  This  town  bears  its  name  in 
honor  of  Queen  Mary,  who  reigned  from  1553  to  1558.  Other  towns  of  this 
county  are :  Mount  Mellick  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  Mountrath  (with 
5,000  inhabitants).  8.  King's  County,  containing :  -[-Philipstown,  a  town  on 
the  Grand  Canal,  bears  its  name  in  honor  of  King  Philip  of  Spain,  consort  of 
the  above-nam»d  Queen  Mary,  and  has  2,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of 
this  county  are :  Tullamore  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  Banagher  (with  3,000 
inhabitants),  and  Birr,  or  Parsonstown  (with  6,000  inhabitants).  9.  The 
county  of  West  Meath,  containing :  -j-Mullingar,  a  town  on  the  Royal  Canal, 
with  6,000  inhabitants.  Athlone,  a  town,  with  12,000  inhabitants.  10.  The 
county  of  East  Meath,  or  Meath,  containing:  -{-Trim,  a  town  on  a  branch  of 
the  Boyne,  with  1,500  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  county  are :  Kells 
(with  6,000  inhabitants),  and  Navan  (with  7,000  inhabitants).  11.  The 
county  of  Longford,  containing :  -{-Longford,  a  town  on  the  Camlin,  with 
6,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  county  are  :  Granard  (with  4,000  in- 
habitants), and  Lanesborough  (with  5,000  inhabitants).  12.  The  county  of 
Louth,  containing :  -{-Dundalk,  a  town  on  the  bay  of  the  same  name,  carries 
on  a  considerable  commerce,  and  has  16,000  inhabitants.  Drogheda,  a  town 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Boyne,  with  considerable  commerce,  and  22,000  inhabi- 
tants. Other  towns  of  this  county  are :  Carlingford  (with  5,000  inhabitants), 
and  Ardee  (with  4,000  inhabitants). 

II.  The  province  of  Ulster,  comprising  the  northern  part  of  Ireland,  is 
divided  into  9  counties,  viz.: — 13.  The  county  of  Antrim,  containing:  -[-Car- 
rickfergus,  a  town  on  the  Belfast  Lough,  with  4,000  inhabitants.  Belfast, 
the  emporium  of  the  north  of  Ireland,  and  centre  of  the  linen  trade,  at  the 


258  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Ireland:   its  Geographical  Divisions 


head  of  the  Belfast  Lough,  northward  and  92  miles  distant  from  Dublin,  has 
56,000  inhabitants.  Antrim  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Lisburn  (with  7,000 
inhabitants),  Balleyma  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Lame  (with  5,000  inhabi- 
tants), and  Ballycastle  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  towns.  Within  the  limits  of 
this  county  is  the  Giants  causeway,  an  astonishing  work  of  nature,  consisting 
of  vast  numbers  of  perpendicular  columns  of  basaltic  rock,  from  200  to  400 
feet  high,  compacted  together  over  a  space  600  feet  long  by  about  180  broad, 
and  projecting  into  the  sea  an  unknown  distance.  14.  The  county  of  London- 
derry, or  Berry,  containing :  -{-Londonderry,  a  considerable  seaport  town,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Foyle  river,  115  miles  north-north-west  of  Dublin,  is  strongly 
fortified  (in  1690-1  it  sustained  a  siege  by  the  forces  of  James  II.),  carries  on 
an  important  trade  with  America  and  the  West  Indies,  and  has  18,000  inhabit- 
ants. Coleraine,  a  town  with  7,000  inhabitants.  15.  The  county  of  Donegal,  or 
Tyrconel,  containing :  -j-Lifford,  a  town  on  the  Foyle,  with  2,500  inhabitants. 
Donegal,  a  town  at  the  mouth  of  the  Eask,  with  4,500  inhabitants.  The 
town  of  Ballyshannon  (with  9,000  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  linen  manu- 
factures. 16.  The  county  of  Fermanagh,  containing:  -j-Enniskillen,  a 
romantically  situated  town,  near  the  Lough  Erne,  with  linqn  manufactures, 
and  8,000  inhabitants.  17.  The  county  of  Tyrone,  containing:  -4-Omagh,  a 
town  on  the  Roe,  with  4,000  inhabitants.  Dungannon,  a  town  on  the  Lough 
Neagh,  has  7,000  inhabitants,  and  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  O'Neals,  known  by 
their  animosity  against  the  English.  Strabane,  a  town  on  the  Foyle,  with 
8,000  inhabitants.  18.  The  county  of  Cavan,  containing :  -j-Cavan  (with 
4,000  inhabitants),  and  Belturbet  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  towns.  19.  The 
county  of  Monaghan,  containing :  -{-Monaghan,  a  town  with  linen  manufac- 
tures, and  5,000  inhabitants.  Carrickmacross,  a  town,  with  3,500  inhabitants. 
20.  The  county  of  Armagh,  containing :  -{-Armagh,  a  town  on  the  Callen,  is 
the  ecclesiastical  metropolis  of  Ireland,  and  has  10,000  inhabitants,  who  are 
much  engaged  in  the  linen  trade.  The  town  of  Lurgan  (with  linen  trade, 
and  5,000  inhabitants),  is  sometimes  called  Little  England.  21.  The  county 
of  Down,  containing :  -(-Downpatrick,  a  town,  with  5,000  inhabitants,  is  noted 
as  the  burial-place  of  St  Patrick,  the  patron  saint  of  Ireland.  Newry,  a 
considerable  seaport  town,  with  16,000  inhabitants.  Donaghadee,  a  maritime 
town,  with  5,000  inhabitants,  and  a  ferry  between  it  and  Port  Patrick  in 
Scotland,  the  shortest  route  by  sea  to  Great  Britain.  Bangor  (with  4,000 
inhabitants),  and  Strang  ford  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  towns. 

IIL  The  province  of  Connaught,  comprising  the  middlemost  part  of  western 


GREAT  BRITAIN   AND   IRELAND.  259 

Ireland:  its  Geographical  Divisions. 


[reland,  is  divided  into  5  counties,  viz. : — 22.  The  county  of  Galway,  contain- 
ng:  +  Galway,  a  town  on  the  Galway  Bay,  has  36,000  inhabitants,  carries 
m  a  considerable  trade,  and  is  noted  as  a  resort  of  the  gentry  for  sea-bathing. 
Tuam,  a  towu  on  the  Clare,  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican  archbishop,  and  has 
5,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  county  are:  Loughrea  (with  linen 
trade,  and  7,000  inhabitants),  and  Ballinasloe  (noted  for  the  greatest  cattle 
fairs  in  Ireland,  with  8,000  inhabitants).  23.  The  county  of  Mayo,  containing : 
-{-Castlebar,  a  town  near  Lough  Lanach,  with  linen  manufactures,  and  6,000 
inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  county  are :  Killala  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
Ballinrobe  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Ballina  (with  7,000  inhabitants). 
24.  The  county  of  Sligo,  containing  :  4-Sligo,  a  considerable  seaport  town,  on 
the  bay  of  the  same  name,  with  15,000  inhabitants.  25.  The  county  of  Leitrim, 
containing :  -j-Carrick  on  Shannon,  a  town  on  the  Shannon,  with  2,500  inhab- 
itants. The  town  of  Leitrim  (with  3,000  inhabitants)  is  also  situated  on  the 
Shannon.  26.  The  county  of  Roscommon,  containing  :  -f~ Roscommon,  a  town, 
with  4,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  county  are :  Boyle  (with  6,000 
inhabitants),  Athlone,  or  Etholone  (with  10,000  inhabitants),  and  Castlereagh 
(with  2,500  inhabitants). 

IV.  The  province  of  Munster,  comprising  the  south-western  part  of  Ireland, 
is  divided  into  6  counties,  viz. : — 27.  The  county  of  Cork,  containing :  -|"Cork, 
the  second  Irish  city  in  population,  having  130,000  inhabitants,  is  the  emporium 
of  the  south  of  Ireland,  and  chief  mart  of  the  provision  trade  ;  and  its  harbor, 
called  the  Cove,  is  strongly  fortified  and  one  of  the  best  in  the  world.  On 
the  isle  Great-Island,  within  the  harbor,  is  the  town  of  Cove,  with  7,000  inhab- 
itants. Bandon,  a  town  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  with  linen  and  cotton 
manufactures,  and  14,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  county  are : 
Kinsale  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  Micheltown  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Youghall 
(with  10,000  inhabitants),  Mallow  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  and  Fermoy  (with 
6,000  inhabitants).  28.  The  county  of  Waterford,  containing :  -j-Waterford 
an  import  seaport  town,  70  miles  east-north-east  of  Cork,  and  92  miles  south- 
south-west  of  Dublin,  has  60,000  inhabitants,  and  an  extensive  intercourse 
with  England  and  Wales,  and  is  noted  for  its  trade  in  provisions,  and  New- 
foundland fishery.  Dcjngarvan,  the  largest  fishing  town  in  Ireland,  westward 
and  30  miles  distant  from  Waterford,  with  6,000  inhabitants.  Lismore,  a  town 
on  the  Blackwater,  has  4,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  cathedral,  and  a 
castle,  reared  in  1185  by  King  Henry  II.,  and  at  present  belonging  to  the 
duke  of  Devonshire.     29.    The  county  of  Tipperary,  containing :  -{-Clonmel, 


EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Ireland :  its  Geographical  Divisions— The  British  Colonies. 

a  town  on  the  Suire,  is  the  centre  for  the  Irish  butter  trade,  and  has  18,000 
inhabitants.  Tipperary,  a  town  near  the  Suire,  south-westward  and  100 
miles  distant  from  Dublin,  with  8,000  inhabitants.  Cashel,  a  town,  with  9,000 
inhabitants,  and  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  cathedral,  where  the  kings  of  Munster 
were  crowned.  Other  towns  of  this  county  are  :  Carrick  on  Suire  (with  8,000 
inhabitants),  and  Thurles  (with  6,000  inhabitants).  30.  The  county  of  Clare, 
containing :  -j-Ennis,  a  town  on  the  Fergus,  is  noted  for  its  stately  Gothic 
abbey,  and  has  12,000  inhabitants.  Killaloe,  a  town  on  the  Shannon,  with 
2,500  inhabitants.  31.  The  county  of  Limerick,  containing :  -J-Limerick,  an 
important  commercial  town,  on  the  Shannon,  north-westward  and  70  miles 
distant  from  Waterford,  has  70,000  inhabitants,  is  largely  engaged  in  the 
provision  trade,  and  was  formerly  noted  for  the  strongest  fortress  in  Ireland, 
and  for  its  firm  stand  in  the  cause  of  the  Catholics.  32.  The  county  of  Kerry, 
containing :  -|-Tralee,  a  town  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  with  considerable  fishery, 
and  10,000  inhabitants.  Killarney,  a  town,  with  8,000  inhabitants,  is  situated 
on  the  lake  of  Killarney,  which  is  celebrated  for  the  beauty  and  grandeur  of 
its  scenery.    Dingle,  a  town,  with  6,000  inhabitants. 

The  British  possessions  and  colonies  are  the  following : — 

{a.)  In  Europe  :  1.  The  isle  of  Heligoland  (see  above).  2.  Gib- 
raltar (see  under  the  head  of  Spain).  3.  Malta  (see  under  the 
head  of  Italy).  4.  The  Ionian  Isles,  which  will  be  found  described 
elsewhere  in  this  work. 

(b.)  In  Africa  :  Settlements  in  Senegambia  and  Upper  Guinea ; 
moreover,  Cape  Colony,  St.  Helena,  Mauritius,  etc. 

(c.)  In  Asia  :  Hindoostan,  provinces  in  Farther  India,  Ceylon 
(belonging  to  the  crown),  Singapore,  Hongkong,  etc.,  etc. 

(d.)  In  Australia  :  The  continent  of  Australia,  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  New  Zealand,  and  Norfolk  Island. 

.  (e.)  In  America  :  British  North  America,  Guiana,  and  many 
islands  of  the  West  Indies,  Bahamas,  etc.  « 

The  total  area  of  all  these  possessions  and  colonies  is  estimated 
at  4,686,000  square  miles,  and  the  total  population  at  131,000,000 
inhabitants. 


THE  NETHERLANDS. 

Total  area  :  24,644  square  miles. 
Total  population  :  7,558,000  inhabitants. 

Holland  and  Belgium,  together,  were  from  old  styled  the 
Netherlands,  or  Lowlands,  on  account  of  their  level  physical 
character,  so  that  parts  of  their  surface  are  even  lower  than  the 
eea,  which  is  prevented  from  overflowing  the  land  by  vast  dikes, 
or  embankments.  Thus,  while  Holland  and  Belgium  are  political 
names,  the  Netherlands  are  a  geographical  name,  like  that  of  Italy, 
for  instance. 

By  first  giving  a  general  view  of  all  Netherlands,  in  their 
common  physical  and  natural  character,  we  avoid,  at  the  same 
time,  the  inconvenience  of  numerous  repeatings. 

The  Netherlands  are  a  maritime  country,  at  the  north-western 
frontier  of  Germany,  and  on  the  north  bounded  by  the  North 
Sea. 

Since  the  revolution  of  1830,  they  are  divided  into  two  kingdoms, 
the  northernmost  of  which  is  styled  the  Kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands* (until  the  year  1795,  it  was  a  republic  known  by  the  name 
of  the  United  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands),  while  the  southern 
is  styled  the  Kingdom  of  Belgium  (till  towards  the  end  of  last 
century,  known  by  the  name  of  Austrian  Netherlands). 

*  In  common  life,  it  is  sometimes  called  the  kingdom  of  Holland,  but  a 
kingdom  of  this  name  has  never  existed,  except  in  the  short  period  from  1806 
to  1810;  and  Holland  has  never  been  anything  else  than  a  province  of  the 
whole  state. 


262  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  Netherlands  :   Political  Division,  Climate,  etc. 

Both  were  however  united,  first  until  the  last  quarter  of  the 
16th  century,  and  then  again  in  the  period  from  1815  to  1830. 
Of  the  above-stated  total  area  and  population — 

Square  miles.  Inhabitants. 

The  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  proper  takes  up      .     11,832  2,926,000 
Its    provinces   of  Luxemburg   and   Limburg,  which 

politically  belong  to  Germany,  take  up      ....       1,395  282,000 

The  Kingdom  of  Belgium  takes  up 11,411  4,350,000 


Total, 24,644  1,558,000 

The  country,  as  has  already  been  mentioned,  is  level,  with  the 
exception  of  a  small  part  in  the  south-east,  where  low  hills  grad- 
ually rise  to  the  Ardennes  (see  Introduction  to  Europe,  page  6). 
Mostly  there  is  no  great  variety  in  the  scenery  of  the  landscape ; 
especially  in  the  North  Netherlands,  grass  and  cows,  canals  and 
wind-mills,  and  cleanly  villages,  or  towns,  invariably  relieve  one 
another  with  picturesque  effect. 

About  the  Zuyder  Zee,  Dollart,  the  lakes  and  rivers,  as  the  Meuse, 
Scheldt,  etc.,  see  pages  9,  11,  and  16.  The  country  is  intersected 
by  numerous  canals,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  the  great 
canal  of  North  Holland,  extending  from  the  Helder  to  Amster- 
dam, cost  several  million  of  florins,  and  will  float  a  ship  of  the 
line. 

The  climate  is  in  general  more  moderate  than  in  eastern  coun- 
tries in  the  same  parallels,  but  frequently  moist.  In  the  southern 
half  of  the  Netherlands  it  is  somewhat  more  wholesome  than  in 
the  northern  half. 

The  more  or  less  marshy  soil  is  (with  the  exception  of  the 
North  Netherland  province  of  Drenthe,  and  the  Belgian  province 
of  Luxemburg)  extraordinary  fertile.  In  North  Netherlands  is 
the  rearing  of  cattle  prevailing,  and  in  Belgium  agriculture  which 
has  attained  here  the  highest  pitch  of  improvement. 


THE  NETHERLANDS.  203 

Geographical  Features— History. 

Belgium  abounds  in  iron  and  coal ;  the  kingdom  of  the  Neth- 
erlands abounds  in  peat,  which  is  almost  the  only  fuel  used  there. 
The  cattle  is  of  an  excellent  breed,  especially  in  the  proviuces  of 
Groningen,  Utrecht  and  Holland,  South  Brabant,  East  and  West 
Flanders.  The  horses  too  are  of  a  good  breed.  Butter  of  fiue 
quality  is  indeed  raised  in  Belgium,  but  by  far  more  in  the  king- 
dom of  the  Netherlands,  where  butter  and  cheese  are  largely 
exported,  partly  even  to  America  and  India.  The  most  numer- 
ous flocks  of  sheep  are  to  be  found  in  the  provinces  of  Luxem- 
burg, Flanders,  Groningen,  Friesland,  and  North  Holland.  The 
rearing  of  hogs  is  chiefly  carried  on  in  the  provinces  of  Liege, 
Namur,  Luxemburg,  and  Friesland.  The  waters  abound  in 
fishes  of  various  kinds.  Extensive  forests  are  not  to  be  found 
in  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  and  are  in  Belgium  very 
scarce,  except  in  Luxemburg,  and  partly  in  Hainault,  Liege,  and 
Namur.  The  Belgian  soil  yields  excellent  wheat ;  moreover, 
hemp  and  flax,  rape-seed,  hops,  and  tobacco.  In  the  northern 
half  of  the  Netherlands  sufficient  corn  for  home  consumption  is 
not  raised,  but  so  much  the  more  vegetables  (even  largely  ex- 
ported), rape-seed,  etc.  Besides  this  the  province  of  Holland  is 
several  centuries  since  noted  for  its  culture  of  flowers,  especially 
of  tulips.  In  this  province  are  also  raised  vast  quantities  of  ex- 
cellent strawberries. 

Of  commerce,  manufactures,  etc.,  shall  be  treated  separately 
below  ;  and  we  will  now  give  an  historical  sketch  of  all  Nether- 
lands until  their  separation  during  the  reign  of  King  Philip  II. 
of  Spain,  their  sovereign  then. 

History. — In  the  days  of  the  Romans,  the  southern  half  of  the  Netherlands 
was  inhabited  by  the  Belgians,  and  the  northern  half  by  the  Batavians ;  at 
the  northern  boundaries  of  the  latter  lived  the  Frie&es,  or  Frieslanders. 
About  the  year  54  before  the  Christian  era,  Julius  Csesar  subdued  the  Bel- 
gians and  Frieses,  and  entered  upon  friendly  terms  with  the  Batavians.    Since 


264  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  Netherlands— Historical  Sketch. 

the  decay  of  the  Roman  empire  the  Netherlands  came  under  the  sway  of  the 
Franks  ;  and  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Verdun  in  843  (see  page  32)  the 
northern,  and  after  887  also  the  remainiug  part  of  the  Netherlands  was  an- 
nexed to  the  German  empire.  The  German  emperors  appointed  dukes  and 
earls  governors  of  the  Netherlandish  provinces ;  yet  gradually  they  made 
their  office  inheritable  and  themselves  independent  so  early  as  in  the  10th 
century.  In  this  way  arose  the  earldoms  of  Flanders,  Holland,  the  duchy  of 
Brabant,  and  other  lordships.  In  1369  Margaret,  the  only  heiress  of  Flanders 
entered  into  marriage  with  Philip  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  who  thus  be- 
came possessed  of  that  earldom  (see  History  of  Burgundy,  page  200).  At 
the  same  time  the  line  of  the  ancient  dukes  of  Brabant  had  become  extinct, 
and  the  only  heiress,  Johanna  of  Brabant,  bequeathed  the  duchy  to  her  grand- 
nephew,  Anton  of  Burgundy,  the  son  of  Philip  the  Bold.  In  the  course  of 
time  other  parts  of  the  Netherlands  were  annexed  to  these  possessions,  and 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  15th  century,  nearly  the  whole  was  under  the  sway 
of  the  duke  of  Burgundy.  The  last  duke  in  the  male  line  of  this  house, 
Charles  the  Bold,  died  in  1477,  and  his  only  daughter,  Mary,  inherited  the 
Netherlands  together  with  Burgundy  proper.  She  was  married  to  the  Aus- 
trian archduke  Maximilian ;  and  their  son  Philip  was  married  with  Johanna 
of  Castile,  the  only  heiress  of  the  united  crowns  of  Castile  and  Aragou. 
Philip's  and  Johanna's  eldest  son,  the  renowned  emperor  Charles  V.,  inherited 
all  these  immense  possessions,  and  bequeathed  the  Netherlands,  together  with 
Spain,  etc.,  to  his  son  Philip  II  of  Spain.  During  the  reign  of  the  latter  the 
northern  provinces  of  the  Netherlands  separated  themselves  from  the  south- 
ern provinces,  as  an  independent  state,  by  the  name  of  the  "  Republic  of  the 
United  Provinces."  As  such  they  were  preliminarily  acknowledged  by  Spain 
in  1609,  and  definitively  in  1648.  The  southern  provinces  continued  to  be  an- 
nex^l  to  Spain,  until  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  concluded  at  Rastadt  on 
the  7th  of  March,  1714,  they  were  ceded  to  Austria,  which  in  1797  ceded 
them  to  France.  In  1814  they  were  restored  to  Austria,  that  however  re- 
nounced them  in  favor  of  an  arrangement,  by  which  the  northern  and  southern 
provinces  were  reunited  under  the  name  of  the  "  Kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands." But,  as  has  already  been  told,  the  revolution  in  1830  separated  them 
again ;  and  since  that  time  the  northern  provinces  have  retained  the  name  of 
a  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  while  the  southern  provinces  are  united  to  a 
"  Kingdom  of  Belgium." 


THE   NETHERLANDS.  265 


The  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands. 


I— THE  KINGDOM  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS* 

Aeea:  13,227  square  miles. 
Population  :  3,208,000  inhabitants. 

Of  the  here-stated  area  and  population  are  to  be  deducted  1,395 
square  miles,  and  282,000  inhabitants,  as  belonging  to  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Luxemburg  and  the  Limburgian  district  of  Roeremonde, 
which  'politically  form  part  of  Germany,  though  they  are  ruled  by 
the  sovereign  of  the  Netherlands.  Thus  the  kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands  proper  has  2,926,000  inhabitants,  among  whom  the 
prevailing  religion  is  Calvinism.  But  all  religions  are  tolerated, 
and  more  than  one  third  of  the  people  are  Catholics  (according 
to  the  census  of  1844,  their  number  was  1,100,616,  inclusive  those 
of  Luxemburg).  In  point  of  origin,  the  Netherlanders,  or  Dutch, 
belong  to  the  great  Germanic  tribe.  (See  Introduction  to  Europe, 
page  19.) 

Beside  the  rearing  of  cattle  and  other  branches  of  husbandry, 
the  chief  means  of  sustenance  is  the  commerce,  that  extends  over 
all  parts  of  the  world.  The  emporiums  are  Amsterdam  and 
Rotterdam.  Some  provinces  are  noted  for  their  manufactures, 
especially  of  linen  and  paper.  Yet,  upon  the  whole,  this  kingdom 
is  more  a  commercial  than  a  manufacturing  state.  I 

Concerning  the  means  of  education,  there  are  3  universities,  viz. : 
at  Leyden  (instituted  in  1575,  and  in  1846  frequented  by  602 
students),  at  Groningen  (instituted  in  1616,  and  in  1846  frequented 
by  300  students),  and  at  Utrecht  (instituted  in  1636,  and  in  1846 
frequented  by  444  students).     Three  other  similar  institutions, 

*  Frequently  called  Holland,  but  that  a  kingdom  of  Holland  does  not  exist, 
has  been  already  remarked 
12 


266  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


The  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands :  its  Finance —Navy— Army. 


on  a  smaller  scale,  styled  Atbenaea,  are  in  Amsterdam.  Franeker, 
and  Deventer.  Beside  these,  there  are  68  Latin  schools,  9 
seminaries,*  70  secondary,  2,125  public  schools,  etc. 

The  government  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  limited  by  rep. 
resentatives  of  the  people  in  two  chambers,  styled  General  States. 

In  1847,  the  public  revenue  was  estimated  at  70,742,323,  and 
the  expenditure  at  70,283,555  florins,  which  thus  would  have 
yielded  a  surplus  of  458,768  florins.  The  public  debt  amounted 
to  1,232,961,711  florins,  but  inclusive  more  than  203,000,000  from 
the  period  1815-1830.  which  are  to  be  paid  by  Belgium.  The 
Netherlandish  colonies  in  India,  yielded  in  1844  a  nett  revenue 
of  2,123,424  florins. 

The  army  amounted,  hitherto,  to  43,000  men  during  peace, 
and  to  76,000  during  war,  beside  25,000  men  of  Schutters,  or 
militia,  who  could  be  increased  to  80.000  men  in  case  of  neces- 
sity. Yet  lately  a  reduction  of  the  army  has  taken  place.  The 
navy  consists  of  9  ships  of  the  line,  19  frigates,  and  37  sloops  of 
war,  brigs,  etc.,  14  steamers,  and  87  gun-boats.  (About  the  year 
1790,  the  navy  consisted  of  24  ships  of  the  line,  and  40  other 
vessels  of  war,  but  the  English  seized  nearly  the  whole  of  it.) 
The  Netherlandish  navy  in  the  eastern  colonies,  consists  of  1 
frigate,  and  20  other  vessels. 

There  are  the  following  orders  of  honor : — 1 .  The  military  order 
of  William,  in  4  classes,  instituted  in  1 8 1 5.  2.  The  Netherlandish 
lion  order,  likewise  in  4  classes,  and  instituted  in  1815.  3.  The 
Luxemburgian  order  of  the  oak  crown,  instituted  in  1841. 

History. — In  the  history  of  the  Netherlands,  the  above  mentioned  separa- 
tion of  the  northern  provinces  from  the  whole  political  body,  was  chiefly  urged 
by  the  Prince  William  of  Orange  (see  page  223),  who  by  King  Philip  II.  had 
been  appointed  governor  of  the  provinces  of  Holland,  Zealand,  and  Utrecht, 
and,  filled  with  immoderate  ambition  and  personal  hatred  against  his  sove- 

*  About  the  signification  of  these  terms,  see  the  note,  page  65. 


THE   NETHERLANDS.  267 


History  of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands. 


reign,  instigated  the  people  under  the  pretext  of  maintaining  their  rights. 
He,  in  1579,  prevailed  upon  the  just-mentioned  three  provinces  and  those  of 
Geldern  and  Friesland,  to  declare  their  independence,  if  not  directly,  yet  indi- 
rectly, by  uniting  themselves  into  the  so-called  Union,  of  Utrecht,  to  which  sub- 
sequently also  acceded  Groningen  and  OverysseL  These  thus  united  seven 
provinces  (Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Geldern,  Friesland,  Groningen,  and 
Overyssel)  chose  the  prince  of  Orange  their  chief,  conferring  upon  him  the  modest 
title  of  a  Stattholder,  or  vice-regent  (to  wit,  of  the  king  of  Spain) ;  because  they 
would  fain  not  to  appear  in  the  light  of  rebels,  but  of  having  only  maintained 
their  rights  and  privileges.  Nevertheless,  they  actually  established  an  independ- 
ent republic  that  became  one  of  the  most  influential  states,  and  whose  navy  was 
in  the  17th  century  the  most  powerful  for  a  while.  Yet  their  own  Stattholder, 
William  III.  of  Nassau-Orange,  having  only  in  view  his  personal  interest,  and 
aiming  at  the  British  crown  (see  British  History,  page  233),  set  aside  the 
interest  of  the  republic,  and  gradually  brought  it  down  from  its  high  pitch  of 
jwwer,  in  favor  of  England.  To  the  renowned  Netherlandish  East  Indian 
Company,  established  in  1602,  all  the  important  Netherlandish  colonies  in 
Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  did  belong  (though  they  were  held  in  the  name  of 
the  General  States,  or  government),  and  the  nett  annual  profit,  earned  by  this 
company,  was  estimated  at  3,000,000  ducats.  In  1794,  the  French  waged  war 
against  the  republic,  and  transformed  it  into  a  so-called  Batavian  Republic ; 
its  last  Stattholder,  William  V.,  fled  to  England,  and  was  base  enough  to 
deliver  over  nearly  the  whole  navy  to  the  English.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
French  compelled  the  republic  to  share  in  their  wars,  and  in  this  way  the 
Netherlandish  colonies  were  lost  and  conquered  by  the  English.  In  1806, 
Napoleon  transformed  the  Batavian  Republic  into  a  Kingdom  of  Holland,  of 
which  he  appointed  king  his  brother  Louis,  who,  however,  abdicated  in  1810, 
upon  which  this  state  was  incorporated  with  the  French  empire.  In  1813,  the 
Netherlander,  or  Dutch,  proclaimed  the  son  of  William  V.  their  sovereign ; 
England  restored  most  of  the  conquered  colonies,  but  retained  three  of  the 
most  valuable  ones,  viz. :  Ceylon,  Cape  Colony,  and  Demerara.  For  this  loss, 
Netherland  should  have  been  indemnified  by  the  above-stated  arrangement  of  a 
reunion  with  the  southern  provinces.  However,  in  1830,  it  was  again  England 
that  urged  the  separation,  without  caring  in  the  least  for  that  stipulation. 
William  T.,  king  of  the  Netherlands  since  1813,  abdicated  in  1840,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  William  II.,  who  died  in  1849,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  William  III.,  born  on  the  19th  of  February,  1817. 


268  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 


Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands:   its  Geographical  Divisions. 


The  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  is  divided  into  10  provinces, 
2  of  which,  North  and  South  Holland,  comprise  the  ancient 
province  of  Holland,  while  of  the  8  others,  Drenthe  was  formerly 
only  a  district,  and  North  Brabant  (conquered  by  the  ancient 
republic)  belonged  to  what  was  styled  the  "  General ty  countries." 
(About  Luxemburg  and  the  Limburgian  district  of  Roeremonde, 
see  under  the  head  of  Germany.) 

1.  The  province  of  Holland  (2,007£  square  miles,  and,  according  to  the 
census  of  1846,  with  a  population  of  1,027,574  inhabitants),  which  anciently 
formed  the  chief  constituent  part  of  the  earldom  of  Holland,  that  in  1299 
was  inherited  by  the  earls  of  Hainault,  and  in  1425  by  the  duke  of  Burgundy. 
At  present  it  is  divided  into  North  and  South  Holland.  North  Holland 
(894^  square  miles,  and  in  1846  with  468,737  inhabitants),  contains  :  Amster- 
dam, the  principal  city  and  emporium  of  the  kingdom,  on  the  Amstel  river, 
that  disembogues  here  into  the  Y  (as  a  branch  of  the  Zuyder  Zee  is  styled), 
with  225,000  inhabitants.  The  city  is  intersected  by  canals,  over  which  there 
are  290  bridges,  and  which  mostly  are  bordered  by  rows  of  trees.  The 
houses  and  streets  are  kept  remarkably  clean,  and  the  arrangements  in  the 
interior  of  the  former  give  evidence  of  great  comfort.  Among  the  numerous 
public  edifices,  the  most  remarkable  is  the  royal  palace,  formerly  the  city- 
hall,  which  was  reared  in  the  period  from  1648  to  1655,  at  the  expense  of 
18  million  florins.  It  has  282  feet  in  front,  235  in  breadth,  and  116  in  height, 
while  its  magnificent  cupola  (containing  the  finest  chime  of  bells  in  the  Neth- 
erlands) rises  41  feet  above  the  roof.  It  is  built  of  freestone,  and  rests  upon 
a  foundation  of  13,659  piles,  or  long  timbers,  driven  into  the  ground.  Am- 
sterdam was  founded  in  the  12th  century.  Zaardam,  or  Saardam,  formerly 
the  largest  village  in  Holland,  at  present  a  town,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Am- 
sterdam, has  12,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  numerous  windmills 
(more  than  700)  and  docks,  where  the  Russian  emperor,  Peter  I.  in  1697  suf- 
fered himself  to  be  engaged  as  an  apprentice,  in  order  to  get  a  practical 
knowledge  of  the  art  of  ship-building.  The  village  of  Broek  irit  Waterland, 
the  residence  of  rich  inhabitants  of  Amsterdam,  who  have  retired  from  busi- 
ness, is  noted  for  the  remarkable  cleanliness  of  its  houses  and  streets.  No 
stranger  is  allowed  to  enter  any  house  without  having  previously  pulled  off 
his  boots  and  put  on  clean  slippers.     Muiden,  or  Muyden,  (with  1,800  inhabi- 


THE   NETHERLANDS.  269 


The  Province  of  Holland. 


tants),  and  Naarden  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  fortified  towns  on  the  Zuydcr 
Zee.  Medemblik,  on  the  Zuyder  Zee,  with  2,800  inhabitants,  is  considered 
as  the  most  ancient  town  in  North  Holland,  and  as  the  residence  of  the  an- 
cient kings  of  Friesland.  Other  towns  in  North  Holland  are :  Weesp  (with 
3,200  inhabitants),  Monnikendam  (with  2,900  inhabitants),  Purmerend  (with 
3,300  inhabitants,  largely  engaged  in  the  cheese  trade),  Edam  (noted  for  its 
cheese,  with  4,600  inhabitants),  Alkmaar  (also  noted  for  its  cheese,  with 
10,000  inhabitants),  Enkhuyzen  (noted  for  its  herring  fishery,  with  7,000  in- 
habitants), and  Hoorn  (with  10,000  inhabitants,  who  likewise  are  largely  en- 
gaged in  the  butter  and  cheese  trade).  The  village  of  Helder,  at  the  entrance 
to  Zuyder  Zee,  has  2,000  inhabitants,  who  for  the  most  part  consist  of  pilots, 
is  noted  for  its  excellent  harbor,  called  Nieuwe  Diep.  Near  Helder  is  the 
Island  of  Texel  (53  square  miles,  and  5,000  inhabitants),  noted  for  its  sheep 
and  cheese.  Other  smaller  islands  here  are :  Vlieland  and  Terschelling. 
The  town  of  Haarlem,  near  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  westward  and  12 
miles  distant  from  Amsterdam,  has  23,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its 
organ  with  8,000  (or,  according  to  other  statements,  only  with  4,500)  pipes 
and  64  registers,  and  its  trade  in  flowers.  South  Holland  (1,113  square  miles, 
and  in  1846  with  558,83*7  inhabitants)  contains :  the  Hague  (in  Dutch  also 
styled  & '  Graavenhaag),  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  and  royal  residence,  near 
the  North  Sea,  28  miles  south-south-west  of  Amsterdam,  with  66,000  inhabi- 
tants, is  one  of  the  most  regularly  and  best  built  cities  in  Europe,  and  con- 
tains many  handsome  buildings.  The  neighboring  village  of  Scheveningest 
(with  5,600  inhabitants)  is  much  resorted  to  for  sea-bathing.  Near  the 
Hague  is  also  the  village  of  Ryswick,  with  an  ancient  castle,  where  the  peace 
of  Ryswick  was  concluded  in  1697.  Levden,  a  town  between  the  Hague 
and  Haarlem,  with  36,000  inhabitants,  is  celebrated  for  its  university.  Delft, 
a  town  situated  between  the  Hague  and  Rotterdam,  with  17,000  inhabitants, 
is  remarkable  as  the  burial-place  of  the  princes  of  Orange,  of  the  Admiral 
Tromp,  etc.  The  prince,  William  I.  of  Orange,  was  murdered  here  in  1584. 
Rotteroam,  a  city  on  the  Merwe  (as  the  Meuse  is  called  here,  see  page  16), 
52  miles  south-south-west  of  Amsterdam,  is  next  to  Amsterdam  the  empo- 
rium of  the  kingdom,  contains  a  great  many  stately  houses  and  remarkable 
public  edifices,  and  has  83,000  inhabitants.  The  renowned  scholar  Erasmus 
was  born  here,  in  1467.  In  its  neighborhood  is  the  town  of  Dort,  wTith  im- 
portant commerce,  and  21,500  inhabitants ;  it  is  noted  in  history  for  the  Synod 
(in  1618  and  1619),  which  condemned  Arminianism.     Other  towns  of  South 

6* 


270  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  Provinces  of  Holland  and  Zealand. 


Holland  are  :  Oudeicater  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Gouda  (noted  for  its  earthen 
ware,  especially  tobacco  pipes,  has  14,000  inhabitants),  Schiedam,  (noted  for 
its  gin,  and  herring  fishery,  has  12,500  inhabitants),  Maassluis  (with  4,500 
inhabitants),  Vlaardingen  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  Viancn  (with  3,000  inhabi- 
tants), Schoonhoven  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Nieuwpoort  (with  800  inhabi- 
tants), Asperen  (with  800  inhabitants),  Leerdam  (with  1,900  inhabitants),  and 
Gorkum  (with  8,500  inhabitants).  Between  Dort  and  the  sea,  is  the  island 
of  Voorne,  with  the  towns  of  Helvoetsluis  (formerly  the  station  of  the  packets 
for  England,  with  2,600  inhabitants),  and  Briel  (with  5,000  inhabitants,  noted 
in  history  for  its  occupation  by  the  so-called  Watergeuses  in  1572).  Another 
island  is  Over-Flakke,  or  Zuyd-  Voorne,  with  the  town  of  Goree  (with  800 
inhabitants). 

2.  The  province  of  Zealand  (649  square  miles,  and  in  1846  with  157,062 
inhabitants),  comprising  islands  formed  by  the  mouths  of  the  Scheldt,  and  a 
part  of  the  main  land,  known  by  the  name  of  Staatsflanders.  It  was  anciently 
an  earldom,  which  belonged  to  the  earls  of  Holland,  and  in  1436  came  under 
the  sway  of  the  dukes  of  Burgundy.  Its  chief  islands  are  the  following : — 
a.  The  island  of  Walcheren,  containing  ;  Middelburg,  fortified  capital  of  the 
province,  has  16,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  magnificent  town  halL 
Flushing,  a  strongly  fortified  town,  the  great  naval  depot  of  the  kingdom, 
and  station  of  the  navy,  with  a  fine  and  spacious  harbor,  and  8,500  inhabi- 
tants. The  renowned  Dutch  admiral  Ruyter,  was  born  here  in  1607.  Other 
towns  of  this  island  are :  Westkapellen  (with  1,900  inhabitants),  Veere  (with 
1,500  inhabitants),  Domburg  (with  600  inhabitants),  and  Arnemuyden  (with  900 
inhabitants).  6.  The  island  of  Zuid-Beveland,  the  largest  and  finest  of  the 
province,  containing :  Goes,  a  town,  with  5,500  inhabitants.  Bath,  a  fort  com- 
manding the  entrance  to  the  Scheldt,  c.  The  island  of  Noord-Beveland, 
once  the  most  beautiful  and  most  fertile  of  Zealand,  but  in  1530  and  1532 
laid  waste  by  terrible  inundations,  contains  at  present  several  villages,  and 
the  borough  of  Kortgene,  with  700  inhabitants,  d.  The  island  of  Schouwen, 
noted  for  its  madder,  and  containing  the  towns  of  Zieriksee  (with  trade  in 
madder,  and  7,500  inhabitants)  and  Brouwershaven  (with  numerous  breweries, 
and  1,000  inhabitants),  e.  The  island  of  Tholen,  containing  the  towns  of 
Tholen  (with  3,000  inhabitants)  and  St.  Martensdyk  (with  1,500  inhabitants). 
/.  The  continental  part  of  Zealand,  until  1648  belonging  to  the  ancient  earldom 
of  Flanders,  and  since  called  Staats-Flanders,  or  Dutch  Flanders,  contains 
the  following  towns :  Sluis  (in  French,  called  Ecluse,  strongly  fortified,  with 


THE  NETHERLANDS.  271 


The  Provinces  of  Zealand,  Utrecht,  and  (inldern. 


2,100  inhabitants),  Biervliet  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Saa  van  Gent  (with 
1,000  inhabitants),  Axel  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  Hulst  (with  3,000  inhabi- 
tants), Ysendyk  (with  1,300  inhabitants),  A ardenburg  (with  1,500  inhabitants), 
Oostburg  (with  900  inhabitants),  Ter  Neuse  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  and 
Philippine  (with  600  inhabitants). 

3.  The  province  of  Utrecht  (532£  square  miles,  and  in  1846  with  153,083 
inhabitants),  situated  between  Holland  and  Geldern,  on  the  north  bounded  by 
the  Zuyder  Zee,  was  since  the  year  695  the  lordship  of  a  sovereign  bishop, 
and  in  1528  purchased  by  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  who  annexed  it  to  the 
government  of  Holland.  It  contains :  Utrecht,  the  capital  of  the  province, 
on  a  branch  of  the  Rhine,  20  miles  south-south-east  of  Amsterdam,  has  45,000 
inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  university,  its  St.  Martin's  church,  reared  in 
the  14th  century,  whose  steeple  is  388  feet  high,  and  for  the  peace  concluded 
here  in  1713.  The  neighboring  village  of  Zeyst,  settled  by  Moravian  Brethren, 
is  noted  for  its  boarding  school  for  young  ladies,  and  has  2,000  inhabitants. 
Amersfoort,  a  town  on  the  Eem,  12  miles  east-north-east  of  Utrecht,  with 
13,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are :  Rhenen  (with  3,000 
inhabitants,  and  the  so  called  king's  house,  where  the  unfortunate  Elector 
Frederic  V.  lived  in  1621),  Ysselstein  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Woerden  (with 
2,800  inhabitants),  Wyk,  surnamed  te,  or  by  Duurstede  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
and  Montfort  (with  1,850  inhabitants). 

4.  The  province  of  Geldern,  or  Gelderland  (2,007  J  square  miles,  and  in 
1846  with  366.468  inhabitants),  situated  between  the  German  frontier  and  the 
Zuyder  Zee,  did  primitively  belong  to  the  German  empire,  and  was  in  1543 
annexed  to  the  duchy  of  Burgundy.  It  contains :  Arnheim,  or  Arnhem,  the 
capital  of  the  province,  37  miles  east-south-east  of  Utrecht,  is  strongly  fortified, 
has  15,000  inhabitants,  and  was  anciently  the  residence  of  the  earls  and  dukes 
of  Gelderland.  Nimeguen,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Waal,  southward  and  9 
mile?  distant  from  Arnheim,  has  19,000  inhabitants,  and  is  remarkable  for  the 
peace  concluded  here  in  1679.  On  the  neighboring  Heath  of  Mook,  the 
adherents  of  the  Prince  William  of  Orange  were  in  1574  totally  defeated  by 
the  Spaniards.  Harderwyk,  a  town  on  the  Zuyder  Zee,  with  5,200  inhabi- 
tants, was  formerly  noted  for  a  university  founded  in  1648.  Zutphen,  a  town 
on  the  Yssel,  has  11,000  inhabitants,  and  was  anciently  the  residence  of  sove- 
reign earls  of  Zutphen,  and  in  the  middle  ages  a  member  of  the  Hanseatic 
League.  In  its  vicinity  is  the  fine  royal  palace  het  Loo,  with  a  beautiful 
garden  and  park.     Other  towns  of  this  province  are :  TJtiel  (with  5,200  inhab- 


272  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


The  Netherlandish  Provinces  of  Overyssel  and  Friesland. 


itants),  Bommel,  or  Salt-Bommel  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Kuylenburg  (with 
5,300  inhabitants),  Oroenlo,  or  Grol  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  LoeJiem  (with 
1,800  inhabitants),  Borkelo  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Doesburg  (with  3,500 
inhabitants),  Deutichem  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  Wageningen  (with  4,500  inhab- 
itants), Elburg  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Nieuwkerk  (with  5,000  inhabitants), 
Hattem  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  Zevenaer,  or  Sevenaer  (with  1,000  inhabitants), 
and  Huissen  (with  1,100  inhabitants). 

5.  The  province  of  Overyssel  (1,299  square  miles,  and  in  1846  with  211,279 
inhabitants),  was  anciently,  together  with  Utrecht,  under  the  sway  of  a  sove- 
reign bishop,  and  in  1528  purchased  by  Charles  V.  and  annexed  to  the  duchy 
of  Burgundy  ;  it  contains :  Zwoll,  strongly  fortified  capital  of  the  province, 
near  the  Yssel  and  Vechte  rivers,  north-eastward  and  52  miles  distant  from 
Utrecht,  with  17,500  inhabitants.  Deventer,  a  town  on  the  Yssel,  is  noted 
for  its  honey-cakes,  and  has  15,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province 
are :  Campen  (with  10,000  inhabitants),  Vollenhoven  (with  2,200  inhabitants), 
Hasselt  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Almelo  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  Ommen  (with 
1,050  inhabitants),  Hardenberg  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Oldenzaal  (with  4,800 
inhabitants),  Enacliede  (with  4,400  inhabitants),  and  Steenwyk  (with  2,500 
inhabitants). 

6.  The  province  of  Friesland  (1,043|  square  miles,  and  in  1846  with 
245,266  inhabitants),  situated  on  the  North  Sea  and  Zuyder  Zee,  and  sepa- 
rated from  East  Friesland  (belonging  to  Germany)  by  the  province  of  Gronin- 
gen.  Friesland,  formerly  by  way  of  distinction  frequently  called  West  Fries- 
land (with  reference  to  East  Friesland),  anciently  formed  part  of  the  country 
inhabited  by  the  Frieslanders,  and  was  subsequently  ruled  by  native  princes. 
In  the  period  from  1436  to  1523  it  was  gradually  annexed  to  the  duchy  of  Bur- 
gundy, or  the  Netherlands.  It  contains :  Leeuwarden,  the  capital  of  the  province, 
83  miles  north-north-east  of  Amsterdam,  carries  on  a  considerable  trade,  and 
has  22,500  inhabitants.  Franeker,  a  town,  formerly  noted  for  a  university,  has 
4,800  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are :  Haarlingen  (with  8,500 
inhabitants),  Dokkwn  (with  3,800  inhabitants),  Sneek  (with  7,500  inhabitants), 
Workum  (with  3,600  inhabitants),  Hindelopen  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Sta- 
veren  (once  the  largest  town  of  Friesland,  and  the  residence  of  its  princes, 
but  at  present  only  with  1,800  inhabitants),  Bohward  (with  2,800  inhabitants), 
and  Heerenveen  (with  1,900  inhabitants).  Near  the  coast  of  Friesland  are 
the  isles  of  Ameland  (with  3,300  inhabitants),  and  Schiermonnikoog  (with 
2,000  inhabitants). 


THE   NETHERLANDS.  273 


The  Provinces  of  Groningen,  Dre nthe  and  North  Brabant. 


7.  The  province  of  Groningen  (905£  square  miles,  and  in  1846  with 
189,714  inhabitants),  situated  between  Friesland  and  the  German  frontier,  on 
the  north  bounded  by  the  North  Sea,  was  primitively  ruled  by  German 
governors,  who  in  the  course  of  time  made  themselves  independent,  and 
came  in  1536  under  the  sway  of  the  Netherlandish  sovereign.  It  contains: 
Groningen,  fortified  capital  of  the  province,  half  way  between  Leeuwarden 
and  Emden  (the  latter  town  belongs  to  East  Friesland),  has  31,000  inhabi- 
tants, and  is  noted  for  its  university,  its  town-hall,  and  St  Martin's  church 
with  high  steeple  and  excellent  organ.  '  Delfzyl,  a  fortified  town  on  the 
Dollart,  with  3,700  inhabitant".  The  town  of  Dam,  or  Apingculam,  with  3,600 
inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  horse  marts.  Winschoten,  a  fortified  town  on  the 
Rensel,  with  4,000  inhabitants.  Bottutn,  a  little  island  near  the  coast,  with 
250  inhabitants.    . 

8.  The  province  of  Drenthe  (958J  square  miles,  and  in  1846  with  80,978 
inhabitants),  situated  between  Overyssel  and  Gelderland,  did  for  a  long  while 
belong  to  the  German  empire,  and  came  in  1536  under  the  sway  of  the 
Netherlandish  sovereign.  In  the  time  of  the  republic,  Drenthe  was  not  a 
province,  but  a  territory  under  the  immediate  government  of  the  General 
States.  It  contains :  Assen,  the  capital  of  the  province,  on  a  canal  connect- 
ing it  with  the  Zuyder  Zee,  southward  and  15  miles  distant  from  Groningen, 
with  2,800  inhabitants.  Frederiksoort  is  a  settlement  for  the  poor,  who  are 
engaged  here  in  husbandry  and  other  branches  of  industry,  and  get  in  this 
manner  amply  the  means  of  sustenance.  Its  population  amounts  to  2,500 
inhabitants.  In  the  vicinity  is  situated  the  town  of  Meppel,  with  6,500  in- 
habitants. Koevoerden,  a  fortified  town  near  the  frontier  of  Germany,  with 
2,800  inhabitants. 

9.  The  province  of  North  Brabant  (1,970  square  miles,  and  in  1846  with 
390,386  inhabitants),  formerly  a  constituent  part  of  the  ancient  duchy  of  Bra- 
bant, and  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  conquered  by  the  Dutch, 
contains :  Bois  le  Due  (this  is  the  French  name,  while  the  Dutch  call  it  Herto- 
genbosch),  strongly  fortified  capital  of  the  province,  in  a  plain,  intersected  by 
canals,  32  miles  south-south-east  of  Utrecht,  with  a  remarkable  church  and 
town-hall,  numerous  manufactures,  considerable  commerce,  and  21,500  inhab- 
itants. Breda,  a  strongly  fortified  town,  23  miles  west-south-west  of  Bois  le 
Due,  with  14,500  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  principal  church  with  2  organs 
and  the  sepulchres  of  several  earls  of  Nassau.  By  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of 
peace  concluded  here  on  the  10th  of  July,  1668,  the  Netherlandish  republic 

■jo* 


274  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands:    its  Geographical  Divisions  and  C<>k>;iie3. 


ceded  the  city  of  New  York  (then  called  New  Amsterdam)  to  England- 
Other  more  or  less  strongly  fortified  towns  of  this  province  are  :  Bergen  op 
Zoom  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  Geetruidenberg  (with  2,000  inhabitants), 
Steenbergen  (with  4,300  inhabitants),  the  Klundert  (with  900  inhabitants), 
Willemstadt  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Heusden  (with  2,100  inhabitants),  Grave 
(with  2,800  inhabitants),  Ravensteen  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  and  Workum 
(with  800  inhabitants).  Eindhoven,  a  town  on  the  Dommel,  has  4,100  inhab- 
itants, and  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  cotton  goods,  linen,  etc.  The  town 
of  Tilburg  (with  13,500  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  cloth  manufactures;  and 
the  town  of  Helmond  (with  3,200  inhabitants)  for  its  linen  manufactures. 
Osterhout,  a  borough,  with  numerous  potteries,  and  7,500  inhabitants. 

10.  The  duchy  of  Limburg  has,  as  Netherlandish  province,  an  extent  of  852 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of  198,000  inhabitants,  but  is  divided  into  two 
districts,  of  which  the  one  (viz. :  the  district  of  Roeremonde)  is  politically 
forming  part  of  Germany,  and,  for  this  reason,  to  be  described  under  that 
head ;  while  the  other,  viz. :  the  district  of  Maestricht  (46 8  J  square  miles, 
and  in  1846  with  103,931  inhabitants),  forms  a  constituent  part  of  the  king- 
dom of  the  Netherlands  proper,  and  contains :  Maestricht,  the  capital  of 
this  district,  and  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Europe,  on  the  Meuse,  has 
31,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  leather  manufactures,  and  its  quarry  in 
St  Peter's  hill  containing  not  less  than  20,000  horizontal  galleries,  which  have 
been  cut  out  here  in  a  period  of  nearly  2,000  years.  The  town  and  fortress  of 
Maestricht  was  conquered  by  the  Dutch  in  1632,  and  ceded  to  them  formally 
in  1648.     Venloo,  a  fortified  town,  on  the  Meuse,  with  7,000  inhabitants. 

About  Luxemburg,  see  under  the  head  of  Germany. 

To  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  belong  the  following 
colonies : — 

1.  In  Asia  :  the  islands  of  Java,  Sumatra,  Amboina,  and  other 
of  the  Spice  Islands,  etc.,  the  greatest  part  of  the  island  of  Celebes, 
and  settlements  on  Borneo,  the  total  area  of  which  is  computed 
at  97,405  square  miles,  and  the  total  population  at  9,750,000 
inhabitants. 

2.  In  Africa  :  settlements  on  the  coast  of  Upper  Guinea, 
estimated  at  2,790  square  miles,  with  200,000  inhabitants. 

3.  In  America  :  the  colony  of  Surinam  in  Guiana,  and  the 


THE  NETHERLANDS.  275 


Kingdom  of  Belgium. 


West  Indian  islands  of  Curacoa,  St.  Eustatius,  and  two  smaller 
ones,  the  total  area  of  which  is  estimated  at  39,064  square  miles, 
and  the  total  population  at  101,500  inhabitants. 

That  Ceylon,  Cape  Colony,  and  Demerara,  were  likewise  Neth- 
erlandish colonies,  but  ceded  to  England  in  1814,  is  already 
mentioned  above. 


II— THE  KINGDOM  OF  BELGIUM. 

Area:  11,417  square  miles. 
Population  :  4,350,000  inhabitants. 

The  population  of  this  kingdom  consists  (with  the  exception 
of  about  25,000  Protestants,  etc.)  of  Roman  Catholics,  under  the 
ecclesiastical  direction  of  1  archbishop  (at  Mechlin)  and  5  bishops 
(at  Ghent,  Bruges,  Tournay,  Namur,  and  Liege),  and  with  nearly 
500  monasteries  and  nunneries.  In  point  of  origin,  the  majority 
of  the  people  belongs  to  the  great  Germanic  tribe,  and  is  known 
by  the  name  of  Flemings,  differing  but  little  from  the  Dutch,  in 
language,  customs,  and  manners.  The  people  in  the  south,  or  the 
Walloons,  are,  for  the  most  part,  descendants  of  the  ancient  Gauls, 
and  speak  the  French  language. 

It  has  already  been  remarked,  that  agriculture  is  on  a  high 
pitch  of  improvement  in  Belgium.  However,  the  various  branches 
of  husbandry  are,  by  far,  not  the  only  means  of  sustenance  here, 
as  the  Belgians  do  also  excel  in  manufactures;  and,  moreover, 
as  Belgium  is  the  most  thickly  settled  country  in  Europe,  the 


276  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Kingdom  of  Belgium:   its  Manufactures,  Commerce,  etc. 

ratio  of  population  being  381  inhabitants  on  a  square  mile,  suffi- 
cient corn  for  home  consumption  cannot  be  raised,  so  that,  for 
instance,  in  the  years  1842  and  1843  corn  was  imported  at  the 
value  of  6,600,0  00  florins. 

The  chief  objects  of  manufacture  are  lace  (renowned  from 
old :  the  centres  of  its  fabrication  are  Brussels  and  Mechlin ; 
other  places  noted  for  it  are  Bruges,  Ghent,  and  St.  Tron ;  a 
pound  of  the  finest  twisted  thread  for  bone-lace,  costs  about  2.000 
florins),  cloth  (especially  in  the  province  of  Liege),  linen  (especially 
in  Flanders,  but  also  in  Brabant  and  Hainault),  cotton  goods 
(Ghent,  Brussels,  etc.),  fire-arms,  cutlery,  and  steam  engines  (Liege, 
Namur,  Charleroi),  leather  (Stablo,  Liege,  and  Ghent),  and  carpets 
(Tournay,  etc.). 

Though  Belgium  possesses,  altogether,  no  more  than  128  mer- 
chant vessels,  beside  some  steamers,  and  therefore  its  own  ship- 
ping is  very  insignificant,  its  commerce  is  of  great  importance. 
Thus,  in  1843,  the  exports  and  imports  were  estimated  at  the 
value  of  516,738,461  francs,  viz. :  the  imports  at  294,584,180,  and 
the  exports  at  222,154,281  francs.  In  1845,  the  exports  had 
increased  by  the  value  of  nearly  26,000,000,  and  the  imports  (for 
a  great  part,  transit  goods  and  cotton  for  fabrication)  by  that  of 
57,500,000  florins. 

The  prevailing  system  of  education,  is  more  or  less  impregnated 
with  the  spirit  of  Catholicism  ;  at  least,  all  Catholic  schools  are 
under  the  immediate  control  of  the  clergy,  which,  however,  does 
not  precisely  prejudice  the  instruction  itself.  There  are  3  uni- 
versities, viz. :  at  Louvain  (founded  in  1426,  renewed  in  1815  and 
1835,  and  in  1841  frequented  by  660  students),  at  Ghent  (founded 
in  1816,  and  in  1841  with  340  students),  and  at  Liege  (founded  in 
1817,  and  in  1841  with  350  students).  Beside  these  three 
bearing  the  Catholic  stamp,  there  was  founded  in  1837  at  Brussels 
a  fourth  university,  as  it  were,  in  spite  of  the  Catholic  clergy,  and 


THE  NETHERLANDS.  277 


Kingdom  of  Belgium:    its  Finances,  Army,  and  History. 


styled  "  Free  University ;"  the  number  of  its  students,  however,  is 
very  moderate.  The  number  of  the  various  other  schools  amounted 
in  1840  to  5,189,  but  2,284  of  them  were  private  schools,  which 
are,  for  the  most  part,  very  defective. 

The  government  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  the  sovereign 
power  being  vested  in  a  king,  a  senate,  and  a  chamber  of  repre- 
sentatives. 

The  public  revenue  was  in  1846  estimated  at  126,681,575  francs, 
and  the  expenditure  at  126,459,281  francs.  The  'public  debt 
amounted  to  317,887,632  francs,  on  the  1st  of  January,  1845. 

The  army  consists  of  about  32,000  men  on  the  peace,  and  of 
nearly  86,000  men  on  the  war  footing.  Except  some  gun-boats, 
Belgium  has  no  navy. 

In  1832,  an  order  of  honor  was  created  by  the  name  of  Leopold 
order,  for  civil  and  military  officers,  in  5  classes. 

History. — The  essential  points  of  Belgian  history  are  already  stated  above ; 
we  will,  therefore,  only  add  some  particulars.  Since  the  establishment  of  the 
Netherlandish  republic,  towards  the  end  of  the  16th  century,  the  southern 
provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  continuing  to  be  under  the  sway  of  Spain,  and 
retaining  the  Catholic  creed,  were  for  this  reason  commonly  styled  either  the 
Spanish,  or  the  Catholic  Netherlands,  and  since  1714,  when  they  were  ceded 
to  Austria,  they  were  known  by  the  name  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands.  In 
1794,  they  were  conquered  by  the  French,  and,  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of 
peace,  concluded  at  Campo  Formio  in  1797,  formally  ceded  to  them.  That 
they  in  1814  were  restored  to  Austria,  but  that  this  power  renounced  them 
in  favor  of  the  united  kingdom  of  all  Netherlands,  and  that  finally  this  latter  was 
dissolved  again  in  consequence  of  the  Belgian  revolution  of  1830,  has  already 
been  mentioned.  By  the  terms  of  an  agreement  brought  about  in  1839,  the 
grand-duchy  of  Luxemburg  was  divided  between  the  kingdoms  of  the  Neth- 
erlands and  of  Belgium,  the  latter  acquiring  its  western,  and  the  former 
retaining  the  eastern  half.  In  1831,  the  Belgians  elected  Leopold  duke  of 
Saxe-Coburg  (consort  of  the  late  British  princess  Charlotte,  who  died  in  1817), 
their  hereditary  king. 


278  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 


Kingdom  of  Belgium:    the  Province  of  South  Brabant. 


The  kingdom  of  Belgium,  since  the  alterations  and  arrange- 
ments just  mentioned,  is  divided  into  9  provinces. 

1.  The  province  of  South  Brabant  (1,278  square  miles,  and,  according  to 
the  census  published  on  the  1st  of  January,  1844,  with  654,758  inhabitants), 
towards  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  bears  the  appellation  of  South,  in  order  to 
distinguish  it  from  North  Brabant  (see  under  the  head  of  "  Kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands"),  though  both  these  provinces  were  once  constituent  parts  of 
the  ancient  duchy  of  Brabant,  to  which  also  belonged  the  greatest  part  of 
the  present  province  of  Antwerp.  This  duchy  was  since  the  days  of  the 
Frankish  sway  ruled  by  native  dukes,  who  at  first  were  vassals  of  the  German 
empire,  but  made  themselves  independent  in  the  course  of  time.  About  the 
remaining  part  of  its  history,  see  page  264.  The  province  of  South  Brabant 
contains :  Brussels,  the  metropolis  of  the  kingdom,  and  royal  residence,  on 
the  river  Senne,  westward  and  76  miles  distant  from  Aix  la  Chapelle,  had  in 
1846  a  population  of  124,781  inhabitants,  exclusive  of  the  suburbs,  whose  total 
population  amounts  to  more  than  40,000  inhabitants.  Brussels  ranks  among 
the  finest  cities  of  Europe,  and  is  noted  not  only  for  its  extensive  manufactures 
of  lace,  carpets,  etc.,  but  also  for  several  of  its  public  edifices,  especially  for 
its  Gothic  city  hall  (facing  the  chief  market  place,  where  in  1568  the  counts  of 
Egmont  and  Hoorn  were  executed),  whose  steeple  is  364  feet  high,  and  the 
St.  Gudule  church,  containing  pictures  by  Rubens  and  other  masters  of  the 
Flemish  school.  Southward  and  10  miles  distant  from  Brussels,  is  situated 
the  village  of  Waterloo  (with  1,900  inhabitants),  noted  for  the  great  battle 
fought  on  the  18th  of  June,  1815.  Louvain,  a  town  on  the  Dyle,  15  miles 
east-north-east  of  Brussels,  with  28,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  university, 
its  churches,  and  town-halL  In  the  middle  ages,  Louvain  was  a  city,  with 
nearly  200,000  inhabitants,  and  remarkably  flourishing  by  its  cloth  and  other 
woollen  manufactures,  that  gave  employment  to  more  than  150,000  operatives 
But  the  latter  revolted  in  1382,  and  having  been  punished  for  it,  they  mostly 
emigrated  to  England.  The  university  of  Louvain  was  in  the  16th  century 
sometimes  frequented  by  6,000  students.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are : 
Vilvorden  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Tirlenwnt,  or  Tienen  (with  8,500  inhabi- 
tants), Wavre  (with  5,500  inhabitants),  Nivelles,  or  Nyvel  (with  7,700  inhabi- 
tants), Haulx,  or  Halle  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Diest  (with  8,000  inhabitants), 
JHontaigu,  in  Flemish,  Scherpenheuvel  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  Aerschot  (with 


THE  NETHERLANDS.  279 


The  Belgian  Provinces  of  Antwerp  and  E;ist  Flanders. 

4,000  inhabitants),  and  Hoegaerden   (with    3,000   inhabitants).     Tubize  and 
Brainc-Lalleu,  boroughs,  with  respectively  2,000  and  3,000  inhabitants. 

2.  The  province  of  Antwerp  (1,097  square  miles,  and  in  1844  with  385,894 
inhabitants),  anciently  a  constituent  part  of  the  duchy  of  Brabant,  contains : 
Antwerp,  fortified  capital  of  the  province,  and  the  chief  commercial  city  in 
Belgium,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Scheldt  (which  river  is  here  2,160  feet 
broad),  northward  and  28  miles  distant  from  Brussels,  has  80,000  inhabitants, 
and  is  noted  for  its  magnificent  Gothic  cathedral  (whose  steeple  is  444  feet 
high),  its  merchant's  exchange  (reared  in  1531,  and  the  most  ancient  and 
largest  one  in  Europe),  and  its  citadel  (reared  in  1567  by  the  duke  of  Alba, 
and  valorously  defended  in  1832  by  the  general  Chasse).  Antwerp  was 
towards  the  end  of  the  15th  and  during  the  greatest  part  of  the  16th  century 
the  emporium  of  nearly  all  Europe.  At  a  later  period  it  was  the  residence 
of  Rubens,  and  other  eminent  painters  of  the  Flemish  school.  Lier,  a  town, 
10  miles  east-south-east  of  Antwerp,  is  noted  for  its  breweries,  and  has 
14,000  inhabitants.  Herentah  and  Hoogstraten,  towns,  with  respectively 
3,000  and  1,600  inhabitants.  Arendonk  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  and  Gheel 
(with  8,500  inhabitants),  boroughs.  Mechlin,  a  city  on  the  Dyle,  half  way 
between  Antwerp  and  Brussels,  is  the  residence  of  the  archbishop  and  Primas 
of  Belgium,  has  a  remarkable  cathedral  (founded  in  1250,  but  not  completed 
before  the  year  1475 ;  its  steeple  is  348  feet  high),  and  26,000  inhabitants, 
and  is  celebrated  for  its  lace,  considered  as  the  finest  in  Brabant. 

3.  The  province  of  East  Flanders  (1,150  square  miles,  and  in  1844  with 
799,428  inhabitants),  which  once  formed  the  eastern  half  of  the  ancient  earl- 
dom of  Flanders,  whose  first  earl  was  Baldwin  I.,  who  lived  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury. Margaret,  the  daughter  and  heiress  of  the  24th  earl,  Louis  II.,  was  in 
1369  married  to  Philip  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  who  thus  became  pos- 
sessed of  all  Flanders.  This  province  is  the  most  thickly  settled  in  Belgium, 
and  noted  for  its  linen.  It  contains:  Ghent,  the  capital  of  the  province 
(anciently  also  the  capital  of  the  earldom),  on  the  Scheldt,  34  miles  west- 
south-west  of  Antwerp,  and  north-westward  and  34  miles  distant  from  Brus- 
sels, has  various  remarkable  ancient  edifices,  among  them  the  cathedral,  the 
palace  where  Charles  V.  was  born  in  1500,  and  a  castle,  once  the  residence 
of  the  earls  of  Flanders  and  of  the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  and  a  population  of 
90,000  inhabitants.  Moreover,  Ghent  is  the  centre  of  the  Belgian  cotton  man- 
ufactures, and  is  also  noted  for  its  trade  in  flowers.  In  1814  the  treaty  of 
peace  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  was  signed  here.     Oude- 


280  EUROPE,  PAST  AND    PRESENT. 


The  Belgian  Provinces  of  East  and  West  Flanders. 


naarde,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Scheldt,  with  a  remarkable  town-hall,  and 
6,000  inhabitants.  Dendermonde  (in  French,  Tenremoiide,  or  Termonde),  a 
fortified  town  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dender  into  the  Scheldt,  is  noted  for  its 
flax  and  linen- bleacheries,  and  has  8,500  inhabitants.  Other  remarkable 
towns  and  boroughs  of  this  province  are:  Alost,  or  Aalst  (noted  for  its  hops, 
has  16,000  inhabitants),  Geertuberghen,  in  French  Grammont  (with  7,700  in- 
habitants), Rome,  in  French  Renaix  (with  13,00  inhabitants),  Ninove  (with 
5,000  inhabitants),  Deyn&e  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Eecloo  (with  9,500  inhab- 
itants), Zele  (with  11,000  inhabitants),  Wetteren  (with  9,500  inhabitants), 
Waerschot  (with  5,500  inhabitants),  Hamme  (with  8,500  inhabitants),  Loke- 
ren  (with  16,500  inhabitants),  Beveren  (with  5,500  inhabitants),  and  Rupel- 
monde  (noted  for  its  bricks,  has  2,500  inhabitants).  The  town  of  St.  Nikolas 
(with  18,500  inhabitants,  and  numerous  manufactures,  especially  of  leather), 
is  the  chief  place  of  the  so-called  Waesland,  a  tract  of  land  noted  for  its 
highly  cultivated  soil  and  its  fine  flax.  The  above-stated  boroughs  of  Hamme, 
Lokeren,  Beveren,  and  Rupelmonde  are  also  situated  in  this  tract.  The  for- 
tified borough  of  Zwyndrecht  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Scheldt,  right  opposite  Antwerp,  is  considered  as  the  tete-de-pont  of  Antwerp, 
and  is  for  this  reason  also  named  Tete  de  Flandres,  or  (in  Flemish)  Vlaamsch- 
Hoofd. 

4.  The  province  of  West  Flanders  (1,257  square  miles,  and  in  1844  with 
659,270  inhabitants),  which  formed  the  western  half  of  the  ancient  earldom 
of  Flanders  (see  above),  contains :  Bruges,  the  capital  of  the  province,  north- 
westward and  28  miles  distant  from  Ghent,  has  45,000  inhabitants,  and  is 
noted  for  its  cathedral  (with  the  sepulchres  of  Charles  the  Bold  and  his 
daughter  Mary),  and  its  numerous  manufactures  of  linen,  lace,  etc.  In  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries  Bruges  was  famous  for  its  commerce.  Courtray  (in 
Flemish,  Cortryk),  a  town  on  the  Lys,  and  near  the  French  frontier,  has  20,000 
inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  linen  of  the  finest  quality.  Commines,  a  town 
on  the  French  frontier,  has  2,700  inhabitants,  and  is  by  the  river  Lys  divided 
into  two  parts,  of  which  that  on  the  right  bank  belongs  to  France  since  1714. 
Roulers  (in  Flemish,  Rousselaer),  a  town,  with  10,000  inhabitants,  is  noted 
for  its  flax  and  linea  Ypern,  in  French  Ypres,  a  fortified  town  on  the  little 
river  Yperle,  with  a  Gothic  town-hall,  a  remarkable  ancient  cathedral,  lace 
manufactures,  and  17,500  inhabitants.  Ostende,  a  fortified  maritime  town  on 
the  North  Sea,  is  much  resorted  to  for  sea-bathing,  and  has  12,500  inhabitants. 
Another  fortified  maritime  town  is  Nieuport,  or  Nieuwport  (with  3,800  in- 


THE  NETHERLANDS.  281 


The  Belgian  Provinces  of  West  Flanders,  Hainault  and  Namnr. 


habitants),  noted  in  history  for  a  battle  in  1600  between  the  Dutch  and  Span- 
iards. Veurne  (in  French  called  Furneit),  a  town  near  the  North  Sea,  carries 
on  a  considerable  trade  in  corn  and  provisions,  and  has  4,800  inhabitants. 
Other  towns  and  boroughs  of  this  province  are  :  Meenen,  or  Menin  (is  noted 
for  its  lace  and  linen,  and  has  8,000  inhabitants),  Warneton,  or  Waesten  (also 
noted  for  its  lace,  has  6,000  inhabitants),  Werwick  (with  5,800  inhabitants), 
Iseghem  (with  9,000  inhabitants),  Thielt  (with  12,500  inhabitants),  Meulebeke 
(with  9,000  inhabitants),  Moorzele  or  Moorslede  (with  4,400  inhabitants), 
Dixmuyden  (with  3,500  inhabitants),  Poperingen  (with  11,000  inhabitants), 
Blankenberghe  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Thorout  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  and 
Lichtervelde  (with  7,000  inhabitants). 

5.  The  province  of  Hainault  (1,449  square  miles,  and  in  1844  with  679,536 
inhabitants),  anciently  an  earldom  of  the  same  name,  which,  however,  so  early 
as  in  the  12th  century  came  under  the  sway  of  the  earls  of  Flanders,  and 
subsequently  under  that  of  the  dukes  of  Burgundy.  It  contains :  Mons  (in 
Flemish  it  is  named  Bergen),  fortified  capital  of  the  province,  on  the  former 
high  road  between  Brussels  and  Paris,  is  noted  for  its  coal  mines,  and  has 
24,000  inhabitants.  In  its  vicinity  is  the  village  of  Jemappes  (with  3,000 
inhabitants),  noted  for  a  battle  in  1792,  between  the  French  and  the  allied 
powers.  Ath,  a  fortified  town,  on  the  Dender,  is  noted  for  its  linen  manufac- 
tures, and  has  9,500  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are  :  Roulx 
(with  2,800  inhabitants),  Soignies  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  Leuze  (with  5,500 
inhabitants),  Lesmnes  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Enghien  (with  4,000  inhabi- 
tants), Braine  le  Cornte  (with  4,700  inhabitants),  Binche  (with  5,500  inhabi- 
tants), Fontaine  TEveque  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  Beaumont  (with  1,900 
inhabitants),  Chirnay  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Ligne  (with  2,000  inhabi- 
tants). Thuin,  a  town  on  the  Sambre,  with  4,000  inhabitants,  did  formerly 
belong  to  the  sovereign  bishopric  of  Liege.  Charleeoi,  a  fortified  town,  on 
the  Sambre,  with  7,500  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  fire-arms 
and  hardware,  and  did  anciently  belong  to  the  earldom  of  Namur.  Tournay 
(in  Flemish,  Doomik),  a  fortified  city,  on  the  Scheldt,  south-westward  and  46 
miles  distant  from  Brussels,  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  carpets  and 
porcelain,  and  has  30,500  inhabitants.  The  villages  of  Fontenay  and  Fleurus 
are  noted  for  battles  at  different  times. 

6.  The  province  of  Namur  (1,422  square  miles,  and  in  1844  with  251,326 
inhabitants),  chiefly  com  prising  the  ancient  earldom  of  Namur,  which  in  1421 
was  sold  by  Earl  John  III.  (who  had  no  descendants)  to  Philip,  duke  of 
Burgundy.     It  contains:   Namur  (in  Flemish  and  Dutch,  named  Namen), 


182  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


The  Belgian  Provinces  of  Namur  and  Liege. 


fortified  capital,  on  tlie  Meuse,  35  miles  south-south-east  of  Brussels,  is  noted 
for  its  fire-arras  and  cutlery,  and  has  24,500  inhabitants.  Marienburg  and 
Philippeville,  little  but  fortified  towns,  with  respectively  700  and  1,500  inhab- 
itants. Dinant,  a  town  on  the  Meuse,  is  noted  for  its  freestone  and  marble, 
and  has  5,500  inhabitants.  Other  towns  and  boroughs  of  this  province  are : 
Bouvignes  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  Walcourt  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  Rochrfort 
(with  1,200  inhabitants),  Andenne  (with  4,500  inhabitants),  and  Gembloux 
(with  2,000  inhabitants).  The  village  of  Ligny,  18  miles  south-south-east  of 
Waterloo,  is  noted  for*a  battle  on  the  16th  of  June,  1815  (but  two  days 
previous  to  the  battle  of  Waterloo),  in  which  the  Prussians  were  defeated  by 
the  French. 

7.  The  province  of  Liege  (1,123  square  miles,  and  in  1844  with  425,758 
inhabitants),  between  South  Brabant  and  the  Prussian  Rhenish  province,  com- 
prising in  substance  the  territory  of  the  ancient  sovereign  bishopric  of  Liege, 
whicli  was  established  in  the  city  of  Liege  in  the  beginning  of  the  8th  century 
by  St.  Hubertus,  and  was  an  actual  member  of  the  German  empire  until 
towards  the  end  of  last  century,  when  it  was  conquered  by  the  French, 
together  with  the  Catholic  Netherlands,  with  which  it  has  since  continued  to 
be  united.  It  contains:  Liege  (in  Flemish  and  Dutch,  named  Luik),  the 
capital,  at  the  junction  of  the  Ourthe  and  Meuse,  54  miles  east-south-east  of 
Brussels,  and  28  miles  west- south-west  of  Aix  la  Chapelle,  has  a  strongly 
fortified  citadel,  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  73,000  inhabitants,  and  is  famed 
for  its  fire-arms,  cannon  foundry,  iron  works,  and  coal  mines.  The  neighboring 
village  of  Seraing  (with  3,500  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of 
steam  engines,  etc.  The  ancient  abbey  of  St.  Lambertthal  is  at  present  noted 
for  one  of  the  most  considerable  glass  manufactures.  The  borough  of  Herstai.l 
(5  miles  north-east  of  Liege,  with  iron  works,  and  5,500  inhabitants)  is  remark- 
able as  the  ancestral  seat  of  the  Frankish  Majordomus  Pipin  of  Herstall, 
great-grandfather  of  Charlemagne.  Veeviers,  a  town  on  the  Weze,  half-way 
between  Liege  and  Aix  la  Chapelle,  has  21,000  inhabitants,  and  is  celebrated 
for  its  numerous  and  excellent  cloth  manufactures.  The  boroughs  of  Theux 
(with  3,500  inhabitants)  and  Glons  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  are  noted,  the 
former  for  its  iron  foundry  and  marble,  and  the  latter  for  its  manufactures  of 
straw  hats.  Spa,  a  town,  south-eastward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Liege, 
and  20  miles  south-south-west  of  Aix  la  Chapelle,  has  3,800  inhabitants,  and 
is  celebrated  for  mineral  waters,  which  are  also  to  be  found  in  the  neigh- 
boring village  of  Chaudfontaine.  The  town  of  Huy  (on  the  Meuse,  between 
Liege  and  Namur,  with  8.000  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  mountain  castle,  and 


THE   NETHERLANDS.  283 


The  ISeluiaii  Provinces  of  Liege,  Limbing  ami  Luxemburg. 

romantic  environs.  The  town  of  Vise,  or  Weset,  on  the  Meuse,  with  2,200 
inhabitants,  has  likewise  romantic  environs.  The  town  of  Limburg  (noted  for 
its  cheese  and  cloth  manufactures,  and  with  2,200  inhabitants)  did  not  belong 
to  the  bishopric  of  Liege,  but  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  ancient  duchy 
of  Limburg  (whose  history  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  Germany),  to 
which  also  belonged  the  towns  of  Herve  (noted  for  its  cheese,  and  with  3,500 
inhabitants),  Dalhem  (with  900  inhabitants),  and  Hodimont  (with  1,500  inhabi- 
tants). To  the  ancient  duchy  of  Brabant  did  belong  the  towns  of  Stablo 
(with  very  considerable  leather  manufactures,  and  3,700  inhabitants),  Hanut 
(with  1,000  inhabitants),  and  Landen  (with  1,050  inhabitants). 

8.  The  province  of  Limburg  (937  square  miles,  and  in  1844  with  177,184 
inhabitants)  has,  but  for  the  name,  nothing  in  common  with  the  ancient  duchy 
of  Limburg  (whose  history  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  the  Netherlandish 
German  states),  but  does  only  comprise  parts  of  the  territory  formerly 
belonging  to  the  bishopric  of  Liege,  containing :  Hasselt,  the  capital  of  this 
province,  on  the  Demer,  north-westward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Mastricht, 
with  7,400  inhabitants.  St.  Tron  (in  Flemish,  St.  Trujen),  a  town,  south- 
westward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Hasselt,  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of 
lace  and  fire-arms,  and  has  9,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province 
are :  Tongern  (with  5,600  inhabitants),  Bilsen  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Maaseyk 
(with  4,200  inhabitants),  Looz,  or  Borchloen  (with  1,400  inhabitants),  and 
Reeckem  (with  1,000  inhabitants). 

9.  The  province  of  Luxemburg  (1,704  square  miles,  and  in  1844  with 
180,709  inhabitants),  comprising  the  western  half  of  the  ancient  duchy  (at 
present  grand-duchy)  of  Luxemburg  (see  above,  in  the  History  of  Belgium : 
the  history  of  this  duchy,  or  grand-duchy,  will  be  found  under  the  head  of 
Germany),  and  containing :  Arlon,  the  capital  of  this  province,  amidst  exten- 
sive forests,  14  miles  west-north-west  of  the  city  of  Luxemburg,  with  leather 
manufactures,  and  4„000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  of  this  province  are: 
Bastogne  (with  2,600  inhabitants),  Marche  en  Famine  (with  1,600  inhabitants), 
St.  Hubert  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  La  Roche  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Neuf- 
chateau  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  Chiny  (with  1,150  inhabitants),  and  Viel 
Salm  (with  2,900  inhabitants,  and  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Salm,  the  ancestral 
seat  of  the  German  princes  and  earls  of  Salm).  Bouillon,  a  fortified  town 
near  the  French  frontier,  with  2,800  inhabitants,  and  a  mountain  castle,  anciently 
the  residence  of  the  renowned  leader  of  the  first  army  of  crusaders,  and  first 
king  of  Jerusalem  (in  1099),  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  This  town  was  formerly 
the  capital  of  a  duchy  of  the  same  name. 


GERMANY. 

Abea  :  244,3*75  square  miles. 
Population  :  42,000,000  inhabitants. 

Germany  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  Europe,  between  55° 
and  45°  north  latitude,  and  between  5°  45'  and  19°  45'  east 
from  Greenwich.  On  the  north  it  is  bounded  by  the  North  and 
Baltic  Seas  and  by  Denmark ;  on  the  south  by  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
Italy  and  Switzerland  ;  on  the  east  by  Hungary  and  the  Polish 
provinces  of  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria ;  and  on  the  west  by 
France  and  the  Netherlands. 

The  distance  between  Germany  and  Gibraltar  is  nearly  equal  to 
that  between  Germany  and  Moscow,  viz. :  more  than  1000  miles  ; 
and  to  Stockholm  in  Sweden  it  is  just  about  as  far  as  to  Naples  in 
Italy. 

In  the  northern  and  western  parts  of  Germany  the  surface  is 
more  or  less  level ;  the  southern  and  eastern  parts  are  traversed 
by  the  mountain  ranges  described  pages  6-8  ;  and  towards  the 
southern  extremity  branches  of  the  Alps  are  running  in  an  east- 
erly direction. 

About  the  rivers  and  lakes  of  Germany,  see  Introduction  to 
Europe,  §§  9  and  10,  pages  11,  13,  16  and  17. 

The  climate  is  both  moderate  and  healthful  throughout  Ger- 
many. 

Though  the  country  is  intersected  by  about  60  navigable  riv- 
ers, which  thus  would  afford  the  greatest  facility  of  connecting 
them  one  to  another  by  canals,  the  latter  are  rather  few  in  nuni- 


GERMANY.  235 

Natural  Products. 


ber.  The  principal  and  most  useful  canal  is  the  so-called  Louis 
Canal,  crossing  the  northern  half  of  Bavaria  and  uniting  the 
Rhine  with  the  Danube.  This  deficiency  is  however  amply  com- 
pensated by  numerous  public  roads  and  rail-roads,  which  latter 
are  at  preseut  crossing  almost  every  German  country. 
The  chief  natural  products  of  Germany  are  the  following : 

Corn,  which  not  only  is  raised  sufficiently  for  home  consumption,  but  even 
fur  exportation.  For  the  soil  is  generally  fertile,  and  agriculture  is  carried 
on  with  diligence  and  great  skilL  Wine,  especially  along  the  Rhine  and 
most  of  its  tributaries,  and  in  the  German  provinces  of  Austria.  Timber, 
which  is  exported  in  considerable  quantities  from  the  southern  and  middle 
parts  of  Germany.  The  mountain  ranges  are  generally  covered  with  exten- 
sive forests ;  hence  the  final  syllable  wald  (forest)  in  the  proper  names  of  so 
many  of  them ;  for  instance,  Schwarzvvald  (Black  Forest),  Odenwald,  Boeh- 
merwald,  etc.  Fruits,  in  great  variety,  and  partly  in  immense  quantities. 
Flax,  which  is  cultivated  throughout  Germany,  but  especially  in  Silesia, 
Bohemia,  Moravia,  Westphalia,  etc.  Moreover  hops  (the  best  quality  is  to 
be  fouud  in  the  northern  part  of  Bavaria,  and  in  Bohemia),  and  hemp 
(chiefly  in  the  kingdom  of  Hanover). — Horses,  more  than  5,000,000  in 
number,  and  for  the  most  part  of  excellent  breed.  Those  of  Mecklenburg, 
Hanover,  Holstein,  and  Oldenburg,  rival  the  finest  English  horses,  and  are 
even  frequently  superior  to  them,  if  perhaps  not  in  swiftness  on  the  turf,  but 
in  other  more  useful  qualities.  Nearly  the  whole  remount  of  the  French 
army  is  supplied  with  German  horses.  Cattle,  whose  total  number  of  heads 
amounts  to  more  than  15,000,000  (double  the  amount  of  the  cattle  in  France), 
and  the  finest  breed  of  which  is  reared  in  Tyrol,  Styria,  Carinthia,  East  Fries- 
land,  Holstein,  Oldenburg,  Dessau,  and  Mecklenburg.  Sheep,  about  30,000,000 
in  number,  and  at  present  for  the  most  part  of  improved  breed ;  for  which 
reason  their  wool  is  one  of  the  chief  staples.  Hoys  (more  than  8,000,000) 
are  reared  in  vast  numbers  in  Westphalia  (noted  for  its  excellent  hams),  Ba- 
varia, etc.  Moreover,  Germany  abounds  in  game,  fowls,  bees  (great  quantities 
of  wax  and  honey  are  exported),  etc. — Silver,  extracted  from  the  mines  in 
Saxony,  Bohemia,  Hanover,  and  Prussia,  to  the  annual  amount  of  between 
160,000  and  200,000  marks.  Iron  (more  than  4,000,000  quintals  annually) ; 
Tin  (especially  in  Bohemia  and  Saxony) ;  Copper  (about  30,000  quintals  an- 


EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Manufactures  and  Commerce  of  Germany. 


nually) ;  Quicksilver  (in  Illyria) ;  Lead  (nearly  200,000  quintals) ;  and 
above  all,  Salt,  of  which  about  5  million  quintals  are  annually  made.  There 
is  perhaps  no  country  where  mineral  springs  of  any  description  are  more 
abundant  than  in  Germany,  where  moreover  the  spas,  or  watering-places, 
especially  those  of  Bohemia,  Silesia,  Bavaria,  Baden,  and  Nassau,  are  every 
year,  in  the  summer  season,  visited  by  foreigners  from  various  parts  of 
Europe  in  quest  of  health  or  pleasure. 

The  German  manufactures  are  important  arid  various,  and 
their  chief  articles  are  the  following :  linen  (the  finest  qualities 
in  Silesia,  Bohemia,  Lusatia,  and  Westphalia),  woollen  goods 
(especially  in  the  Rhenish  province  of  Prussia,  and  moreover  in 
Moravia,  Silesia,  Brandenburg,  and  Saxony),  cotton  goods  (above 
all  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  and  at  Berlin,  Elberfeld,  Barmen, 
in  Bohemia  and  Lower  Austria),  silks  (especially  in  Crefeld  and 
Berlin,  which  moreover  are  famed  for  their  velvet;  in  Vienna,  in 
the  southern  part  of  Tyrol,. etc  ),  hardware,  cutlery,  and  fire-arms 
(in  the  Rhenish  province  of  Prussia,  in  some  parts  of  Westpha- 
lia and  of  the  Prussian  province  of  Saxony,  in  Austria,  etc.), 
leather  (Malinedy  is  famous  for  it,  but  also  some  places  in  Bohe- 
mia. Silesia,  etc.),  'porcelain  (the  porcelain  manufactures  of  Ber- 
lin, Vienna,  and  Meissen  may  be  considered  as  the  finest  in 
Europe),  glass  (no  country  in  the  world  fabricates  so  much  glass 
as  Germany,  especially  Bohemia  is  celebrated  for  it),  musical  in- 
struments (first-rate  pianos  are  constructed  not  only  in  Vienna, 
Augsburg,  Prague,  and  other  cities,  but  even  in  villages  of  the 
southern  and  middle  parts  of  Germany  ;  excellent  violins,  espe- 
cially in  Tyrol),  gold-  and  silver-smith's  wares  (in  which  excel, 
Augsburg,  Vienna,  Berlin,  and  Breslau),  and  finally,  optical,  chi- 
rurgical,  and  other  similar  instruments,  which  are  partly  superior 
to  those  of  England  or  France. 

In  commerce,  Germany  is  surpassed  by  Great  Britain,  Prance, 
and  Russia,  nevertheless  it  is  carried:  on  to  a  great  extent,  espe- 


GERMANY.  287 


Commerce,  Trade,  ami  Means  of  Education. 


cially  by  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Trieste,  and  next  to  them,  by 
Altona,  Lubeck,  Stettin,  Stralsund,  Rostock,  Wismar,  Kiel,  and 
Emden.  The  chief  exports  are :  grain,  timber,  wool,  linen,  hard- 
ware, lead,  zinc,  quicksilver,  glass,  salt,  woollen  and  cotton  goods, 
horses,  cattle,  and  butter  (the  latter,  especially,  from  Holstein 
and  Mecklenburg).  The  inland  trade  is  very  considerable,  and 
the  principal  cities  and  towns  engaged  in  it  are,  Vienna,  Leipsic, 
Cologne,  Elberfeld,  Magdeburg,  Berlin,  Breslau,  Prague.  Augs- 
burg, Frankfort  on  the  Mayne,  Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  Botzen, 
Laibach,  etc. 

The  literary  institutions  in  Germany,  are  both  numerous  and 
celebrated.  The  universities,  all  on  a  large  scale,  and  comprising 
the  four  faculties  of  theology,  jurisprudence,  medicine,  and  phi- 
losophy (inclusive  astronomy,  etc.),  are  so  eminently  arranged, 
and  answer  the  purpose  so  well,  that  they  are  much  resorted  to, 
even  from  other  countries.  At  present,  there  are  23  universities 
on  this  scale  in  Germany,  viz. : — 

Five  in  the  German  provinces  of  Austria :  at  Prague  (founded 
in  1348),  Vienna  (in  1365),  Olmutz  (in  1581),  Gratz  (in  I486),  and 
Innspruck  (in  1672). 

Five  in  the  German  provinces  of  Prussia:  at  Greifswald  (founded 
in  1456),  Halle  (in  1694),  Breslau  (in  1702),  Berlin  (in  1810),  and 
Bonn  (in  1818). 

Three  in  Bavaria:  at  Wurtzburg  (founded  in  1403),  Erlangen 
(in  1743),  and  Munich  (in  1826). 

Two  in  Baden :  at  Heidelberg  (founded  in  1 386),  and  Freiburg 
(in  1457). 

One  in  Saxony:  at  Leipsic  (founded  in  1409). 

One  in  Mecklenburg:  at  Rostock  (founded  in  1419). 

One  in  Wirtemberg:  at  Tubingen  (founded  in  1477). 

One  in  Hesse  Cassel:  at  Marburg  (founded  in  1527). 

One  in  Saxe-Weimar:  at  Jena  (founded  in  1557). 


288  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 


Public  L  braries,  Picture  Galleries,  etc.,  and  Schools  in  Germany. 


One  in  Hesse-Darmstadt:  at  Giessen  (founded  in  1607). 

One  in  Holstein:  at  Kiel  (founded  in  1665). 

One  in  Hanover:  at  Goettingen  (founded  in  1737). 

(Towards  the  end  of  last  century,  there  were,  moreover,  uni- 
versities at  Erfurt.  Wittenberg,  Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  Helmstadt, 
Rinteln,  Duisburg,  Altdorf,  and  in  18  other  places,  which,  however, 
since  have  been  abolished,  or  united  with  others.) 

The  public  libraries  are  likewise  on  a  large  scale,  and  while  there 
are  about  50  of  them,  which  contain  more  than  25,000  volumes 
each,  there  are  nearly  as  many  that  contain  above  100,000  volumes. 
So,  for  instance,  at  Munich  there  is  one  with  600,000,  and  another 
with  160,000  volumes;  the  royal  library  at  Berlin  numbers 
500,000,  the  imperial  at  Vienna  350.000  volumes;  beside  these, 
there  are  public  libraries  at  Dresden  (with  220,000),  Goettingen, 
(with  300.000),  Hamburg  (with  200,000),  Stuttgart  (with  200,000), 
Wolfenbuttel  (with  190,000),  Prague  (with  130,000),  Weimar 
(with  120,000),  Darmstadt,  Frankfort,  Breslau  (with  200,000 
volumes),  etc.,  etc. 

Munich,  Vienna,  Berlin,  Dresden,  and  Goettingen,  may,  in  some 
regard,  be  considered  as  central  points  of  sciences  and  arts,  not 
only  with  regard  to  Germany,  but  also  to  other  countries.  Highly 
distinguished  are  the  picture  galleries  in  Dresden,  Vienna,  Munchen, 
and  Berlin  (that  of  Dusseldorf  is  since  the  year  1806  removed  to 
Munich),  the  cabinets  of  natural  curiosities  in  Vienna,  Prague. 
Munich,  Berlin,  Goettingen,  and  Hamburg,  and  the  observatories 
in  Berlin,  Vienna,  Goettingen,  Munich,  Prague,  and  near  Gotha. 

No  country  can  rival  Germany  in  the  general  diffusion  of 
knowledge ;  and  common  school  education  is  the  more  widely 
extended,  as  parents  are  forced  by  the  law  to  send  their  children 
to  school,  or  at  least  to  give  evidence  of  having  in  a  suitable 
manner  provided  for  their  education.  The  children  of  the  poor 
enjoy,  of  course,  the  benefits  of  instruction,  free  from  expenses. 


GERMANY.  28U 


The  Common  School  System  of  Germany. 


The  total  number  of  children  frequenting  the  common  Softools  in 
Germany,  amounts  to  more  than  6,000,000.  The  common  public 
schools  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  for  instance,  were  in  1840 
frequented  by  303,506  children,  and  those  of  Prussia  in  1843  fre- 
quented by  2,328,146  children  ;  and  as  in  1840  the  total  popula- 
tion of  Saxony  was  1,709,880,  and  that  of  Prussia  in  1843  was 
15,471,765  inhabitants,  it  is  impossible  to  imagine,  with  regard 
to  common  school  education,  a  more  just  ratio  between  school- 
children and  adults  (inclusive  of  infants),  than  this,  which  is  one 
to  five,  or  six.  About  15,500,000  Prussian  dollars  are,  in  Germany, 
annually  bestowed  upon  this  branch  of  school  education ;  and  the 
927  teachers  in  the  common  public  schools  of  Saxony,  for  instance 
(where,  as  in  other  German  countries,  most  of  these  schools  are 
in  the  villages  of  the  peasantry),  receive  a  salary  of  respectively 
120,  150,  200.  300,  400,  500,  600,  and  700,  Prussian  dollars, 
which,  there,  is  equal  to  as  many  American  dollars.  But  while 
they  thus  are  placed  in  a  situation  more  or  less  free  from  cares 
for  sustenance,  they  are  not  allowed  to  occupy  any  teachership 
without  having  previously  been  carefully  instructed  in  the  so-called 
school-seminaries,  and  given  evidence  of  solid  knowledge  in  a 
rigorous  examination.  That  with  these  arrangements  scarcely 
none  above  six  years  old  are  to  be  found  throughout  Germany, 
who  cannot  read,  and  but  very  few  who  cannot  write,  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at.  Some  years  ago,  there  were  among  122,897  men 
of  the  standing  Prussian  army,  only  two  soldiers  who  could  not 
write,  and  these  were  not  Germans,  but  Poles  from  the  province 
of  Posen.  The  particulars  about  the  higher  schools,  will  be  found 
in  the  description  of  the  various  German  states  ;  and  it  may  only 
be  remarked  here,  that  the  total  number  of  lycea  in  Germany 
amounts  to  nearly  100,  of  gymnasia  to  more  than  400,  of  so-called 
Latin  schools  to  about  800,  and  of  school  seminaries  to  nearly  1,100. 
(About  the  signification  of  these  terms,  see  the  note  page  65.) 

13 


290  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Characteristic  of  the  German  Scholars  in  general. 

Many  of  the  learned  men  in  Germany  are,  indeed,  distinguished  for  their 
attainments  in  literature  and  science,  but  in  general  only  in  philology,  history, 
pathology  and  other  branches  of  medical  science,  jurisprudence,  mineralogy, 
1 1  id  metallurgy ;  while  in  nearly  all  other  scientific  branches,  the  learned  men 
of  other  European  countries  rival,  and,  even  in  some  points,  by  far  surpass 
them.  This  deficiency  is  chiefly  owing  to  an  unlucky  tendency  to  bibliola- 
try,  which  much  prevails  among  the  German  scholars.  They  are  more  or 
less  filled  with  the  wrong  idea,  that  all  and  every  knowledge  may  be  acquired 
t'rom  books,  even  the  art  of  ship-building,  for  instance.  Indeed  there  are 
many  scientific  branches,  which  can  and  must  be  learned  chiefly  from  printed 
books ;  but  for  obtaining  a  sound  judgment,  it  is  indispensable  to  study,  at  the 
same  time,  the  open  book  of  practical  life.  About  eighty  years  ago,  it  became 
fashionable  to  babble  after  the  manner  of  atheistical  philosophers  of  the 
Voltaire  school,  and  since  that  time,  not  only  Rationalism  sprung  up  in  the 
province  of  theology,  but  also  other  theories  and  hypotheses  of  the  most 
nonsensical  kind  were  brought  forward  in  Germany.  Thus,  for  instance,  one 
scholar,  named  Ballenstadt,  pretended  that  the  human  race  had  sprung  from 
a  primitive  slime,  or  mud,  that  had  been  quickened  by  electric  flashes  and 
thunderclaps ;  another,  of  the  name  of  Wagner,  has,  by  a  profound  study  in 
his  closet,  discovered  that  our  globe  is  an  animal,  whose  sweat  presents  itself 
in  the  evaporation  of  the  waters,  while  its  circulation  of  the  blood  makes 
itself  known  by  the  tide !  Even  in  recent  times,  several  German  naturalists 
still  harbor  the  opinion,  that  man  is  properly  nothing  else  but  a  monkey  fully 
developed,  and  has  descended  either  from  the  Orang  Outang  in  Borneo,  or 
from  the  Boggo  (Pan  Africanus)  in  Guinea !  Had  these  learned  men,  who 
never  have  been  much  out  of  doors,  compared  monkey  skulls  with  human 
skulls,  and,  above  all,  carefully  studied  the  natural  history  of  these  animals, 
they  would  long  since  have  been  restored  to  reason,  and  become  sensible  of 
the  palpable  truth,  that  a  brute  can  never  become  a  rational  being,  and  that, 
for  this  same  reason,  monkeys  will  still  remain  monkeys,  even  if  those  scholars 
should  be  foolish  enough  to  try  to  instruct  or  educate  them.  How  far  the 
constructors  of  philosophical  systems  in  Germany  have  gone,  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact,  that  Mr.  Michelet,  professor  of  philosophy  in  the  university  of, 
Berlin,  boldly  maintains,  in  his  works  and  lectures,  the  following  proposition : 
"  What  we  call  God,  is  nothing  else  but  human  culture  in  its  highest  potency !" 
Whoever  has  troubled  himself  with  reading  the  debates  in  the  so-called 
German  parliament,  which  gave  up  the  ghost  last  summer,  will  have  had 


GERMANY.  291 


Origin  and  Religion  of  the  Germans. 


ample  opportunity  to  notice  the  total  lack  of  practical  capacity  on  the  part 
of  German  bookworms  and  shallow  literati.  Fortunately  there  are  also  a 
great  many  eminent  and  devout  theologians,  as  well  as  philosophers  endowed 
with  sound  judgment ;  and  by  these  and  the  common  sense  of  the  German 
nation  in  general,  those  bookworms  are  at  least  prevented  from  doing  more 
mischief  than  they  have  already  done. 

In  point  of  origin,  the  majority  of  the  population  belongs  to 
the  great  family  of  the  Germanic  tribe,  while  about  6  or  7  million 
inhabitants  of  north-eastern,  eastern,  and  south-eastern  provinces 
belong  to  the  Slavic  tribe  (see  Introduction  to  Europe.  §12,  pages 
18  and  19).  These  latter  are  known  by  the  names  of  Wenden  and 
Kassuben  (in  Pomerania),  of  Sorben  (in  Lusatia,  etc.),  Ozechen 
(in  Bohemia),  etc. ;  however,  with  the  exception  of  the  tribe  in 
Bohemia,  they  have  assimilated  themselves  almost  entirely  to 
other  Germans. 

In  point  of  religion,  Catholicism  is  prevailing  in  the  southern 
half  of  Germany,  and  Protestantism  in  the  northern.  The  num- 
ber of  Roman  Catholics  is  between  22  and  23  millions,  and  that  of 
Protestants  amounts  to  more  than  18  millions.  Since  the  year 
1817  the  Lutherans  and  Reformists  in  Prussia,  Baden,  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  Nassau,  and  the  Bavarian  Palatinate  have  united 
into  one  common  church,  styled  Evangelical.  But  in  Saxony, 
Hanover,  Mecklenburg,  and  Holstein,  the  Lutheran,  and  for  in- 
stance, in  Hesse-Cassel  the  Reformed  religion  still  prevails.  The 
number  of  Jews  in  Germany  amounts  to  about  500,000. 

Before  entering  into  German  history,  it  may  be  suitable  to 
give  some  particulars  with  regard  to  the  ancient  German  Empire, 
which  was  formally  dissolved  in  1806.  Officially  it  was  styled 
either  the  Holy  Roman,  or  the  Roman  German  Empire.  The 
term  c:  Roman"  had  reference  to  the  historical  fact,  that  the  first 
wearer  of  the  German  imperial  crown,  viz.  :  Charlemagne,  was 
crowned  Roman  emperor  (see  History  of  Europe,  §14,  page  31). 


292  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Historical  Particulars  about  the  ancient  German  Empire. 


The  term  "  Holy"  rested  upon  the  opinion  of  the  emperor  being 
the  protector  and  defender  of  the  holy  see  and  of  all  Christen- 
dom. The  States  of  Empire  (Reichsstande),  nominally  1762, 
or  at  least  376,  yet  actually  only  221  in  number,  consisted  of 
independent  (i.  e.,  in  local  affairs),  or  immediate  (reiohsunmittel- 
bar)  archbishops,  bishops,  abbots,  provosts  (Reichsprobste),  duchies, 
mar gr aviates,  principalities,  earldoms,  lordships,  and  imperial  cities 
(Reichsstadte).  Besides  these,  there  were  certain  territories  be- 
longing to  knighthood  (rittershaftliche  Grebiete),  imperial  villages 
(Reichsdorfer),  etc.  Most  of  these  States  formed  part  of  those 
10  circles,  into  which  Germany  was  divided  since  the  days  of 
Emperor  Maximilian  I.,  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  public 
peace  and  order,  and  executing  sentences  of  the  supreme  courts 
of  the  Empire  with  armed  force,  in  case  of  necessity.  They 
were  organized  in  a  similar  manner  as  the  empire  itself,  but  had 
for  the  rest  no  political  power.  These  10  circles  were  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1.  The  Austrian  circle,  comprising  the  present  German  provinces  of  Aus- 
tria, with  the  exception  of  Bohemia,  Moravia  and  Austrian  Silesia. 

2.  The  Burgundian  circle,  comprising  the  present  kingdom  of  Belgium, 
with  the  exception  of  the  ancient  bishopric  of  Liege,  which  belonged  to  the 
Westphalian  circle.  The  political  connection  between  the  Burgundian  circle 
and  the  German  empire  was  however  only  a  nominal  one. 

3  The  Lower  Rhenish  circle,  comprising  the  former  three  ecclesiastical 
electorates  of  Mentz,  Treves,  and  Cologne,  the  electoral  Palatinate,  etc. 

4  The  Upper  Rhenish  circle,  comprising  Hesse  Cassel,  the  greatest  part  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  the  Bavarian  palatinate,  the  imperial  cities  of  Frankfort, 
Worms,  Spire,  etc. 

5.  The  Franhish  circle,  comprising  the  greatest  part  of  the  northern  half 
of  the  present  kingdom  of  Bavaria,  etc. 

6.  The  Bavarian  circle,  comprising  the  southern  half  of  the  present  king- 
dom of  Bavaria. 

7.  The  Swabian  circle,  comprising  the  duchy  of  Wirtemberg,  the  margra- 


GERMANY.  293 


Germany:    its  ancient  Geographical  Divisions. 


viate  of  Baden,  the  principalities  of  Hohenzollern,  and  in  substance  the  Swa- 
bian  district  of  the  present  kingdom  of  Bavaria. 

8.  The  Westphalian  circle,  comprising  the  present  Prussian  province  of 
Westphalia,  and  some  parts  of  the  Rhenish  province  (Elberfeld,  Dusseldorf, 
Cleve,  Aix  la  Chapelle,  etc.),  moreover,  the  bishopric  of  Liege,  some  parts  of 
the  present  kingdom  of  Hanover  (Osnabruck,  Verden,  etc.),  etc. 

9.  The  Upper  Saxon  circle,  comprising  the  present  Saxon  kingdom,  grand- 
duchy  and  duchies,  the  present  Prusian  provinces  of  Brandenburg,  Pomera- 
nia  (with  some  exceptions)  and  Saxony,  the  principalities  of  Schwarzburg,  etc. 

10.  The  Lower  Saxon  circle,  comprising  the  greatest  part  of  the  present 
kingdom  of  Hanover,  Brunswick,  Mecklenburg,  Holstein,  Hamburg,  Bremen, 
Lubec,  etc. 

The  above-mentioned  states  of  the  empire  were  since  the  latter  half  of  the 
17 th  century  seldom  or  never  personally  present  at  the  Diet,  but  were  repre- 
sented there  by  plenipotentiaries.  According  to  the  terms  of  the  constitution, 
the  diet  was  to  be  convoked  at  least  every  tenth  year,  but  since  the  year  1663 
it  was  permanent,  and  held  its  sessions  at  Ratisbon  (on  the  Danube  and  in  the 
present  kingdom  of  Bavaria).  The  supreme  judicial  power  was  vested  in 
two  imperial  tribunals,  viz. :  the  Imperial  Chamber  (Reichskammergericht) 
at  Wetzlar,  and  the  Imperial  Aulic  C&ancil  (Reichshofrath)  in  Vienna. 

K  not  exactly  since  its  existence,  but  at  least  since  the  death  of  the  last 
German  Carolingian,  Louis  III.,  or  since  the  year  911,  the  German  empire  was 
not  a  hereditary,  but  an  elective  monarchy.  The  right  and  privilege  of  elect- 
ing the  emperor  was  exclusively  vested  in  the  electors,  i.  e.,  those  most 
powerful  states  of  the  empire  that  had  exercised  this  right  from  the  begin- 
ning. Primitively  they  were  only  7  in  number  (viz. :  the  electors  of  Mentz, 
Treves,  Cologne,  Bohemia,  Palatinate,  Saxony,  and  Brandenburg),  but  in  the 
17th  century  two  others  (of  Bavaria  and  Brunswick-Luneburg)  were  added 
to  them.  The  principal  elector  was  the  archbishop  of  Mentz.  The  election 
of  the  emperor  took  place  at  Frankfort  on  the  Mayne,  where  at  the  same 
time  (since  the  year  1564)  the  emperor  was  crowned  by  the  archbishop  and 
elector  of  Mentz.  Though  the  emperor  was  the  nominal  sovereign  of  all 
Germany,  he  was  in  the  exercise  of  his  executive  power  restricted  even  more 
than  the  king  or  queen  of  Great  Britain. 

In  consequence  of  the  conquests  of  the  French  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  and  the  treaty  of  Luneville  in  1801,  the  German  empire  underwent 
many  substantial  alterations.     The  archbishops  of  Treves  and  Cologne  not 


294  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Kecent  Political  Changes  in  Germany. 

only  were  deprived  of  their  territories,  but  also  of  their  character  as  actual 
electors.  The  elector  of  Mentz  was  restricted  to  his  principality  of  Aschaffen- 
burg  on  the  Mayne.  In  short,  all  German  territories  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine  were  to  be  ceded  to  France,  and  in  order  to  indemnify  their  princes, 
the  sovereign  bishoprics,  etc.,  were  secularized  and  divided  differently. 

But  for  these  alterations,  the  German  empire  retained  its  ancient  forms  and 
organization.  Yet,  in  1806,  Napoleon  induced  the  majority  of  the  German 
princes  to  unite  into  a  confederation,  which  was  styled  the  Rhenish  Confedera- 
tion. As  by  this  arrangement  the  German  empire  had  actually  ceased  to 
exist,  the  emperor,  then  Francis  II.,  did  on  the  6th  of  August,  1806,  proclaim 
its  formal  dissolution. 

In  1806  and  1807,  Napoleon  created  the  following  new  states  in  Germany, 
viz. : — 1.  The  grand-duchy  of  Berg,  which  was  first  given  to  Murat,  Napoleon's 
brother-in-law,  and  in  1809  to  Napoleon's  nephew;  it  comprised  the  ancient 
duchy  of  Berg,  and  several  parts  of  Westphalia,  and  had  in  1809  an  area  of 
6,709£  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  878,157  inhabitants.  2.  The  grand- 
duchy  of  Wurzburg,  which  in  1806  was  given  to  the  former  grand-duke  of 
Tuscany,  Ferdinand  Joseph  (see  History  of  Tuscany).  It  had,  in  1808,  an 
area  of  1,651  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  256,331  inhabitants,  and 
consisted  of  the  secularized  sovereign  bishopric  of  Wurzburg.  3.  The  kingdom 
of  Westphalia,  in  1807  created  and  given  to  Napoleon's  brother  Jerome.  It 
had  then  an  extent  of  14,825  square  miles,  with  1,912,303  inhabitants,  and 
comprised  the  greatest  part  of  Hesse-Cassel  and  Hanover,  Brunswick,  and 
many  parts  of  the  present  Prussian  province  of  Saxony,  and  district  of  Minden. 
Its  capital  and  royal  residence  was  CasseL  4.  The  grand-duchy  of  Frankfort, 
which  comprised,  besides  the  city  of  this  name,  the  principality  of  Aschaffen- 
burg  (see  above),  and  the  districts  of  Hanau  and  Fulda,  and  was  in  1809 
created  in  favor  of  the  above-mentioned  former  archbishop  and  elector  of 
Mentz,  Charles  Theodore  of  Dalberg.  It  had  an  extent  of  1,874  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  300,000  inhabitants. 

After  the  political  events  in  1814  and  1815.  these  new  creations 
disappeared,  and  the  respective  territories  were  restored  to  their 
former  sovereigns  ;  other  sovereigns,  who  until  then  had  retained 
their  sovereignty,  were  mediatized,*  and,  according  to  the  tenor 

*  That  is,  their  territories  were  annexed  to  larger  neighboring  states,  under 


GERMANY.  295 


The  German  Confederation  of   1816-48. 


of  a  treaty  concluded  at  Vienna  on  the  8th  of  June,  1815,  a  union 
of  the  several  German  states  was  formed  by  the  name  of  Germanic 
Confederation,  the  object  of  which  was  to  provide  for  mutual 
safety  and  defence.  Each  state  was  independent  within  itself, 
but  for  general  purposes  the  whole  was  governed  by  the  Diet,  a 
body  composed  of  plenipotentiaries  from  the  different  states,  and 
residing  at  Frankfort  on  the  Mayne.  On  the  5th  of  November? 
1816,  the  Diet  held  its  first  session.  It  was  voted,  according  to 
circumstances,  either  in  a  committee,  or  in  full  session.  The 
Austrian  plenipotentiary  presided.  Austria,  Prussia,  Bavaria,  etc., 
had  each  one  vote  ;  while  of  the  smaller  states,  several  together  had 
one  vote  in  common.    The  order  of  succession  was  the  following  : — 

Austria, having  in  the  committee,  1  vote. 

Prussia, .  "  "  1     " 

Bavaria, "  "  1     " 

Saxony,     .......  u  «  1     " 

Hanover,  .......  "  M  1" 

Wirtemberg, ■  "  1     « 

Baden, ■  ■  1     " 

Hesse-Cassel, «  1     u 

Hesse-Darmstadt  and  Hesse -Homburg,  together,  "  "  1     " 

Denmark  (on  account  of  Holstein  and  Lauenburg),  "  *  1    ■ 

Nether  land  (on  account  of  Luxemburg  and  Limburg),  "  "  _  .    1  .  " 

Saxe- Weimar  and  the  3  Saxon  duchies,  together,  "  "  1     " 

Mecklenburg-Schwerin  and  M.  Strelitz,     .  "  "1     ■ 

Brunswick  and  Nassau,      ....  "  1     " 

Oldenburg,  Anhalt,  and  Schwarzburg,        .  "  "  1    * 
Hohenzollern,  Liechtenstein,  Reuss,  Scliaumburg- 

Lippe,  Lippe-Detmold,  and  Waldeck,    .  "  "  1.' 

Lubeck,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Frankfort,  "  "  1 .  * 

Total  in  the  committee, 17     a 


whose  sovereignty  they  themselves  were  placed,  while  they  in  substance 
retained  their  independence  in  local  affairs. 


296  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Organization  of  the  former  German  Diet. 


The  so-called  plenum,  or  full  session,  was  held  whenever  the 
question  was  of  fundamental  laws  of  the  Confederation,  or  arrange- 
ments concerning  its  organization,  etc. ;  and  in  this  plenum  was 
voted  in  the  following  order  of  succession : — 


Austria, 
Prussia, 


Bavaria, 
Hanover,    . 
Wirtemberg, 
Baden, 


Hesse-Darmstadt, 

Holstein-Lauenburg, 

Luxemburg- Limburg, 

Brunswick, 

Mecklenburg-Schwerin,       .... 

Nassau, 

Saxe- Weimar, 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,    ..... 

Saxe-Meiningen, 

Saxe-Altenburg, 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 

Oldenburg, 

Anhalt-Dessau, 

Anhalt-Bernburg, 

Anhalt-Kothen  (since  Nov.,  1847,  become  void), 
Schwarzburg-S  ondershausen, 
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,    .... 
Hohenzollern-Hecbingen,    .... 

Liechtenstein, 

Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, . 

Waldeck, 

Reuss,  elder  line, 

Reuss,  younger  line, 

Schaumburg-Lippe, 


having  in 

the 

pier 

um,  4  votes. 

« 

a 

4 
4 

« 

« 

u 

4 

" 

« 

«( 

4 

" 

m 

u 

4 

<( 

u 

« 

3 

«« 

M 

M 

3 

u 

« 

■ 

3 

u 

u 

« 

3 

u 

m 

« 

3 

(i 

u 

m 

2 

U 

m 

H 

2 

« 

GERMANY.  297 

The  Supreme  Tribunals  in  Germany. 

Lippe-Detmold, '  having  in  the  plenum,  1  vote. 

Lubeck, ■                          1     ■ 

Frankfort, "                            1     « 

Bremen, ■                "          1     ■ 

Hamburg, ■                •         *    ■ 

Hesse-Homburg, "                u          1     • 

Total  in  the  plenum, 69  votes. 

Since  the  dissolution  of  the  ancient  German  empire,  there  are 
no  supreme  courts  for  all  Germany  more,  but  the  larger  states 
have  their  own,  while  the  smaller  German  states  have  supreme 
courts  in  common.  Thus,  the  Saxon  grand-duchy  and  duchies, 
together  with  the  principalities  of  Reuss,  have  a  supreme  court 
at  Jena  in  common ;  the  duchies  and  principalities  of  Anhalt  and 
Schwarzburg  at  Zerbst ;  the  grand-duchies  of  Mecklenburg  at  Ros- 
tock ;  Brunswick  and  the  principalities  of  Lippe  and  Waldeck  at 
Wolffenbuttel,  and  the  4  Free  Cities  (Hamburg,  etc)  at  Lubeck ; 
while  Liechtenstein  appeals  to  the  supreme  court  at  Innspruck, 
Hesse-Homburg  to  that  of  Darmstadt,  and  the  principalities  of 
Hohenzollern  to  that  of  Stuttgart.  The  strength  of  the  confed- 
eral army  was  in  1830  fixed  at  303,484  men. 

History  of  Germany. — Little  or  nothing  is  known  of  German  history  ante- 
rior to  about  100  years  before  our  Christian  era.  The  country  was  known  to 
the  Romans  by  the  name  of  Gennania,  and  its  southern  and  western  parts 
conquered  by  them,  especially  Rhaetia  (comprising  in  substance  the  present 
Tyrol),  Vindelicia  (South  Bavaria  and  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  present 
kingdom  of  Wirtemberg),  and  Noricwn  (arch-duchy  of  Austria,  Styria,  Carin- 
thia,  and  part  of  Carniola).  The  chief  German  tribes,  mentioned  by  the 
Romans,  were  the  Cimbrians  (whose  principal  seat  was  in  Jutland),  Teutones 
(in  Mecklenburg),  Chatts  (chiefly  in  Hesse),  Cherusks  (in  the  centre  of  the 
present  kingdom  of  Hanover  and  Lippe-Detmold),  and  Marcomans  (in  Bohe- 
mia). About  the  Vandals,  Suevians,  etc.,  see  History  of  Europe,  §  3,  page 
24.    The  ancient  Germans  were  ruled  by  native  princes  elected  out  of  illua- 

13* 


298  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

History  of  Germany. 

trious  families  ;  their  leaders  in  time  of  war  were  commonly  called  dukes,  and 
elected  from  among  the  most  valiant  warriors.  They  had  no  cities  or  towns, 
but  lived  in  rough  huts  or  cottages  scattered  about,  and  in  only  rather  few 
instances  united  to  a  village.  Chastity  and  hospitality  were  their  character- 
istic virtues.  Since  the  discontinuance  of  the  migration  of  nations  (see  His- 
tory of  Europe,  §  8),  which  had  brought  about  many  political  alterations  in 
Germany,  and  at  the  period  of  the  foundation  of  the  Frankish  kingdom  by 
Clovis  (see  History  of  Europe,  §  8,  page  26),  the  most  powerful  of  the  Ger- 
man tribes  were  the  following : — 1.  The  Frieslanders,  along  the  coast  of  the 
North  §ea,  between  the  Zuyder  Zee  and  the  mouth  of  the  Weser.  2.  The 
Saxons,  occupying  the  whole  tract  of  land  between  the  Rhine  and  Eider 
rivers,  that  comprises  at  present  Westphalia,  the  principalities  of  Lippe,  the 
middle  and  southern  parts  of  Hanover,  Brunswick,  and  Holstein.  Those  of 
Westphalia  were  particularly  also  called  Westphalians  (those  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Minden  sometimes  fingers),  those  of  Holstein  North  Albingians,  and 
those  of  Brunswick  sometimes  Eastphalians.  3.  The  Franks,  consisting  of 
Ripuariau  Franks  (in  the  present  Rhenish  province  of  Prussia),  who  under 
the  reign  of  their  king,  Clovis,  conquered  nearly  all  Gaul  and  imparted  their 
name  to  this  country,  and  of  Salic  Franks,  from  whom  is  derived  the  name 
of  Franconia,  which  is  still  the  common  name  of  the  northern  half  of  Bavaria, 
where  they  had  their  principal  seat.  4.  The  Alemanni,  primitively  called 
Sueviatis,  and  occupying  the  whole  tract  of  land,  which  in  a  later  period 
formed  the  Swabian  circle  (see  above).  5.  The  Bajoarians,  the  forefathers 
of  the  Bavarians  proper,  had  their  principal  seat  in  the  southern  half  of  jthe 
present  kingdom  of  Bavaria.  6.  The  Thuringians,  living  in  the  countries  at 
present  consisting  of  the  Saxon  grand-duchy  and  duchies.  All  these  tribes 
were  subjected  partly  by  Clovis  and  his  Merovingian  successors,  partly  by_ 
Charlemagne,  and  thus  incorporated  to  the  great  Frankish  empire ;  and  not 
before  the  year  843,  when  this  empire  was  divided,  by  the  treaty  of  Verdun 
(see  History  of  Europe,  §  14,  page  31),  Germany  became  independent.  Char- 
lemagne's grandson,  Louis  II.,  surnamed  the  German,  was  its  first  independ- 
ent king  (see  History  of  Europe,  §  14).  He  was  called  Louis  the  Second  on 
account  of  his  father,  Louis  the  Pious,  having  been  the  first  sovereign  of  Ger- 
many with  the  name  of  Louis.  When  Louis  II.  died  (in  876),  the  German 
kingdom  was  divided  among  his  three  sons,  of  whom  the  two  eldest  died 
successively  in  880  and  882,  after  which  the  youngest,  Charles  III.,  surnamed 
the  Fat,  attained  to  the  power,  first  in  Germany,  and  then   in  nearly  all 


GERMANY.  299 


Hfvtory  of  bormnajr. 


other  parts  of  the  ancient  Frankish  empire.  His  great-grandfather  Charle- 
magne was,  as  first  emperor,  considered  also  as  first  sovereign  of  Germany, 
and  for  this  reason  denoted  with  the  name  of  Charles  L  Charles  the  Bald 
(brother  of  Louis  the  German),  was  crowned  emperor  (in  875),  considered  as 
Charles  IL,  though  he  was  properly  only  the  sovereign  of  France  (see  His- 
tory of  Europe,  §  14).  Charles  the  Fat  having  been  dethroned  in  887,  he 
was  in  Germany  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  the  duke  of  Carinthia,  Arnulph 
(887-899),  who  was  the  first  German  king  realizing  the  claims  upon  the  im- 
perial crown  (see  page  32).  With  his  son  and  successor,  Louis  III.,  surnamed 
the  Child  (899-911),  the  German  line  of  the  Carlovingians  became  extinct, 
and  henceforth  the  German  empire  was  an  elective  monarchy.  For,  the  weak- 
ness of  Charlemagne's  successors  had  allowed  the  most  powerful  among  the 
vassals  to  make  themselves  almost  independent,  and  these  were  the  dukes  of 
Saxony  (to  whom  the  Thuringians  had  for  the  most  part  been  subjected),  of 
Franconia,  Suevia  (Swabia),  Bavaria,  and  Lorraine.  However  they  finally 
agreed  upon  electing  a  common  sovereign,  and  they  first  chose  the  duke  of 
Franconia,  who,  as  Conrad  I.,  reigned  from  911  to  918.  After  his  death  the 
duke  Henry  of  Saxony,  surnamed  the  Fowler,  was  elected  king  of  Germany. 
Henry  I.  united  in  himself  all  the  virtues  of  a  truly  great  man ;  he  maintained 
internal  peace  and  order,  built  a  great  many  regular  towns  (for  instance 
Merseburg,  Meissen,  Quedlinburg,  Nordhauseu,  Goslar),  and  put  to  the  rout 
(in  933,  near  Merseburg)  the  Magyars,  who  until  then  had  nearly  every  year 
made  plundering  and  devastating  inroads  into  Germany.  Endowed  with 
similar  great  qualities  was  his  son  and  successor  Otho  I.  (936-972).  In  962 
he  was  in  Rome  crowned  emperor  by  the  pope,  and  as  since  this  example  was 
followed  by  his  successors,  the  German  kings  were  henceforth  commonly 
styled  Roman-German  emperors.  Otho's  next  three  successors  were  Otho  II. 
(972-983),  Otho  III.  (983-1002),  and  Henry  IL,  surnamed  the  Holy  (1002- 
1024).  With  Henry  II.  the  imperial  line  of  the  Saxon  house  became  extinct 
and  now  Conrad  II.  (1024-1039)  was  elected,  belonging  to  the  ducal  house 
of  Franconia,  or  the  Salic  Franks  (for  which  reason  the  emperors  of  this 
house  were  frequently  called  the  Salic  emperors).  His  son  and  successor, 
Henry  III.  (1039-1056),  was  the  most  energetic  of  all  German  emperors; 
and  it  is  no  doubt,  that  had  he  lived  longer  than  actually  was  the  case  (for  he 
was  only  39  years  old  when  he  died  in  1056),  he  not  only  would  have  turned 
the  elective  monarchy  into  a  hereditary  one,  but  also  made  of  Germany  a 
very  powerful  empire,  with  whose  domestic  affairs  the  popes  would  never 


m 

300  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

History  of  Germany. 

have  dared  to  meddle,  as  they  in  later  periods  did,  to  the  greatest  prejudice 
of  the  political  independence  of  Germany.  This  was  first  tried  successfully 
by  Pope  Gregory  VII.  during  the  reign  of  Henry's  son,  Henry  IV.  (1056- 
1106),  whom  he  treated  in  the  most  humiliating  manner.  With  Henry  IV.'s 
son  and  successor,  Henry  V.  (1106-1125),  the  line  of  the  so-called  Salic  em- 
perors became  extinct ;  next  to  him  was  elected  Lothar  II.  (earl  of  Supplin- 
genburg,  in  the  present  duchy  of  Brunswick :  Lothar  the  Second  he  was 
styled  with  reference  to  Lothar  I.,  who  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Verdun 
in  843  had  borne  the  imperial  crown),  who  reigned  from  1125  to  1137,  in 
which  period  the  long-lasting  struggle  between  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines, 
or  between  the  adherents  of  the  powerful  houses  of  Saxony  (which  duchy, 
together  with  that  of  Bavaria,  was  under  the  sway  of  the  Guelphs)  and  Ho- 
henstaufen  (under  whose  sway  was  the  duchy  of  Swabia),  originated,  by  that 
Lothar,  whose  son-in-law  was  duke  of  both  Saxony  and  Bavaria,  grossly 
offended  his  rivals.  But  after  his  death  these  very  rivals  of  the  celebrated 
house  of  Hohenstaufen  were  elected,  first  Conrad  III.  (1137-1152),  then  his 
nephew  Frederic  I.,  surnamed  Barbarossa  (1152-1190),  and  next  to  him  his 
son  Henry  VI.  (1190-1197).  When  the  last-named  emperor  died,  his  son 
Frederic  was  only  3  years  old,  and  of  this  circumstance  the  Guelphs  availed 
themselves,  and  elected  (in  1198)  one  of  their  adherents,  Otho  (son  of 
Henry,  surnamed  the  Lion,  duke  of  Saxony),  while  their  adversaries  elected 
Henry's  younger  brother  Philip,  surnamed  of  Swabia  (1198-1208),  king  of 
Germany.  But  the  latter  was  murdered  in  1208,  and  since  Otho  IV.  reigned 
without  opposition  until  the  year  1215,  when  Henry's  son  (see  above),  Fred- 
eric II.  (1215-1250),  was  elected.  With  Frederic's  son  and  successor, 
Conrad  IV.  (1250-1254),  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen  became  extinct,  and 
now  a  period  of  nearly  20  years  ensued,  which  in  German  history  is  known 
by  the  name  of  Interreign,  and  to  which  conveniently  could  be  applied 
what  is  said  in  Judges,  xvii.  6  :  "In  those  days  there  was  no  king  in  Israel, 
but  every  man  did  that  which  was  right  in  his  own  eyes."  For  not  only  the 
sword-law  exercised  its  barbarous  sway  uncontrolled  throughout  Germany, 
but  also  the  number  of  petty  sovereigns  increased  from  year  to  year,  so  that 
at  the  end  of  the  13th  century  it  amounted  already  to  almost  150  (duchies, 
principalities,  earldoms,  bishoprics,  free  cities,  etc.).  Some  of  the  German 
princes  tried  indeed  to  put  an  end  to  this  anarchy,  by  electing  in  succession 
the  earl  William  of  Holland  (-j-1256),  Richard  of  Cornwall  (-j-1272),  and 
King  Alphon80  of  Castilia  (who  never  set  a  foot  on  the  German  ground) ;  but 


GERMANY.  301 


History  of  Germany. 


these  mock-kings  had  no  authority  at  all,  so  much  the  less  as  they  actually 
were  not  recognized  as  kings  or  emperors  of  Germany.  No  German  prince 
was,  under  the  existing  circumstances,  willing  to  accept  the  crown.  Finally 
it  became  evident  to  all  that  the  continuance  of  such  a  state  of  things  would 
lead  to  common  ruin ;  even  the  pope  insisted  energetically  upon  the  election 
of  a  new  sovereign  of  all  Germany,  and  so  then  Rodolph  I.  (1273-1291), 
earl,  or  count  of  Hapsburg  in  Switzerland  (see  page  156),  was  elected.  He 
proved  himself  worthy  of  the  confidence  shown  to  him,  and  succeeded  in  a 
rather  short  time  to  restore  tranquillity  and  order  to  the  country.  Ottokar, 
king  of  Bohemia  and  sovereign  of  nearly  all  the  other  present  German  prov- 
inces of  Austria,  refusing  to  acknowledge  Rodolph  as  emperor,  was  declared 
outlawed,  defeated  in  two  decisive  battles,  and,  with  the  exception  of  Bohe- 
mia and  Moravia,  deprived  of  his  possessions.  Carinthia  was  given  in  fee 
to  the  earl  Mainhard  of  Tyrol,  but  with  Austria  (i.  e.,  the  present  archduchy 
of  Austria),  Styria,  and  Carniola,  Rodolph  invested  his  own  sons,  Albert 
and  Rodolph,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  to  the  domestic  power  of  the  house 
of  Hapsburg  in  Austria.  It  was  perhaps  owing  to  this  somewhat  selfish 
proceeding,  that  not  his  eldest  son  but  the  earl  Adolphus  of  Nassau  (1291- 
1298)  was  elected  king  and  emperor  of  Germany.  However  Rodolph's  son 
acquiesced  not  in  it,  but  took  the  field  against  Adolphus,  defeated  and 
killed  him  in  a  battle  at  Gellheim  (in  the  present  Bavarian  Palatinate),  and 
was  now  recognized  as  emperor,  by  the  name  of  Albert  I.  (1298-1308). 
In  the  period  from  his  death  (in  1308 ;  he  was  murdered  by  his  own  nephew) 
until  towards  the  middle  of  the  15th  century,  princes  from  different  houses 
mounted  the  imperial  throne.  First,  Henry  VII.  (1308-1313),  from  the  house 
of  Luxemburg  ;  and  next  to  him,  Louis  IV.  (1313-1347),  surnamed  the  Bavarian, 
because  he  belonged  to  the  reigning  Bavarian  house  of  Wittelsbach.  Then  one 
party  elected  the  Earl  Gunther  of  Schwarzburg,  while  another  party  elected 
Henry  VIL's  grandson,  Charles  of  Luxemburg,  and  the  latter,  or  Charles  IV. 
(1347-1378),  got  the  better  of  the  other,  the  more  so,  as  Gunther  soon  died 
(in  1349).  Charles  IV.  is  remarkable  as  the  author  of  the  so-called  Golden 
Bull,  L  e.,  a  public  document  concerning  the  election  of  an  emperor,  the  rank 
or  dignity  of  the  7  electors,  etc.,  which  was  published  in  1356.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  eldest  son  Wenceslaus  (1378-1400),  who  cared  so  little  for  the 
public  welfare,  that  in  1400  four  electors  elected  the  Palatine  Rupert  (1400- 
1410)  in  his  place.  Rupert,  however,  made  himself  unpopular,  likewise  • 
moreover,  he  had  not  been  generally  recognized  as  emperor ;  one  party  elected 


302  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

History  of  Germany. 

the  margrave  lodocus  of  Moravia  (a  cousin  of  Wenceslaus) ;  another,  Wences- 
Lius'  brother  Sigismund ;  and  thus  there  were  at  one  period  3  German  kings, 
or  emperors,  at  once  (for  Wenceslaus  lived  until  1419).  Finally,  Sigismund 
(1410-1437)  maintained  himself  in  the  possession  of  the  imperial  crown. 
During  his  reign,  the  Council  at  Constance  was  held  in  1415,  and  John  Huss 
burnt  there,  which  gave  rise  to  the  war  of  the  Hussites  in  Bohemia,  that  lasted 
from  1419  to  1436.  It  may  be  noticed  here  also,  that  Sigismund  sold  the 
margraviate  of  Brandenburg  (which  he  had  inherited),  together  with  the 
electoral  dignity,  to  the  burgrave  Frederic  of  Hohenzollern,  at  the  price  of 
400,000  ducats.  Sigismund  died  in  1437,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son-in-law 
Albert  II.  (1437-1439)  of  Austria,  and  henceforth  only  princes  of  this  house 
(with  one  single  exception)  were  elected  emperors.  Albert's  successor  was 
his  cousin,  Frederic  III.  (1439-1493),  who  was  the  last-elected  German  king 
crowned  emperor  at  Rome ;  while  his  son  Maximilian  I.  (1493-1519)  was  the 
first  who  proclaimed  himself  " elected  German  emperor"  which  since  was  the 
usual  title  of  the  sovereigns  of  the  German  empire.  During  Maximilian's 
reign,  the  Reformation  began ;  by  that,  Luther  published  his  ninety -five  prop- 
ositions on  the  31st  of  October,  1517.  Most  of  the  public  acts  of  Maximil- 
ian's grandson  and  successor,  Charles  V.  (1519-1556),  had  reference  to  the 
Reformation,  as,  for  instance,  the  diets  at  Worms  (in  1521),  Spire  (in  1529), 
Augsburg  (in  1530),  the  so-called  Schmalkaldian  war  (in  1546),  the  treaty  of 
Passau  (in  1552),  the  treaty  of  peace,  concluded  at  Augsburg  in  1555,  by 
which  the  religious  differences  were  settled,  and  the  Council  at  Trent  (since 
the  year  1545).  Charles  renounced  the  Austrian  estates  (which  he  had 
inherited  from  his  grandfather  Maximilian)  in  favor  of  his  younger  brother, 
Ferdinand  I.  (1556-1564),  who  at  the  same  time  had  been  elected  emperor. 
Ferdinand  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Maximilian  II.  (1564-1576),  who,  like 
his  father,  was  noted  for  his  clemency  and  equity.  His  son  and  successor 
Rodolph  II.  (1576-1612),  was  a  very  learned  scholar,  but  the  much  more 
unfit  for  ruling,  which  also  may  be  said  of  his  brother  Matthias  (1612-1619), 
under  whose  reign  the  Thirty  Years  War  (1618-1648)  originated.  It  is  easy 
to  conceive  that  an  event  of  so  important  consequences,  as  the  Reformation 
had  proved  to  be,  must  produce  a  violent  fermentation  in  the  minds  of  the 
majority  of  Roman  Catholics,  and  at  last  lead  to  a  reaction  and  open  hostilities. 
Thus,  in  the  course  of  time  the  mutual  exasperation  between  the  Catholics 
and  Protestants  had  increased  to  the  highest  pitch,  and  both  parties  waited, 
as  it  were,  only  for  a  plausible  pretext  to  strike  the  first  blow.     This  pretext 


GERMANY.  303 


History  of  Germany. 


was  offered,  by  that  the  Protestants  at  Prague  precipitated  the  imperial 
governors  from  the  windows  of  the  royal  castle,  on  the  23d  of  May,  1618. 
The  Bohemians  then  elected  the  elector  Frederic  V.  of  the  Palatinate  then- 
king,  but  were  defeated  in  the  battle  near  Prague,  on  the  8th  of  November, 
1620,  and  soon  the  war  extended  to  all  parts  of  Germany.  Meanwhile,  the 
cousin  of  Matthias,  Ferdinand  II.  (1619-1637),  had  been  elected  emperor,  and 
during  his  reign  the  principal  events  of  the  said  war  took  place :  the  total 
defeat  of  King  Christian  V.  of  Denmark  in  the  battle  of  Lutter  on  the  Baren- 
berg  (27th  of  August,  1626),  the  taking  of  Magdeburg  by  storm  (20th  of  May, 
1631),  the  battle  of  Breitenfeld  (7th  of  September,  1631),  the  battle  of 
Liitzen  (16th  of  November,  1632),  etc.  Ferdinand  II.  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Ferdinand  III.  (1637-1657),  whose  reign  is  noted  for  the  Westphalian 
treaty  of  peace,  concluded  on  the  24th  of  October,  1648,  respectively  at 
Munster  (with  reference  to  the  Catholic  concerns)  and  Osnabriick  (with 
reference  to  the  Protestant  concerns).  By  the  terms  of  this  treaty,  the  execu- 
tive power  of  the  emperor  was  restricted  still  more  than  ever  before.  Ferdi- 
nand IL  died  in  1657,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Leopold  I.  (1657-1705), 
who  was  succeeded  first  by  his  eldest  son  Joseph  I.  (1705-1711),  and  then  by 
a  younger  son  Charles  VI.  (1711-1740),  with  whom  the  male  line  of  the 
house  of  Hapsburg  became  extinct.  He  bequeathed  all  his  patrimonial 
dominions  (comprising  the  present  Austrian  monarchy,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Polish  provinces  and  of  the  former  Venetian  territories)  to  his  ouly 
daughter,  the  celebrated  Queen  Mary  Theresa,  who  was  married  to  Francis 
Stephen,  duke  of  Lorraine,  from  which  cause  the  house  of  Hapsburg  has 
since  been  styled  Hapsburg-Lorraine.  There  arose  claims  upon  the  Austrian 
dominions  on  the  part  of  several  German  princes,  above  all  of  Charles  Albert, 
elector  of  Bavaria,  and  cousin  to  Mary  Theresa.  Yet  the  latter  prevailed, 
both  against  him  and  the  other  pretenders,  with  the  exception  of  Frederic  IL 
of  Prussia,  to  whom  she  ceded  the  greatest  part  of  Silesia.  Charles  Albert 
was,  however,  elected  emperor  by  the  name  of  Charles  VII.,  but  as  he  already 
died  in  1745,  Mary  Theresa's  consort  was  elected  emperor  by  the  name  of 
Francis  I.  (1745-1765).  He  died  in  1765,  and  was  succeeded  first  by  his 
eldest  son  Joseph  IL  (1765-1790),  and  then  by  a  younger  son  Leopold  IL 
(1790-1792).  Leopold's  son,  Francis  II.  (1792-1806),  was  the  last  German 
emperor,  as  has  already  been  mentioned  above,  where  also  the  alterations  the 
political  body  of  Germany  underwent  since  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  have  been  alluded  to.     The  revolutions  which  occurred  in  Germany  in 


304  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


History  of  Germany— Recent  Revolutions. 


the  years  1848  and  1849,  are  too  fresh  in  remembrance  than  that  they  needed 
to  be  related  here ;  yet  with  reference  to  their  actual  causes,  we  cannot  forbear 
to  draw  the  attention  of  the  reader  to  the  following  facts.  First,  we  have 
seen  above  that  no  country  can  rival  Germany  in  the  general  diffusion  of 
knowledge,  and  that  its  literary  institutions  are  both  numerous  and  celebrated. 
Secondly,  Germany  is  renowned  for  various  branches  of  its  numerous  manu- 
factures. Thirdly,  both  its  commerce  and  inland  trade  is  very  considerable. 
Besides  this,  the  agriculture  is  in  general  conducted  with  a  skill  almost 
unrivalled,  and  the  horses,  sheep,  and  cattle,  there  belong,  for  the  most  part, 
to  the  finest  breed.  Still  we  add,  that,  for  instance,  the  system,  long  since 
adopted  there  in  medical  concerns,  may  be  called  exemplary,  and  that  the 
administration  of  justice  is  likewise  in  the  best  order.  Now  we  ask,  whether 
all  these  advantages  could  possibly  have  been  obtained,  if  Germany  had  been 
under  the  sway  of  tyrants  and  despots,  as  German  party-leaders  would  make 
foreigners  believe  ?  On  the  contrary,  the  very  fact  of  these  advantages  pre- 
supposes liberal  and  benevolent  principles  on  the  part  of  the  governments  in 
general.  The  assertion  of  those  party-leaders,  that  the  German  people  had 
to  bear  enormous  public  charges,  and  especially  all  the  expenses  of  the  princely 
courts  in  that  country,  is  completely  a  talk  at  random.  First,  in  Germany  the 
taxes  are  lower  than  in  almost  any  other  country  of  Europe — for,  upon  an 
average,  each  inhabitant  has  to  pay  only  one  and  a  half  dollars  per  annum  ;* 
whereas,  the  proportion  of  taxes  in  England  is  at  the  rate  of  ten,  and  in 
France,  at  present,  at  the  enormous  rate  of  fourteen  dollars.  (The  particulars 
of  the  proportion  of  taxes  in  Germany  will  be  found  below,  and  in  the 
description  of  the  several  German  states.)  And,  secondly,  with  regard  to 
the  expenses  of  the  princely  families  and  courts  in  Germany,  the  people  have 
to  contribute  out  of  their  pockets  not  one  single  cent  towards  them.  The  fact 
is,  that  these  families  subsist  entirely  on  the  revenues  of  their  domains,  or 
family  estates.    They  are  possessed  of  property,  as  well  as  millions  of  private 

*  In  the  financial  year  ending  on  the  30th  of  June,  1844,  the  public  expendi- 
ture of  the  United  States  was  $32,958,827.  At  the  same  period,  the  total 
population  of  the  Union  was  about  19,500,000  inhabitants.  Thus,  19,500,000 
divided  into  33,000,000  gives  a  ratio  of  $1  69  per  inhabitant.  But,  let  even 
the  average  amount  of  the  expenditure  be  only  $25,000,000,  the  ratio  per 
inhabitant  is  still  at  least  $1  25 — i.  e.,  exclusive  of  the  separate  public  charges 
in  the  single  states. 


GERMANY.  305 


Recent  Revolutions  in  Germany. 


men  throughout  the  whole  world ;  and  that  this  property  consists  chiefly  of 
family  estates,  commonly  called  domains,  makes  no  difference.  "We  have 
seen  above,  that  the  ancestor  of  the  reigning  royal  family  in  Prussia,  Frederic 
of  Hohenzollern,  was  able  to  pay  400,000  ducats  in  cash  to  Emperor  Sigis- 
mund — an  immense  sum  at  that  time !  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg  was,  before 
his  accession  to  the  imperial  throne,  one  of  the  wealthiest  earls  in  Switzerland. 
The  Guelphs,  ancestors  of  the  house  of  Brunswick-Hanover,  were  wealthy 
and  powerful  barons  in  Italy  and  Southern  Germany.  We  could  cite  other 
instances  to  show  that  the  German  princes  descend  from  wealthy  ancestors, 
who  entailed  their  large  estates  as  feoffments  in  trust  upon  their  descendants. 
The  revenues  from  these  estates  far  exceeding  the  expenses  of  the  princely 
households,  it  is  evident  that  the  assertion  that  German  princes  did  live  at 
the  charges  of  the  people,  is  a  fabrication.  On  the  contrary,  in  former  times 
the  surplus  of  the  revenues,  applied  to  purposes  of  public  service  then  as  well 
as  at  present,  proved  almost  sufficient  for  the  public  expenditure ;  and  what 
the  people  had  to  pay  in  taxes,  was  a  trifle.  Only  the  wars  and  other 
extraordinary  contingencies  since  the  first  French  revolution,  have  increased 
the  taxes  of  the  German  people,  still  to  a  comparatively  very  low  ratio.  In 
the  table,  page  308,  that  of  some  countries  is  indeed  higher  than  the  average 
ratio  of  one  and  a  half  dollars,  but  this  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  rail-roads, 
which  in  Germany,  for  the  most  part,  have  been  constructed  at  the  expense 
and  on  account  of  the  public  treasury.  Thus,  neither  tyranny  nor  despotism 
on  the  part  of  the  princes,  neither  incapacity  nor  malevolence  on  the  part  of 
the  rulers,  neither  heavy  taxes  nor  infringement  of  the  rights  and  liberties  of 
the  people  have  brought  on  the  revolution  in  Germany,  but  the  artifices  of 
those  very  party-leaders,  who  in  this  way  endeavored  to  satisfy  their  immod- 
erate ambition  and  unreasonable  discontent.  That  the  reader  may  not 
charge  us  with  partiality,  or  exaggeration,  we  shall  cite  their  own  words. 
Last  summer,  as  is  known,  a  republic  in  the  grand- duchy  of  Baden  and  the 
Bavarian  palatinate  was  established,  but  soon  put  down  again.  Now,  of 
course,  the  leaders  took  to  flight ;  and  Mr.  Brentano,  the  ex-president  of  the 
transitory  republican  government,  had  just  time  enough  to  publish  an  address 
to  the  people  of  Baden,  in  which,  among  other  things,  he  says : — "  Fellow- 
citizens  !  You  will  be  astonished  to  learn  from  the  records,  to  what  pur- 
poses your  money  has  been  appropriated;  how  few  there  were  who, 
without  self-interest,  devoted  themselves  to  the  cause  of  the  people,  and  how 
the  great  majority  did  not  make  a  step  without  asking  payment  for  it  out  of 


306  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Excess  of  Population  in  Germany 


the  public  treasury.  In  the  first  beginning  of  our  revolution,  hundreds  of 
adventurers  flocked  into  our  country ;  they  boasted  of  their  having  suffered 
for  the  sake  of  liberty,  and  claimed  the  reward  of  it  in  ready  money  out  of 
your  treasuries.  At  the  head  of  this  party  was  Struve,  whom  the  army 
disdains  on  account  of  his  cowardice.  I  had  put  my  trust  in  the  constituent 
assembly ;  but  I  have  been  disappointed.  The  majority  of  its  members  con- 
sisted of  entirely  unqualified  common  brawlers.  I  could  name  a  great  number 
of  valiant  bullies,  who,  under  various  pretexts,  declined  dangerous  com- 
missions as  '  unworthy  of  themselves,'  while  they  greedily  sought  to  obtain 
others  which  they  could  perform  in  perfect  safety  at  the  expenses  of  the 
public  treasury."  We  should  think  that  these  revelations  speak  clear  enough 
to  every  one  who  desires  to  become  acquainted  with  the  actual  causes  of  the 
German  revolutions.  There  is  no  state  in  the  world  that  can  boast  of  its 
being  a  perfect  one ;  for  the  simple  reason  that  man  himself  is  not  perfect 
Thus,  the  German  states  cannot  either  boast  of  perfection;  but  their  chief 
defect  can  neither  be  laid  to  the  governments'  charge,  nor  be  remedied  by  revo- 
lutions ;  for  it  consists  of  nothing  else  but  excess  of  population,  and  hence 
want  of  subsistence  on  the  part  of  a  great  many  inhabitants,  especially  among 
the  lower  classes  of  society.  In  1807,  the  total  population  of  Germany  was 
26,226,000  inhabitants,  while  in  the  beginning  of  1848  it  was,  in  round 
numbers,  42,000,000 — thus  in  41  years,  an  increase  of  more  than  15,750,000 
inhabitants !  The  increase  would  have  been  far  more  considerable  but  for  the 
wars  which  occurred  prior  to  1814,  and  which  caused,  directly  and  indirectly, 
great  mortality.  The  German  emigrants  who  came  to  the  United  States  in 
these  last  twenty-five  years,  are,  for  the  most  part,  natives  from  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Baden,  the  kingdom  of  Wirtemberg,  and  the  Bavarian  palatinate ; 
and  whoever  will  take  the  trouble  to  ask  them  for  what  reason  they  have 
emigrated,  they  will  tell  him  (of  course,  in  so  far  as  they  do  not  belong  to  the 
political  refugees),  that  it  was  chiefly  want  of  subsistence  in  their  native 
country  that  induced  them  to  leave  it  and  to  go  in  search  of  a  livelihood  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic.  In  the  last-named  countries,  the  people 
depend  for  subsistence  chiefly  on  husbandry,  and  partly  on  manufactures. 
In  1807,  the  population  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Baden  was  840,000  in- 
habitants, who  in  general  had  the  means  of  subsistence,  but  since,  this  pop- 
ulation has  increased  by  more  than  half  a  million,  amounting  at  present  to 
about  1,380,000  inhabitants.  Thus,  while  in  1807  only  146  lived  on  a  square 
mile,  this  ratio  has  increased  to  233.     The  population  of  Wirtemberg  was  iu 


GERMANY.  307 


The  Geographical  and  Political  Divisions  of  Germany. 


180*7  at  the  ratio  of  159  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile,  but  in  the  beginning 
of  1848  it  was  at  the  ratio  of  232.  In  the  Bavarian  palatinate  are  living 
268,  and  in  the  governmental  district  of  Dusseldorf  (with  an  area  of  2,094 
square  miles,  and  a  population  of  892,500  inhabitants)  not  less  than  426 
inhabitants  on  a  square  mile !  The  most  populous  states  of  the  Union  are, 
Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut ;  yet,  according  to  the  census 
of  1840,  ihe  ratio  of  population  in  the  first-named  state  was  only  98,  in  the 
second  80,  and  in  Connecticut  65,  on  a  square  mile.  In  comparing  this  ratio 
with  that  of  the  named  German  countries,  the  exceeding  competition  and 
rivalry  in  all  branches  of  industry  and  livelihood,  may  indeed  not  be  wondered 
at.  The  ratio  of  population  in  the  other  German  countries  varies,  upon  an 
average,  between  160  and  210;  while  the  ratio  of  all  Germany  is  171  inhab- 
itants to  a  square  mile. 

We  shall  now  describe  the  different  German  states  according 
to  their  actual  political  condition  in  the  beginning  of  the  year 
1848,  for  the  reasons  alluded  to,  page  1.  Moreover,  the  altera- 
tions proposed  by  the  above-mentioned  so-called  German  parlia- 
ment, have  not  been  noticed  at  all  by  the  different  governments  ; 
and  some  few  others  resolved  upon  by  the  latter,  may  be  consid- 
ered either  as  transitory,  or  as  immaterial. 

The  following  geographical  and  statistical  table  of  Germany, 
in  detail,  shows  at  once  the  order  of  succession,  followed  in  the 
description  of  the  several  states,  their  geographical  situation, 
their  area  and  population,  their  respective  capitals,  and  the  ratio 
of  tax-paying  per  inhabitant.  S.  G.  signifies  Southern  Germany  ; 
C.  G.  signifies  Central  Germany ;  N.  G.  signifies  Northern  Ger- 
many. The  particulars  of  the  ratio  in  paying  taxes  will  be  found 
in  the  description  of  the  several  states,  and  some  of  them  are 
already  given  above.  Wherever  the  ratio  is  omitted  in  this  table, 
there  the  public  expenditure  is  either  covered  by  the  revenues 
of  the  domains,  etc  ,  or  the  ratio  is  less  than  l-£  dollars :  as,  for 
instance,  in  the  principalities  of  Reuss. 


308 


EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 


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GERMANY.  300 


The  Germaii  Provinces  of  Austria. 


L  GERMAN  PROVINCES  OF  AUSTRIA. 

Area  :  76,147  square  miles. 
Population  :  12,700,000  inhabitants. 

They  consist  of  the  following  constituent  parts  of  the  Aus- 
trian empire : 

(a.)  The  arch-duchy  of  Austria  (15,070  square  miles,  and  2,400,000  inhab- 
itants), on  both  sides  of  the  Danube,  with  Vienna  as  capital. 

(6.)  The  duchy  of  Styria  (8,690  square  miles,  and  1,000,000  inhabitants), 
on  the  south  side  of  the  former,  with  Gratz  as  capital. 

(c.)  The  kingdom  of  Illyria  (9,052£  square  miles,  and  1,125,000  inhabi- 
tants), comprising  Carinthia,  Carniola,  and  the  so-called  Austrian  Friaul, 
with  Klagenfurt,  Laibach,  and  Trieste  as  capitals. 

(d.)  The  earldom  of  Tyrol  (11,140  square  miles,  and  900,000  inhabitants), 
between  Bavaria  and  Italy,  on  the  west  bounded  by  Switzerland,  and  on  the 
east  connected  with  the  Austrian  arch-duchy  and  Illyria.  Its  capital  is 
Innspruck. 

(<?.)  The  kingdom  of  Bohemia  (20,096$  square  miles,  and  4,600,000  inhabi- 
tants), between  the  arch-duchy  of  Austria  and  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  with 
Prague  as  capital. 

(/)  The  margraviate  of  Moravia  and  Austrian  Silesia  (10,607  square 
miles,  and  2,310,000  inhabitants),  between  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  with 
Brunn  as  capital. 

(g.)  The  duchies  of  Auschwitz  and  Zator  (1,491  square  miles,  and  365,000 
inhabitants),  near  Cracow,  belonging  politically  to  Germany,  but  in  every 
other  respect  to  Galicia,  with  Auschwitz  as  capital 

The  detailed  description  of  these  German  provinces  will  be 
found  under  the  head  of  the  Austrian  empire,  as  it  would  be  in- 
convenient to  describe  them  separately. 


310  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

The  German  Provinces  of  Prussia. 


IL— GERMAN  PROVINCES  OF  PRUSSIA. 

Area:  11,696  square  miles 
Population:  12,230,000  inhabitants. 

They  consist  of  the  following  constituent  parts  of  the  kingdom 
of  Prussia: 

(a.)  The  province  of  Brandenburg  (15,634  square  miles,  and  2,020,000 
inhabitants),  between  the  Oder  and  Elbe  rivers,  with  Berlin  as  capital. 

(6.)  The  province  of  Pomerania  (12,233  square  miles,  and  1,166,000  inhabi- 
tants), on  the  Baltic,  and  crossed  by  the  Oder  river,  with  Stettin  as  capital. 

(c.)  The  province  of  Silesia  (15,799  square  miles,  and  3,049,500  inhabitants), 
along  the  north-eastern  frontier  of  the  kingdoms  of  Saxony  and  Bohemia, 
with  Breslau  as  capital. 

(d.)  The  province  of  Saxony  (9,81 8^  square  miles,  and  1,741,500  inhabi- 
tants), between  Brandenburg  and  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  crossed  by  the 
Elbe  river,  with  Magdeburg  as  capital. 

(e.)  The  province  of  Westphalia  (7,838|  square  miles,  and  1,470,000  inhab- 
itants), between  Central  Germany  and  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  with 
Munster  as  capital. 

(f.)  The  Rhenish  Province  (10,373  square  miles,  and  2,783,000  inhabitants), 
on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine,  but  chiefly  on  its  left  bank,  with  Coblentz,  the  seat 
of  its  governor. 

The  detailed  description  of  these  German  provinces  will  be 
found  under  the  head  of  the  Prussian  Kingdom,  as  also  in  this 
case  it  would  be  inconvenient  to  describe  them  separately.  It  is 
true,  that  in  the  period  when  the  so  called  German  parliament 
was  still  alive,  the  other  Prussian  provinces  (at  least  the  province 
of  Prussia)  were  declared  constituent  parts  of  Germany  like- 
wise ;  but  this  arrangement  is  to  be  considered  as  a  transitory 


GERMANY.  311 


The  Kingdom  of  Bavaria. 


one,  so  much  the  more  as  it  is  yet  very  doubtful  what  part 
Prussia  generally  may  act  with  regard  to  the  political  organiza- 
tion of  Germany. 


Ill— THE  KINGDOM  OF  BAVARIA. 

Area  :  29,703  square  miles. 
Population  :  4,450,000  inhabitants. 

This  kingdom  (officially  styled  Bayern  in  German),  next  to 
Austria  and  Prussia,  the  most  important  state  in  Germany,  forms 
the  middle  part  of  Southern  Germany,  is  on  the  south  separated 
from  Italy  by  Tyrol,  and  consists  of  two  distinct  territories,  sit- 
uated about  40  miles  apart,  the  smallest  of  which  being  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine. 

According  to  the  census  of  1843  the  total  population  was 
4,440,327  inhabitants,  of  whom  1,226,753  were  Protestants  (for 
the  most  part  Lutherans),  and  more  than  63,000  Jews,  the  re- 
mainder consisting  of  Roman  Catholics,  with  2  archbishops  (at 
Munchen  and  Bamberg),  and  6  bishops  (at  Augsburg,  Passau, 
Regensburg,  Eichstadt,  Wurzburg,  and  Spire). 

The  most  remarkable  of  the  mountain-ranges  are,  beside 
branches  of  the  Alps,  the  Bohmerwald,  Fichtelgebirge,  Spessart, 
etc.  (see  page  7) ;  and  of  the  rivers  the  Danube,  and  one  of  the 
chief  tributaries  of  the  Rhine,  the  Mayne,  with  the  branches 
noted,  page  16.  About  the  most  remarkable  lakes,  see  page  11. 
The  Louis  Canal,  mentioned  above  (page  285),  is  crossing  the 


312  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom  of  Bavaria. 

northern  half  of  Bavaria  from  north  to  south,  and  its  whole 
length  is  107  miles. 

With  regard  to  natural  products.  Bavaria  is  noted  for  its  ex- 
tensive forests,  yielding  annually  about  2£  million  cords  of  timber 
and  firewood,  its  excellent  wines  (in  Franconia  and  the  Bavarian 
palatinate),  and  hops.  It  abounds  in  salt  and  molybdena  (plum- 
bago), and  its  other  principal  minerals  are  coal,  iron,  copper, 
and  some  quicksilver  (in  the  Bavarian  palatinate).  Cattle,  sheep, 
horses,  and  hogs,  are  abundant. 

Agriculture  and  other  branches  of  husbandry  furnish  the 
chief  means  of  subsistence.  Breweries  are  very  numerous,  and 
the  Bavarian  beer  is  celebrated  throughout  all  Germany.  Man- 
ufactures are  carried  on  to  a  great  extent,  and  the  most  noted 
among  them  are  those  of  optical,  chirurgical,  and  musical  instru- 
ments, of  crucibles,  gold  and  silver  articles,  leather,  and  wax 
candles.     The  inland  trade  is  considerable. 

Of  the  above-mentioned  (see  page  287)  3  Bavarian  universities, 
that  of  Munich  was  in  1846  frequented  by  1,406  students,  that 
of  Wurzburg  by  450,  and  that  of  Erlangen  in  1842  by  309  stu- 
dents. Besides  these  institutions  there  are  9  lycea,  26  gymnasia, 
about  60  Latin  schools,  9  seminaries  (about  the  signification  of 
these  terms,  see  page  65),  3  polytechnical,  5,400  common  schools, 
etc. 

The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy,  the  sovereign  power 
being  vested  in  a  king  and  two  legislative  chambers.  In  the 
budget  for  the  period  of  1843-1849,  the  public  revenue  was  esti- 
mated at  31.736,407  florins,  and  the  expenditure  at  31,536,407 
florins  annually.  The  'public  debt  amounted  in  1838  to  about 
126  million  florins.  The  regular  army  consists  during  peace 
of  20,500,  and  in  time  of  war  of  56.269  men.  The  troops 
which  Bavaria,  as  a  member  of  the  German  confederacy,  was 
bound  to  furnish,  amounted  to  35,600  men. 


GERMANY.  813 


Kingdom  of  Bavaria— its  History. 


There  are  the  following  orders  of  honor  : — I,  The  order  of  St. 
Hubertus,  instituted  in  1444,  and  renewed  respectively  in  1708 
and  1800,  only  for  princes  and  officers  of  the  highest  rank.  2. 
The  order  of  St.  George,  instituted  in  the  days  of  the  crusades,  but 
renewed  in  1729.  3.  The  order  of  Maximilian  Joseph,  instituted 
in  1806,  only  for  military  officers.  4.  The  order  of  the  Bavarian 
crown,  instituted  in  1808,  for  civil  officers.  5.  The  order  of  Louis, 
instituted  in  1827.  6.  The  order  of  St.  Michael,  instituted  in 
1693,  but  renewed  and  altered  in  1808.  7.  The  order  of  St.  The- 
resa, instituted  in  1827,  for  ladies.  8.  The  order  of  St.  Elizabeth, 
instituted  in  1766. 

History. — The  present  Bavaria,  anciently  forming  part  of  Vindelicia  and 
Noricum  (see  History  of  Germany),  came  since  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire 
first  under  the  sway  of  the  Ostrogoths,  then  under  that  of  the  Frankish  em- 
pire, though  it  was,  since  the  end  of  the  6th  century,  governed  by  native 
dukes  belonging  to  the  house  of  Agilolf.  The  Bavarian  dukes,  who  thus 
were  vassals  of  the  Frankish  kings,  continued  in  the  same  relation  of  depend- 
ence to  the  German  empire  since  the  treaty  of  Verdun  in  843  (see  page  31). 
In  the  period  from  94*7  to  1180,  barons  from  different  houses  were  invested 
with  the  duchy,  and  the  most  renowned  among  them  were  those  belonging 
to  the  house  of  the  Guelphs  (since  the  year  1071),  until  in  1180  the  yet 
reigning  dynasty  of  Wittelsbach  became  possessed  of  it.  The  duchy  of  Ba- 
varia comprised  however  only  the  present  provinces  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Bavaria ;  all  the  other  territories  have  in  the  course  of  time  been  annexed 
to  it:  the  Upper  Palatinate  in  1623  (at  the  same  time  the  electoral  dignity 
was  conferred  on  the  duke  of  Bavaria),  the  formerly  sovereign  bishoprics  of 
Augsburg,  Bamberg,  Wurzburg,  Eichstadt,  and  Passau,  together  with  several 
imperial  cities,  in  1803 ;  the  imperial  cities  of  Augsburg,  Nuremberg,  and 
Lindau,  the  greatest  part  of  the  territories  in  the  province  of  Swabia,  and 
the  principality  of  Ansbach  in  1806 ;  the  principality  of  Bayreuth  and  the 
imperial  city  of  Ratisbon  in  1810  ;  the  principality  of  Aschaffenburg  and  the 
greatest  part  of  the  present  Bavarian  palatinate  in  1814.  According  to  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  at  Presburg  on  the  26th  of  December, 
1805,  the  electorate  of  Bavaria  was  raised  to  a  kingdom.  Tyrol  (which  was 
annexed  to  it  in  1805),  anil  the  former  sovereign  archbishopric  of  Salzburg 

14         ' 


314  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Germany.— Kingdom  of  Bavaria. 


were  in  1813  respectively  restored  and  ceded  to  Austria.  King  Maximilian 
Joseph  I.  died  in  1825,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Louis  I.,  who  abdicated 
in  1848,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Maximilian  II,  the  still  reigning  king, 
born  in  1811. 

In  1803  the  kingdom  was  divided  into  circles,  whose  names,  after 
the  example  of  France,  were  derived  from  the  rivers  within  their 
limits.  But  in  1837  these  names  were  altered  into  others  of 
historical  signification  and  long  since  commonly  used.  They  are 
still  styled  circles,  and  are  8  in  number.  The  capitals  of  the 
circles  are  in  the  following  description  marked  with  a  cross  (-}-)• 

L  The  circle  of  Upper  Bavaria,  comprising  chiefly  that  part  of  the  ancient 
duchy  of  Bavaria,  which  ever  has  been  styled  Upper  Bavaria,  aud  besides  it 
some  other  territories  annexed  to  it  since  1803.  1.  The  ancient  duchy  of 
Bavaria,  within  the  limits  of  this  circle,  contains :  -4-Munioh  (m  German 
Munchen),  the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  and  royal  residence,  on  the  Isar,  west- 
ward and  230  miles  distant  from  Vienna,  with  115,000  inhabitants,  and  6 
suburbs  (the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  called  the  Au),  is  to  be  considered 
as  one  of  the  central  points  of  sciences  and  arts  in  Germany,  and  noted  for 
its  splendid  galleries  of  paintings  and  sculpture,  literary  institutions  (see  In- 
troduction to  Germany),  palaces,  churches,  etc.  Munich  was  founded  in  1175 
by  the  duke  Henry  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony,  surnamed  the  Lion.  The  neigh- 
boring village  of  Nymphenburg  (with  1,200  inhabitants;  is  noted  for  its  por- 
celain manufacture  and  royal  palace,  where  the  royal  family  uses  to  reside 
in  the  summer  season.  The  little  village  of  Kdferloh  is  noted  for  its  market 
for  cattle  held  here  in  the  month  of  September,  and  the  village  of  Hohenlin- 
den  (eastward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Munich),  noted  for  a  battle  on  the 
3d  of  December,  1800.  Hohenschwangau,  an  ancient  feudal  castle,  once  be- 
longing to  the  celebrated  house  of  Hohenstaufen,  at  present  arranged  and 
furnished  in  a  magnificent  style,  and  the  private  property  of  the  king.  Traun- 
stein  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  and  Reichenhall  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
towns  between  Munich  and  Salzburg,  noted  for  their  salt-springs.  Ingol- 
stadt,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Danube,  northward  and  44  miles  distant  from 
Munich,  has  10,200  inhabitants,  and  was  formerly  noted  for  its  university 
(instituted  in  1472),  which  in  1802  was  transferred  to  Landshut,  and  in  1826 


GERMANY.  315 


Kingdom  of  Bavaria— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


united  with  the  university  of  Munich.  Old  Oetting,  a  market-town  near  the 
Austrian  frontier,  has  1,700  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  holy  shrine,  and 
the  sepulchres  of  various  princes,  and  of  the  field-marshal  Tilly  (-f-1632). 
Tegernsee,  formerly  a  Benedictine  abbey,  at  present  royal  residence  in  the 
summer  season,  is  situated  on  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  30  miles  south-south- 
east of  Munich.  In  its  neighborhood  is  a  noted  bathing-place,  named  Kreut. 
The  town  of  Rain  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  on  the  Lech,  near  its  junction 
with  the  Danube,  and  at  23  miles  distance  from  Augsburg,  is  noted  for  the 
victory  gained  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  on  the  5th  of  April,  1632,  which 
opened  to  him  the  way  into  Bavaria.  The  town  of  Muhldorf  (with  1,600 
inhabitants),  on  the  Inn  river  and  near  Salzburg,  is  noted  for  battles  in  1259 
and  1322.  Other  towns,  more  or  less  deserving  to  be  noticed,  are:  Erding 
(with  2,000  inhabitants),  Pfaffenhofen  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Moosburg 
(with  1,800  inhabitants),  Weilheim  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Schongau  (with 
1,600  inhabitants),  Landsberg  (with  3,300  inhabitants),  Wasserburg  (with 
2,400  inhabitants),  Friedberg  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Aichach  (with  1,800 
inhabitants),  Schrobenhausen  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  and  Burghausen  (with 
2,500  inhabitants).  2.  The  ancient  sovereign  bishopric  of  Freising  (instituted 
in  724  and  secularized  in  1803)  contains :  Freising,  a  city  on  the  Isar,  22 
miles  north-north-east  of  Munich,  with  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  5,400 
inhabitants.  Garmisch  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  Mittenwald  (with  2,100  in- 
habitants), and  Partenkirchen  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  market-towns.  3. 
The  once  highly  renowned  provostship  of  Berchtesgaden  (which  was  instituted 
in  1106,  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  principality,  and  possessed  of  a  territory 
213  square  miles  in  extent,  but  was  secularized  in  1803)  contains:  Berchtes- 
gaden, a  town  near  the  frontier  of  Tyrol,  has  1,800  inhabitants,  and  is  noted 
for  its  salt-springs  and  toys,  or  carved  works  of  ivory,  etc.  4.  To  the  ancient 
archbishopric  of  Salzburg  formerly  belonged  the  towns  of  Laufen  (with 
1,900  inhabitants),  and  Tittmoning  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  and  the  boroughs 
of  Waging  and  Teisendorf,  with  respectively  650  and  500  inhabitants. 

II.  The  circle  of  Lower  Bavaria,  comprising  chiefly  that  part  of  the 
ancient  duchy  of  Bavaria,  which  ever  has  been  styled  Lower  Bavaria,  and 
besides  it,  the  former  territory  of  the  ancient  sovereign  bishopric  of  Passau. 
1.  The  ancient  duchy  of  Bavaria,  within  the  limits  of  this  circle,  contains : 
-J-Landshut,  capital  of  this  circle,  romantically  situated  on  the  Isar,  north- 
eastward and  40  miles  distant  from  Munich,  with  10,300  inhabitants,  9  churches 
(the  steeple  of  one  of  them  is  422  feet  high),  and  the  ancient  mountain  castle 


316  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom  of  Bavaria. 

of  TYausnitz,  once  the  residence  of  the  Bavarian  dukes.  In  the  period  from 
1802  to  1826,  Landshut  was  the  seat  of  a  university,  at  present  in  Munich. 
Straubing,  a  town  on  the  Danube  (crossed  here  b}r  a  remarkable  bridge  of 
stone),  23  miles  east-south-east  of  Ratisbon,  with  7,800  inhabitants,  numerous 
breweries,  and  considerable  trade  in  grain  and  horses.  Kklheim,  a  town  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  at  its  junction  with  the  Altmuhl  (which  river  is 
brought  into  connection  with  the  Mayne  by  the  Louis  Canal),  south-westward 
and  12  miles  distant  from  Ratisbon,  with  2,200  inhabitants.  Other  more  or 
less  remarkable  towns  are:  Abensberg  (with  1,300  inhabitants),  ViUhofen 
(with  2,200  inhabitants),  Osterhofen  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Deygendorf  (with 
3,800  inhabitants),  and  Grafenau  (with  750  inhabitants).  The  village  of 
Eckmuhl,  between  Landshut  and  Regensburg,  is  noted  for  a  battle  on  the 
24th  of  April,  1809,  between  the  French  and  Austrians.  The  market-town 
of  Ortenburg  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  westward  and  9  miles  distant  from 
Passau,  was  formerly  the  capital  of  a  sovereign  earldom  of  the  same  name, 
and  32  square  miles  in  extent.  2.  The  former  territory  (of  an  extent  of  426 
square  miles)  of  the  ancient  sovereign  bishopric  of  Passau  (instituted  in  737, 
and  secularized  in  1803),  contains:  Passau,  fortified  city  on  the  Danube,  at 
its  junction  with  the  Inn  (which  latter  river  separates  the  city  from  the 
Austrian  territory),  has  a  remarkable  cathedral,  and  11,000  inhabitants,  and 
is  noted  for  the  beauty  of  its  ladies.  The  market-town  of  Hafnerzell  (with 
1,350  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  crucibles  made  of  molybdena.  In  some  of 
them  can  be  melted  2,000  marks  of  silver  at  once. 

III.  The  circle  of  Upper  Palatinate  and  Ratisbon,  chiefly  comprising  the 
ancient  Upper  Palatinate  and  the  former  imperial  city  of  Regensburg,  part 
of  the  ancient  duchy  of  Bavaria,  etc.  1.  The  former  imperial  city  of 
-{-Ratisbon  (in  German,  Regensburg),  at  present  the  capital  of  this  circle,  is 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube  (crossed  by  a  stately  bridge,  built 
in  the  period  from  1135  to  1146  of  freestone,  and  having  a  length  of  1,091 
feet),  64  miles  north-north-east  of  Munich,  and  south-eastward  and  50  miles 
distant  from  Nuremberg,  with  18  churches,  4  convents,  numerous  breweries 
and  manufactures,  a  considerable  trade,  and  22,000  inhabitants.  The  most 
remarkable  public  edifices  of  this  city  (which  in  the  12th  century  was  endowed 
with  the  privileges  of  an  imperial  one,  and  in  1809  annexed  to  Bavaria)  are 
the  cathedral,  reared  in  the  13th  century,  the  city  hall  (where,  in  the  period 
from  1663  to  1806,  the  Diet  of  the  ancient  German  empire  held  its  sessions), 
and  the  buildings  of  the  former  immediate  abbeys  of  Obermunster,  Nieder- 


GERMANY.  Slf 


The  Kindgom  of  Bavaria— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


miinster,  and  St.  Emmeran.  The  latter  is  at  present  the  property  and  resi- 
dence of  the  prince  of  Thurn  and  Taxis,  formerly  postmaster-general  of  the 
German  empire.  These  abbeys  were  instituted  respectively  about  the 
years  896,  900,  and  652.  To  the  former  sovereign  or  immediate  bishopric  of 
Ratnbon  (which  was  instituted  in  the  beginning  of  the  8th  century,  and  secu- 
larized in  1803,  but  which  had  nothing  in  common  with  the  city  of  Ratisbon) 
did  belong  the  market-towns  of  Worth  (with  1,000  inhabitants)  and  Donaustmif 
(with  150  inhabitants).  Near  the  latter  is  the  Wafhalla,  a  building  reared  in 
1830-1842  by  order  of  King  Louis  of  Bavaria,  and  devoted  to  the  memory 
of  celebrated  Germans.  2.  The  Upper  Palatinate,  primitively  belonging  to 
the  dukes  of  Swabia,  and  in  the  period  1329-1623  annexed  to  the  Palatinate 
on  the  Rhine,  contains :  Ambkrg,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Upper  Palatinate, 
on  the  high  road  between  Regensburg  and  Bayreuth,  eastward  and  34  miles 
distant  from  Nuremberg,  with  several  remarkable  public  buildings,  various 
manufactures,  and  11,000  inhabitants.  In  the  neighboring  town  of  Hirschau 
(with  1,500  inhabitants),  Jerome  of  Prague,  the  friend  of  John  Huss,  was 
taken  prisoner  in  1415,  and  conveyed  to  Constance,  where  he  was  burnt. 
Other  more  or  less  remarkable  market  and  proper  towns  of  the  Upper  Palat- 
inate are :  Casttel  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Neumarkt  (with  3,200  inhabitants), 
Nabburg  (with  1,700  inhabitants),  Neunburg  vor  dern  Walde  (with  2,100  inhab- 
itants), Roding  (with  1 ,500  inhabitants),  Waldmunchen  (with  2,200  inhabitants), 
Tirschenreuth  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Waldsassen  (with  1,650  inhabitants), 
Eschenbach  (with  1,850  inhabitants),  and  Kemnath  (with  1,650  inhabitants). 
3.  That  part  of  the  ancient  duchy  of  Bavaria  within  the  limits  of  this  circle, 
contains :  Stadtamhof  (literally :  town  at  the  court),  a  town  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Danube,  opposite  to  Regensburg,  with  2,200  inhabitants.  Cham,  a  town 
on  the  Regen  river,  with  various  branches  of  industry,  and  2,200  inhabitants. 
Dietfurt  (on  the  AltmuhL  with  1,000  inhabitants),  and  Riedenburg  (with  1,050 
inhabitants),  towns.  4.  The  former  principality  of  Neuburg  (about  its  par- 
ticulars, see  under  the  head  of  the  circle  No.  VII.),  within  the  limits  of  this 
circle,  contains :  Hilpoltstein,  a  town  on  the  Roth  river,  46  miles  west-north- 
west of  Regensburg,  with  a  remarkable  ancient  palace  and  town-hall,  and 
1,500  inhabitants.  Kalhnunz  (with  1,300  inhabitants),  Parsberg  (with  600 
inhabitants),  and  Regenstauf  (with  1,650  inhabitants),  market-towns.  5.  The 
former  principality  of  Sulzbach  (which  in  1309  was  annexed  to  that  of 
Neuburg),  contains:  Sulzbach, once  its  capital, near  Amberg, has  3,100  inhab- 
itants, and  is  noted  for  its  ancient  mountain  castle.     Weiden,  a  town,  with 


318  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Gr.rmany. — Kingdom  of  Bavaria. 

2,400   inhabitants.     Vohenstrauss,   a   market-town,   with    1,500   inhabitants. 

6.  Within  the  limits  of  this  circle  is  also  situated  the  mediate  duchy  of  Leuch- 
tenberg  (anciently  a  landgraviate,  which  in  1646  was  annexed  to  Bavaria), 
belonging  to  the  Duke  Maximilian  of  Leuchtenberg  (son-in-law  of  the  Russian 
emperor  Nicholas),  whose  father,  Eugene  Beauharnois,  was  in  1817  invested 
with  it  and  the  principality  of  Eichstadt.  It  contains :  Leuchtenberg,  capital 
of  the  duchy,  52  miles  east-north-east  of  Nuremberg,  with  600  inhabitants. 
In  its  neighborhood  is  situated  the  town  of  Pfreimdt,  with  1,600  inhabitants. 

7.  To  various  other  territories  did  formerly  belong :  Neustadt,  surnamed  an 
der  Waldnab,  a  town  on  the  Waldnab  river  (hence  its  surname),  near  the 
frontier  of  Bohemia,  with  1,600  inhabitants.  Schonsee,  a  town,  with  1,300 
inhabitants.  Freystadt,  a  town  on  the  Schwarzach  river,  with  900  inhabi- 
tants. Neustadt  am  Culm,  a  town  in  the  vicinity  of  Bayreuth,  with  1,200 
inhabitants. 

IV.  The  circle  of  Upper  Franconia,  comprising  chiefly  the  ancient  princi- 
pality of  Bayreuth,  and  the  formerly  sovereign  or  immediate  bishopric  of 
Bamberg.  1.  The  former  principality  of  Bayreuth  was,  together  with  the 
principality  of  Ansbach  (see  the  next  circle),  primitively  a  constituent  part  of 
the  ancient  burgr aviate  of  Nuremberg,  which  had  its  seat  in  a  castle  within 
the  walls  of  the  city  of  Nuremberg,  but  in  other  respects  nothing  in  common 
with  the  latter.  The  first  historically-known  burgrave,  was  Godfrey  of 
Hohenlohe,  who  lived  about  the  year  1138.  But  already  so  early  as  in  1164 
the  house  of  Hohenzollern  was  invested  with  the  burgraviate,  and  since  suc- 
cessively with  other  dominions,  forming  at  last  the  two  named  principalities. 
When  the  burgrave  Frederic  VI.  in  141*7  was  invested  with  the  electorate 
and  margraviate  of  Brandenburg  (see  page  302),  he  retained  his  pos- 
sessions in  Franconia,  but  his  two  grandsons  divided  the  inheritance  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  one  succeeded  in  Brandenburg,  and  the  other  in  Bayreuth 
and  its  dependencies.  The  latter  line  became  extinct  in  1791,  and  both  prin- 
cipalities (of  Bayreuth  and  Ansbach)  were  now  annexed  to  the  dominions  of 
the  other  line,  or  to  the  kingdom  of  Prussia.  The  principality  of  Bayreuth 
(1,534  square  miles,  and  in  1801  with  218,500  inhabitants)  was  in  1807  ceded 
by  Prussia  to  France,  which  retained  it  until  1810,  when  it  ceded  it  to  Bavaria. 
The  principality  of  Ansbach  (1,448  square  miles,  and  in  1800  with  245,000 
inhabitants)  was  ceded  by  Prussia  to  France  in  1805,  and  by  the  latter  power 
to  Bavaria  in  1806.  The  princes  of  Bayreuth  and  Ansbach  bore  the  title  of 
margraves,  with  reference  to  the  margraviate  of  Brandenburg.     Here  is,  for 


GERMANY.  319 


The  Kingdom  of  Bavaria— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


the  present,  only  the  question  of  the  former  principality  of  Bayreuth,  which  con- 
tains (within  the  limits  of  this  circle,  or  in  the  so-called  Highland  of  Bayreuth) : 
-[-Bayreuth,  formerly  its  capital  and  princely  residence,  at  present  the  capital 
of  Upper  Franconia,  on  a  branch  of  the  Mayne,  42  miles  north-north-west  of 
Nuremberg,  with  17,000  inhabitants,  a  remarkable  ancient  castle,  and  one  of 
the  largest  opera-houses  in  Germany.  The  former  princely  gardens  here 
cover  a  space  of  about  84  acres.  Culmbach,  a  town  on  a  branch  of  the 
Mayne,  14  miles  north-north-west  of  Bayreuth,  is  noted  for  its  breweries,  has 
4,250  inhabitants,  and  was,  in  the  period  from  1603  to  1726,  the  residence  of 
a  collateral  line  of  the  princely  house  of  Bayreuth.  Hof,  a  town  at  the 
frontier  of  Bohemia  and  Saxony,  is  noted  for  its  woollen,  linen,  and  cotton 
manufactures,  and  has  7,000  inhabitants.  Wunsiedel,  a  town  half-way  between 
Bayreuth  and  Eger,  with  various  manufactures,  iron  mines,  and  4,000  inhabi- 
tants. The  market-town  of  Muggendorf,  south-westward  and  16  miles  distant 
from  Bayreuth,  with  450  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  extensive  and  highly 
remarkable  caves.  Other  towns  are :  Naila  (with  1,700  inhabitants),  Selb 
(with  3,400  inhabitants),  Weissenstadt  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  Rehau  (with 
2,000  inhabitants),  Ludwigstadt  (with  950  inhabitants),  Munchberg  (with  2,300 
inhabitants),  Berneck  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  and  Goldkronach  (with  1,000 
inhabitants).  2.  The  territory  of  the  former  sovereign,  or  immediate  bishopric 
of  Bamberg,  which  primitively,  and  until  908,  belonged  to  the  powerful  earls 
of  Babenberg,  and  in  1006  was  transformed  into  this  bishopric  that  continued 
to  exist  for  nearly  800  years,  when  it  was  secularized  in  1803,  at  which  period 
it  had  an  area  of  1384  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  185,000  inhabi- 
tants, contains :  Bamberg,  formerly  the  capital  of  this  bishopric,  on  the  Regnitz, 
near  its  junction  with  the  Mayne,  northward  and  32  miles  distant  from  Nurem- 
berg, with  important  trade,  noted  breweries,  and  21,500  inhabitants.  Its 
most  remarkable  public  edifices  are :  the  cathedral  (reared  by  Emperor 
Henry  IL,  whose  sepulchre  is  here),  the  palace  of  the  former  sovereign  bishops 
(reared  in  1702,  and  remarkable  for  that  Alexander  Berthier,  Napoleon's 
marshal,  precipitated  himself  out  of  one  of  its  windows,  on  the  1st  of  June, 
1815),  the  extensive  hospital  reared  in  1787,  and  the  former  Benedictine 
abbey.  Bamberg,  whose  foundation  was  laid  in  804,  was  in  the  middle  ages 
frequently  the  gay  and  splendid  resort  of  the  imperial  court,  of  the  knight- 
hood, etc.  Ebermannstadt,  a  town  romantically  situated  on  the  Wiesent 
river,  south-eastward  and  16  miles  distant  from  Bamberg,  with  750  inhabi- 
tants.   Other  towns  are :  Hochstadt  (noted  for  its  hops,  with  2,000  inhabitants), 


320  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany.— Kingdom  of  Bavaria. 

Hollfeld  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  Weissmain  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  Herzo- 
genaurach  (with  1,850  inhabitants),  Forrkheim  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  Potten- 
stein  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Stadtsteinach  (with  1,400  inhabitants),  Kupferberg 
(with  950  inhabitants),  Lichtenfels  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  Teuschnitz  (with 
850  inhabitants),  Staff elstein  (with  1,250  inhabitants),  and  Kronach,  or  Cranach 
(remarkable  as  the  birth-place  of  the  celebrated  painter  Lucas  of  Cranach,  a 
contemporary  of  Luther,  has  3,000  inhabitants,  and  carries  on  a  considerable 
trade  in  timber  and  lumber).  3.  To  the  Franconian  immediate  nobility  of  the 
empire  did,  among  other  places,  belong :  Thurnau,  a  town  on  the  Au  river, 
north-westward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Bayreuth,  with  1,500  inhabitants, 
and  a  remarkable  ancient  castle,  or  palace  of  the  count  of  Giech.  Pom- 
mersfelden,  a  village  in  the  vicinity  of  Bamberg,  with  650  inhabitants, 
belongs  to  the  count  of  Schonborn,  who  occupies  a  magnificent  palace  here. 
4.  To  the  former  territory  of  the  city  of  Nuremberg  did  belong  the  towns 
of  Grafenberg  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  and  Betzenstein  (with  100  inhabitants), 
the  village  of  Egglof stein  (with  550  inhabitants),  etc. 

V.  The  circle  of  Central  Franconia,  comprising  the  former  principality 
of  Ansbach,  the  Lowland  of  Bayreuth  (see  above),  the  city  of  Nuremberg 
and  its  former  territory,  etc  1.  The  former  principality  of  Ansbach  (a  his- 
torical sketch  of  which,  together  with  other  particulars,  is  given  above,  under 
the  head  of  Bayreuth),  contains :  -|- Ansbach,  or  Anspach  (anciently  also 
called  Onolzbach),  formerly  its  capital  and  princely  residence,  at  present  the 
capital  of  Central  Franconia,  on  the  Franconia  Rezat  river,  south-westward 
and  23  miles  distant  from  Nuremberg,  with  various  manufactures,  and  13,000 
inhabitants.  The  former  palace  of  the  margraves,  or  princes,  of  Ansbach 
was  reared  in  the  years  1587  and  1588,  and  is  at  preseat  noted  for  a  valuable 
library  and  gallery  of  paintings.  Schwabach,  a  celebrated  manufacturing 
town,  southward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Nuremberg,  has  8,300  inhabitants, 
and  is  especially  noted  for  its  pins  and  needles.  Another  renowned  manufac- 
turing town  is  Furth,  in  the  vicinity  of  Nuremberg,  with  16,000  inhabitants. 
Heilsbronn  (not  to  be  confounded  with  Heilbronn  in  Wirtemberg),  a  market- 
town  on  the  little  Schwabach  river,  south-westward  and  10  miles  distant  from 
Nuremberg,  is  remarkable  as  the  burying-place  of  most  of  the  ancient  bur- 
graves  of  Nuremberg,  and  has  850  inhabitants.  Other  more  or  less  remark- 
able towns  are :  Uffen heim  (with  1,750  inhabitants),  Wassertrudmgen  (with 
2,100  inhabitants),  Feuchtwang  (with  2,600  inhabitants),  Wlndsbach  (with  1,250 
inhabitants),  Merkendorf  (with  850  inhabitants),  HeidenJieim  (with  1,900  in- 


GERMANY.  321 


The  Kingdom  of  Bavaria — its  Geographical  Divisions. 


habitants),  Kadolzburg  (with  1,400  inhabitants),  Gunzenhausen  (with  2,700 
inhabitants),  and  Leutershausen  (with  1,500  inhabitants).  2.  The  so-called 
Lowland  of  Bayreuth  (to  distinguish  it  from  the  above-mentioned  more 
mountainous  Highland  of  Bayreuth)  contains :  Eri.angen,  a  town  on  the 
Regnitz,  northward  and  12  miles  distant  from  Nuremberg,  has  11,000  inhabi- 
tants, and  is  noted  for  its  university.  Other  towns  are :  Neustadt  an  der 
Aisch  (on  the  Aisch  river,  with  3,200  inhabitants),  Baiersdorf  (with  1,600 
inhabitants),  and  Markt-Erlbach  (with  1,300  inhabitants).  3.  The  ancient 
territory  of  the  formerly  independent,  or  imperial  city  of  Nuremberg  (in  the 
long  period  from  the  10th  century  to  1806),  contains:  Nuremberg  (in  Ger- 
man Nurnberg),  a  city  on  the  Pegnitz  river,  96  miles  north-north-west  of 
Munich,  and  south-westward  and  140  miles  distant  from  Leipsic,  has  48,000 
inhabitants,  was  in  the  middle  ages  and  in  later  periods  highly  celebrated  for 
its  inland  trade,  manufactures,  and  its  collection  of  works  of  art,  and  is  at 
present  the  most  important  trading  and  manufacturing  place  at  least  in  Ba- 
varia. Its  city  hall,  reared  in  the  period  from  1613  to  1619,  is  one  of  the 
largest  in  Germany,  and  contains  valuable  pictures  of  Albert  Diirer,  which 
are  also  to  be  found  in  the  beautiful  St.  Sebaldus'  and  St.  Laurentius'  churches. 
The  above-mentioned  (see  page  318)  castle  and  ancient  residence  of  the  bur- 
graves  was  in  1427  sold  to  the  city.  Within  the  limits  of  Nuremberg's  for- 
mer territory  were,  among  other  places,  situated :  Altdorf,  a  town  on  the 
Schwarzach  river,  14  miles  east-south-east  of  Nuremberg,  has  3,000  inhabi- 
tants, and  was  formerly  noted  for  its  university  (instituted  in  1578,  and  in 
1809  united  with  the  university  of  Erlangen),  where  in  1599  Wallenstein 
made  his  studies.  Hersbruck,  a  town  on  the  Pegnitz,  has  2,400  inhabitants, 
and  is  noted  for  its  excellent  hops.  Lauf  a  town  on  the  Pegnitz,  with  vari- 
ous manufactures,  and  3,100  inhabitants.  4.  Other  imperial  cities  were  until 
the  year  1803  the  following:  Rothenburg  an  der  Tauber  (surnamed  thus, 
because  it  is  situated  on  the  Tauber  river,  has  several  remarkable  churches, 
and  6,500  inhabitants),  Dinkelsbuhl  (like  the  former,  situated  near  the  fron- 
tier of  Wirtemberg,  has  6,000  inhabitants),  Windsheim  (north-westward  and 
18  miles  distant  from  Ansbach,  with  many  breweries,  and  3,600  inhabitants), 
and  Weissenburg  (commonly  surnamed  im  Nordgau,  south-eastward  and  28 
miles  distant  from  Ansbach,  with  various  manufactures,  numerous  breweries, 
and  4,300  inhabitants).  5.  To  the  Teutonic  order  (see  page  46)  did  belong : 
Ellingen,  a  town  on  the  Swabian  Rezat  river,  south-eastward  and  27  miles 
distant  from  from  Ansbach,  with  an  extensive  palace,  and  1,500  inhabitants. 

14* 


322  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany.— Kingdom  of  Bavaria. 

Ellingen  and  its  dependencies  (forming  together  a  territory  of  85  square  miles 
in  extent)  belong  at  present  to  the  descendants  of  the  late  Bavarian  field- 
marshal,  Wrede.  6.  The  formerly  sovereign,  immediate  bishopric  of  Eichstadt 
(instituted  in  741,  and  secularized  in  1803),  whose  territory  (469  square  miles, 
and  in  1803  with  56,000  inhabitants)  forms  at  present  a  mediate  principality, 
belonging  to  the  duke  of  Leuchtenberg  (see  above),  contains :  Eichstadt,  its. 
capital,  on  the  Altmuhl,  60  miles  north-north-west  of  Munich,  has  7,000  in- 
habitants, and  is  noted  for  its  cathedral  and  other  public  edifices.  Spalt,  a 
town  on  the  Franconian  Rezat  river,  southward  and  22  miles  distant  from 
Nuremberg,  has  1,850  inhabitants,  and  is  renowned  for  its  hops.  Other  towns 
are :  Beilngries  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Berching  (with  1,500  inhabitants), 
Abenberg  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Greeting  (with  1,150  inhabitants),  Her- 
rieden  (1,450  inhabitants),  and  Ohmbau  (with  850  inhabitants).  7.  To  vari- 
ous mediatized  princes  belong  the  following  territories :  of  Hohenlohe-Schil- 
lingsfurst  (21  square  miles,  and  3,800  inhabitants) ;  of  Schwarzenberg  (101 
square  miles,  and  12,500  inhabitants ;  the  prince  of  tliis  name  resides  com- 
monly in  Vienna) ;  and  of  Pappenheim  (75  square  miles,  and  9,300  inhabi- 
tants, belonging  to  the  earl  of  this  name,  who  resides  in  the  town  of  Pappen- 
heim, romantically  situated  on  the  Altmuhl,  near  Eichstadt,  and  having 
2,250  inhabitants).  The  town  of  Markt-Einersheim  (with  800  inhabitants), 
belongs  to  the  count  of  Rechtern-Limpurg,  and  the  town  of  Burghaslach 
(with  1,000  inhabitants),  to  the  count  of  Castell. 

VI.  The  circle  of  Lower  Franconia  and  Aschaffenburg,  comprising 
chiefly  the  former  sovereign,  or  independent  bishopric  of  Wurzburg,  and  the 
principality  of  Aschaffenburg.  1.  The  territory  of  the  former  independent 
bishopric  of  Wurzburg  (instituted  in  741,  and  secularized  in  1803,  at  which 
period  its  extent  was  1,917  square  miles,  with  240,000  inhabitants)  contains : 
-4-Wurzburg,  fortified  capital  on  the  Mayne,  half  way  between  Frankfort 
and  Nuremberg,  with  considerable  trade,  various  manufactures,  and  27,500 
inhabitants.  Wurzburg  is  noted  for  its  splendid  and  extensive  palace  (form- 
erly the  residence  of  the  bishop,  and  reared  in  the  period  from  1720  to  1740), 
its  university,  and  its  excellent  wines.  Kitzingen,  a  town  on  the  Mayne, 
south-eastward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Wurzburg,  is  noted  for  its  brewe- 
ries, and  has  5,100  inhabitants.  Kissingen,  a  town  on  the  Franconian  Saale, 
northward  and  32  miles  distant  from  Kitzingen,  has  1,800  inhabitants,  and  is 
noted  for  its  mineral  waters  and  salt-springs,  and  much  resorted  to  for  bath- 
ing.   Konigshofen,  surnamed  im  Grabfelde,  a  town  on  the  Franconian  Saale, 


GERMANY.  323 


The  Kingdom  of  Bavaria— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


westward  and  23  miles  distant  from  Coburg,  with  1,750  inhabitants.  Ebern 
(with  1,200  inhabitants),  Haasfurt  (with  1,950  inhabitants),  Eltmann  (with 
1,500  inhabitants),  Gerolzhofen  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  Volkach  (with  2,100 
inhabitants),  Dettelbach  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Ochsenfurt  (with  2,300  in- 
habitants), Aub  (with  1,050  inhabitants),  Carlstadt  (with  2,250  inhabitants), 
Arnstein  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  Gemunden  (with  1,650  inhabitants),  Mun- 
nerstadt  (with  1,650  inhabitants),  Neustadt  an  der  Saale  (with  1,500  inhabi- 
tants), Bischofsheim  vor  der  Rhbn  (with  1,850  inhabitants),  Fladungen  (with 
950  inhabitants),  and  Mellricfistadt  (with  1,850  inhabitants),  more  or  less 
remarkable  towns.  2.  The  former  principality  of  Aschajfenburg,  which, 
until  1803,  did  belong  to  the  electorate  of  Mentz,  and  at  that  period  had  an 
area  of  437  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  70,300  inhabitants,  contains : 
Aschaffenburg,  formerly  electoral  residence  next  in  rank  to  Mentz,  on  the 
Mayne,  between  Frankfort  and  Wurzburg,  with  9,500  inhabitants,  a  magnifi- 
cent palace  (formerly  electoral,  at  present  royal),  and  several  other  remarkable 
public  edifices.  The  neighboring  village  of  Dettingen  (with  600  inhabitants) 
is  noted  for  a  battle  against  the  French,  which  was  won  by  King  George  IL 
of  England,  on  the  27th  of  June,  1743.  Obernburg,  a  town  near  the  Mayne, 
with  2,000  inhabitants.  Klingenberg,  Prozelten,  and  Lohr,  towns  on  the 
Mayne,  with  respectively  1,050,  1,000,  and  3,800  inhabitants.  Orb,  a  town 
half  way  between  Fulda  and  Aschaffenburg,  has  4,500  inhabitants,  and  is 
noted  for  its  salt  springs.  Miltenberg  (on  the  Mayne,  22  miles  south-south- 
east of  Aschaffenburg,  with  3,100  inhabitants),  and  Amorbach  (near  Milten- 
berg, with  a  magnificent  princely  palace,  and  2,900  inhabitants),  two  towns 
belonging  at  present,  together  with  other  neighboring  places,  to  the  prince  of 
Leixingen.  3.  The  towns  of  Bruckenau  (north-westward  and  16  miles  dis- 
tant from  Kissingen,  has  1,800  inhabitants,  and  is  much  resorted  to  as  a 
watering-place),  and  Hammelburg  (northward  and  23  miles  distant  from 
Wurzburg,  with  2,700  inhabitants),  did  formerly  belong  to  the  territory  of 
the  immediate  bishopric  of  Fulda.  Schweinfurt,  formerly  an  imperial  city 
(since  the  14th  century  to  1803),  on  the  Mayne,  23  miles  north-north-east  of 
Wurzburg,  with  7,400  inhabitants.  Castell,  the  capital  of  a  mediate  earl- 
dom of  the  same  name,  between  Kitzingen  and  Bamberg,  has  750  inhabitants, 
and  is  noted  for  its  wines.  Wiesentheid  (a  market-town,  with  1,150  inhabi- 
tants), and  Gaibach  (a  village,  with  450  inhabitants,  and  a  beautiful  palace), 
belong  to  the  earl  of  Schonborn.  The  market-towns  of  Klein-Heubach  and 
Kreuz-Wertbheim,  on  the  Mayne,  with  respectively  1,700  and  850  inhabi- 


324  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom  of  Bavaria. 

tants,  and  noted  for  their  wines,  belong  at  present  to  the  mediatized  prince 
of  Lowenstein-  Werthheim. 

VII.  The  circle  of  Swabia  and  Neuburg,  comprising  the  territories  of 
numerous  formerly  sovereign  or  immediate  princes,  prelates,  etc. — all  together 
(with  the  exception  of  the  principality  of  Neuburg)  belonging  to  the  Swabian 
circle  of  the  German  empire  (see  above,  page  292).  The  name  of  Swabia 
occurs  in  Germany  very  frequently  in  common  life,  and  has  geographically 
the  same  signification  as  formerly  that  of  "  Swabian  circle"  (see  page  292). 
It  is  derived  from  the  ancient  Suevians,  who  were  first  commonly  known  by 
the  name  of  Alemanni,  and  subsequently  called  Swabians.  In  the  beginning 
of  the  10th  century,  Swabia  was  raised  to  a  duchy,  with  which  in  1094  the 
celebrated  house  of  Hohenstaufen  was  invested ;  that  retained  it  until  itself 
became  extinct  in  1268.  Since,  the  duchy  was  divided  in  various  smaller 
territories.  1.  Imperial  cities,  until  1803  (Augsburg  until  1806),  were  the 
following:  -{-Augsburg,  at  present  the  capital  of  this  circle,  on  the  Lech, 
north-westward  and  38  miles  distant  from  Munich,  has  38,000  inhabitants,  and 
so  many  stately  public  and  private  buildings,  that  Sir  Robert  Peel,  who  was 
here  several  years  ago,  declared  it  to  be  the  finest  city  he  ever  had  seen.  At 
least,  Augsburg  may  boast  of  the  solidity  and  tasteful  style  of  most  of  its 
buildings.  Among  its  public  edifices  are  especially  to  be  noticed :  the  city 
hall  (the  most  magnificent  in  Germany,  both  with  regard  to  its  exterior  and 
interior ;  it  was  reared  in  the  beginning  of  the  1 7th  century,  and  contains, 
among  other  numerous  rooms,  a  richly  decorated  hall,  110  feet  long,  58  broad, 
and  52  feet  high),  the  Gothic  cathedral  (whose  foundation  was  laid  in  the  10th 
century),  several  other  churches,  the  chapel  where,  on  the  25th  of  June,  1530, 
the  Lutheran  confession  of  faith  was  presented  to  Charles  V.,  etc.  In  the 
15th  and  16th  century,  Augsburg  was  the  chief  staple  place  for  the  goods 
conveyed  overland  between  Antwerp  and  Venice ;  and  is  still  noted  for  its 
inland  trade  and  manufactures.  Kempten,  formerly  an  imperial  city,  on  the 
Iller,  50  miles  south-south-west  of  Augsburg,  has  7,800  inhabitants.  Kauf- 
beuren,  until  1803  an  imperial  city,  on  the  Wertach  river,  40  miles  south- 
south  west  of  Augsburg,  with  3,800  inhabitants.  Memmingen,  formerly  an 
imperial  city,  near  the  Uler  river,  south-westward  and  44  miles  distant  from 
Augsburg,  has  8,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  hops.  Lindau,  respect- 
ively, until  1790  and  1805,  an  imperial  city,  on  the  lake  of  Constance,  south- 
westward  and  100  miles  distant  from  Munich,  is  fortified,  and  has  4,250 
inhabitants.    Nordlingen,  until  1803  an  imperial  city,  near  the  frontier  of 


GERMANY.  325 


The  Kingdom  of  Bavaria— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


Wirtemberg,  eastward  and  60  miles  distant  from  Stuttgart,  with  6,700  inhab- 
itants, a  remarkable  Gothic  church,  and  considerable  manufactures  of  woollens 
and  linen,  is  noted  for  the  decisive  battle  on  the  7th  of  September,  1634,  and 
situated  in  the  so-called  Hies,  a  district  renowned  for  its  extraordinary  fertility 
of  the  soil.  Donauwoerth,  formerly  an  imperial  city  (but  actually  only  until 
1607),  on  the  Danube,  northward  and  27  miles  distant  from  Augsburg,  with 
2,700  inhabitants.  2.  To  the  formerly  sovereign  or  immediate  bishopric  of 
Augsburg  (instituted  in  590,  and  secularized  in  1803 :  but  for  the  cathedral,  it 
had  nothing  in  common  with  the  city  of  Augsburg)  did  belong :  Dillingen,  a 
town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  north-westward  and  23  miles  distant 
from  the  city  of  Augsburg,  was  formerly  the  residence  of  the  bishop,  and  has 
3,500  inhabitants.  In  the  period  from  1552  to  1804,  a  university  was  here. 
Fuessen,  a  town  on  the  Upper  Lech,  near  the  frontier  of  Tyrol,  is  noted  for  a 
treaty  of  peace  concluded  here  in  1745  between  Austria  and  Bavaria,  and 
has  1,800  inhabitants.  Graben,  a  village,  with  only  400  inhabitants,  but 
remarkable  as  the  ancestral  seat  of  the  princes  and  earls  of  Fugger,  whose 
ancestor,  John  Fugger,  emigrated  in  1370  to  Augsburg  as  a  poor  linen- weaver, 
yet  by  his  industry  laid  the  foundation  to  the  immense  riches  of  his  descend- 
ants. 3.  The  following  towns  did  belong  to  various  immediate  abbeys  secular- 
ized in  1803,  as:  Geoenenbach,  with  1,750  inhabitants,  and  Obergunzburg, 
with  1,400  inhabitants  (to  the  abbey  of  Kempten,  instituted  in  773) ;  Otto- 
beuren,  with  1,500  inhabitants  (to  the  abbey  of  the  same  name,  instituted  in 
764);  other  abbeys  were:  Ursberg  (instituted  in  1125), Roggenburg  (instituted 
in  1126),  Wettenhausen  (instituted  in  982),  etc.  4.  The  former  margraviate  of 
Burgau,  which  belonged  to  Austria  in  the  period  from  1301  to  1805,  contains: 
Burgau,  a  town  on  the  Mindel  river,  north-westward  and  23  miles  distant 
from  Augsburg,  with  2,500  inhabitants.  Guenzburg,  a  town  on  the  Danube, 
north-eastward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Ulm,  has  3,200  inhabitants,  and  is 
noted  for  its  bleacheries.  Krumbach,  a  market-town,  with  1,350  inhabitants, 
is  noted  for  its  linen.  5.  The  former  lordships  of  Mindelheim  and  Schwabeck, 
of  which  in  1612  Bavaria  became  possessed  of  (in  the  period  from  1706  to 
1714,  the  duke  of  Marlborough  was  invested  with  Mindelheim),  contains: 
Mindelheim,  a  town  on  the  Mindel  river,  south-westward  and  30  miles  distant 
from  Augsburg,  with  a  royal  castle,  several  churches,  and  2,700  inhabitants. 
Turkheim  and  Illertissen,  market-towns,  with  respectively  1,550  and  1,200 
inhabitants.  Immenstadt,  a  town,  eastward  and  27  miles  distant  from  Lindau, 
until  1804  belonging  to  the  Count  Konigsegg-Rothenfels,  has  1,200  inhabitants, 


326  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom  of  Bavaria. 

an  J  carries  on  a  considerable  linen  trade.  6.  The  dependent  principality  of 
Oettingen  (belonging  to  the  princes  of  Oettingen-Wallerstein  and  Oettingen- 
Spielberg,  under  the  sovereignty  of  Bavaria,  and  having  an  area  of  250  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  42,000  inhabitants),  contains:  Wallerstein,  a 
town,  and  the  residence  of  the  prince  of  Oettingen-Wallerstein,  in  the  above- 
mentioned  Ries,  near  Nordlingen,  with  a  stately  princely  palace,  and  2,000 
inhabitants.  Oettingen,  a  town,  and  the  residence  of  the  prince  of  Oettingen- 
Spielberg,  on  the  Wernitz,  9  miles  north-north  east  of  Nordlingen,  with  two 
castles,  or  palaces,  and  3,300  inhabitants.  7.  The  mediate  dominions  of  the 
princes  and  earls  of  Fugger  (whose  ancestor  lived  at  first  in  the  above-men- 
tioned village  of  Graben),  together,  298  square  miles  in  extent,  and  with 
30,000  inhabitants,  yielding  annually  about  350,000  florins,  contain,  among 
others:  Babenhausen,  town  and  residence  of  the  prince  of  Fugger- Babenhau- 
sen,  south-westward  and  33  miles  distant  from  Augsburg,  with  1,750  inhabi- 
tants. Gloett,  town  and  residence  of  the  earl  of  Fugger-Glott,  north-westward 
and  22  miles  distant  from  Augsburg,  with  750  inhabitants.  Kirchheim,  town 
and  residence  of  the  earl  of  Fugger- Kirchheim,  in  the  vicinity  of  Babenhausen, 
with  a  beautiful  palace,  and  1,850  inhabitants.  Weissenhorn,  town  and 
residence  of  the  earl  of  Fugger-Kirchberg- Weissenhorn,  north-westward  and 
13  miles  distant  from  Babenhausen,  with  1,650  inhabitants  8.  To  the  dependent 
earldom  of  Pappenheim  (see  under  the  head  of  Central  Franconia)  belongs 
the  village  of  Solnhofen  (with  650  inhabitants),  celebrated  for  its  extensive 
quarries,  whose  slabs  are  wonderfully  adapted  to  lithography.  9.  The  former 
principality  of  Neuburg  (which,  together  with  Sulzbach,  did  primitively 
belong  to  the  duchy  of  Bavaria,  but  in  the  period  from  1507  to  1799  was 
possessed  by  a  collateral  line,  when  it  was  restored  to  Bavaria),  contains : 
Neuburg,  surnamed  on  the  Danube,  a  town  on  the  Danube,  27  miles  north- 
north-east  of  Augsburg,  with  a  remarkable  castle,  and  6,550  inhabitants. 
Monheim,  a  town  at  the  high-road  between  Augsburg  and  Nuremberg,  with 
1,900  inhabitants.  Hoechstadt,  a  town  on  the  Danube,  28  miles  west-south- 
west of  Neuburg,  has  2,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  remarkable  Gothic 
castle,  and  two  battles  in  1703  and  1704,  the  latter  of  which  is  commonly 
named  after  the  neighboring  village  of  Blindheim,  or  Blendheim.  The  towns 
of  Lauingen  and  Gundelfingen,  have  respectively  4,000  and  2,800  inhabi- 
tants. 

VIII.  The  circle  of  the  Palatinate  (2,247  square  miles,  and  603,000  inhab- 
itants) comprises  chiefly  territories,  which,  both  politically  and  in  common 


GERMANY.  327 


The  Kingdom  of  Bavaria — its  Geographical  Divisions. 


life,  were,  and  are  still,  known  by  the  name  of  Palatinate.  The  political  par- 
ticulars will  be  found  below.  1.  As  capital  of  this  circle,  we  must  first  describe : 
-|-Spire,  one  of  the  oldest  former  imperial  cities  (in  1801  ceded  to  France, 
and  in  1814  to  Bavaria),  on  the  Rhine,  southward  and  46  miles  distant  from 
Mentz,  and  north-eastward  and  70  miles  distant  from  Strasburg,  with  17 
churches,  and  9,500  inhabitants.  Julius  Csesar  resided  frequently  at  Spire, 
which  in  the  middle  ages  was  the  burial-place  of  German  emperors,  whose 
highly  remarkable  sepulchres  are  to  be  seen  in  its  magnificent  Gothic  cathedral. 
In  the  period  from  1529  to  1691,  Spire  was  the  seat  of  the  Imperial  Chamber 
(see  page  293).  Landau,  formerly  likewise  an  imperial  city,  south-westward 
and  18  miles  distant  from  Spire,  has  6,500  inhabitants,  is  strongly  fortified, 
and  was  in  the  period  from  1680  to  1815  possessed  by  France.  To  the  former 
sovereign  or  immediate  bishopric  of  Spire  (which  was  instituted  in  348,  and 
secularized  in  1803,  but  had  nothing  in  common  with  the  city  of  Spire),  did 
belong  the  towns  of  Deidesheim  (noted  for  its  wines,  has  2,600  inhabitants), 
Edesheim  (with  2,100  inhabitants),  and  Rheinzabern  (with  2,100  inhabitants), 
and  the  villages  of  Forat  (with  850  inhabitants)  and  Ungstein  (with  1,150 
inhabitants),  noted  for  their  wines.  2.  To  the  former  Electoral  Palatinate 
(see  its  particulars  under  the  head  of  Baden)  did  belong:  Frankenthal, 
formerly  the  third  in  rank  among  its  capitals,  near  the  Rhine,  north-westward 
and  9  miles  distant  from  Mannheim,  is  noted  for  its  various  manufactures,  and 
has  5,000  inhabitants.  Neustadt,  surnamed  an  der  Haardt,  a  town  at  the  foot 
of  the  Haardt  Mountains,  westward  and  13  miles  distant  from  Spire,  is  noted 
for  its  wines,  and  has  6,150  inhabitants.  In  its  neighborhood  is  situated  the 
little  village  of  Hambach,  with  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  castle,  reared  by 
Emperor  Henry  IV.  Germersheim,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Rhine,  southward 
and  13  miles  distant  from  Spire,  with  2,300  inhabitants.  Rodolph  of  Haps- 
burg  died  here  on  the  15th  of  July,  1291.  Kaiserslautern  (frequently  also 
called  Lautern),  a  town  on  the  Lauter  river,  36  miles  west-north-west  of  Spire, 
with  7,450  inhabitants.  Wolfstein,  a  town  on  the  Lauter  river,  north-west- 
ward and  12  miles  distant  from  Kaiserslautern,  has  1,000  inhabitants,  and  is 
noted  for  its  quicksilver  mines.  Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are : 
Oggersheim  (with  1,700  inhabitants),  Wachenheim  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
Edenkoben  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Otterberg  (with  2,600  inhabitants),  RocJc- 
enhausen  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  and  Lautereck  (with  1,200  inhabitants). 
3.  The  former  palatine  principality  of  Zweibriickcn  (which  primitively  be- 
longed to  the  house  of  the  Palatinate,  and  since  the  beginning  of  the  15th 


328  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom  of  Bavaria. 

century  was  an  independent  or  immediate  principality  until  1199,  when  its 
sovereign,  Maximilian  Joseph,  inherited  all  Bavaria  and  Electoral  Palatinate), 
contains :  Zweibeuecken,  or  Deux-Ponts  (its  French  and  English  name),  for- 
merly the  capital  of  the  principality,  on  the  Erbach  river,  westward  and  50 
miles  distant  from  Spire,  with  manufactures,  and  7,800  inhabitants.  Ann- 
weilee,  a  town  on  the  Queich,  23  miles  west -south-west  of  Spire,  with  2,800 
inhabitants,  and  the  remarkable  ruins  of  the  once  so-renowned  castle  of 
Trifels,  where  Bang  Richard  of  the  Lion  Heart  was  kept  prisoner  in  1193. 
Other  towns  are :  Hovnburg  (northward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Deux-Ponts, 
with  3,200  inhabitants),  Bergzabern  (with  2,900  inhabitants),  Cusel  (with  2,400 
inhabitants),  and  Obermoschel  (with  1,200  inhabitants).  4.  The  former  lord- 
ship of  Hanau-Lichtenberg  (which  in  the  period  from  1136  to  1801  did  belong 
to  Hesse-Darmstadt),  contains :  Pirmasenz,  a  town  in  the  vicinity  of  Zwei- 
brucken,  has  5,800  inhabitants,  and  was  in  the  middle  of  last  century  the 
residence  of  the  landgrave  Louis  IX.  of  Hes9e-Darmstadt.  5.  The  former 
earldom  of  Leiningen  (which  belonged  to  the  house  of  this  name,  but  was  in 
1814  ceded  to  Bavaria),  contains  the  towns  of  Durkheim,  or  Turkheim  (with 
4,600  inhabitants),  and  Gruenstadt  (with  3,600  inhabitants).  6.  To  various 
other  former  sovereigns  did  belong :  Landstuhl,  a  town  in  the  vicinity  of 
Kaiserlautern,  with  1,950  inhabitants  (did  belong  to  the  count  of  Sickingen); 
Blieskastel,  a  town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Zweibrucken,  with  2,000  inhabi- 
itants  (belongs  still  to  the  prince  of  the  Leyen) ;  Winnweiler  (was  formerly 
the  capital  of  the  earldom  of  Falkenstein,  and  has  1,400  inhabitants),  and 
Goellheim,  or  Gellheim  (a  market-town,  north-westward  and  20  miles  distant 
from  Mannheim,  noted  for  the  battle  on  the  2d  of  June,  1298,  and  with  1,750 
inhabitants,  did  belong  to  a  collateral  line  of  the  house  of  Nassau). 


GERMANY.  329 


The  Kingdom  of  Wirtemberg. 


IV.— THE  KINGDOM  OF  WIRTEMBERG. 

Aeea:  7,551  square  miles. 
Population  :  1,150,000  inhabitants. 

Wirtemberg  (officially  styled  Wurttemberg  in  German)  is 
situated  between  Bavaria  and  Baden,  and  surrounded  by  these 
states,  except  on  the  south,  where  it  is  washed  by  the  waters  of 
the  lake  of  Constance. 

The  majority  of  the  population  consists  of  Lutherans,  and  the 
remainder  (with  the  exception  of  about  12,000  Jews)  of  500,000 
Roman  Catholics,  with  a  bishop  in  Rottenburg. 

The  chief  mountain-range  is  the  Svoabian  Alp,  and  next  to  it 
the  eastern  part  of  the  Black  Forest  (see  page  7).  The  Neckar 
(one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Rhine),  with  its  branches  of  the 
Kocher  and  Jaxt,  crosses  the  country  in  the  direction  from  south 
to  north,  and  the  Danube  in  the  direction  from  west  to  east. 
Besides  the  lake  of  Constance,  the  Feder  lake  deserves  to  be 
noticed. 

The  chief  natural  products  are  :  grain  (sufficiently  raised  not 
only  for  home  consumption,  but  also  for  exportation),  wines, 
fruits  (as,  apples,  pears,  cherries,  etc.),  and  timber;  furthermore, 
cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  ;  finally,  iron  and  soli. 

Among  the  manufactures  of  Wirtemberg,  those  of  linen  have 
long  since  been  renowned.  Other  principal  articles  are  :  wool- 
len, cottons,  leather,  cutlery,  etc.  The  inland  trade  is  rather  consid- 
erable. 

The  means  of  education  are  well  arranged.  Besides  a  uni- 
versity at  Tubingen  (see  page  287),  which  in  1846  was  frequented 
by  863  students,  there  are  3  lycea,  6  gymnasia,  78  Latin  schools, 


330  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Germany. — Kingdom  of  Wirtemberg. 


several  seminaries,  etc.  (see  the  note,  page  65),  and  2,256  com- 
mon schools. 

The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy,  the  sovereign  power 
being  vested  in  a  king  and  two  legislative  chambers.  In  the 
budget  for  the  period  of  1844-1845,  the  public  revenue  was  esti- 
mated at  10,869,807  florins,  and  the  expenditure  at  10,711,210 
florins  per  annum.  The  public  debt  amounted  on  the  first  of 
July,  1840,  to  22,695,068  florins.  The  regular  army  consists  on 
the  peace  footing  of  7,426  men,  and  on  the  war  footing  of  20,094 
men  and  4,988  horses.  Troops  to  be  furnished  with  regard  to 
the  German  confederacy,  13,955  men. 

There  are  the  following  orders  of  honor : — 1.  The  military  order 
of  merit,  in  3  classes,  and  instituted  respectively  in  1806  and 
1818.  2.  The  order  of  the  Wirtemberg  crown,  instituted  in  1818. 
3.  The  Frederic's  order,  instituted  in  1830,  in  commemoration  of 
the  late  king,  Frederic  I. 

History. — The  kernel  of  the  present  kingdom  of  Wirtemberg  consists  of 
the  ancient  duchy  of  Wirtemberg,  which  prior  to  the  year  1495  was  an  earl- 
dom, primarily  forming  part  of  the  above-mentioned  (page  324)  duchy  of 
Swabia.  The  first  historically  known  earl  of  Wirtemberg  was  Ulric  Z,  who 
reigned  in  the  period  of  1246-1265,  and  whose  patrimonial  dominions  em- 
braced only  small  parts  of  the  present  Neckar  and  Black  Forest  circles.  His 
son  (-(-1325)  and  grandson  extended  the  limits  of  the  earldom  by  annexing 
to  it  neighboring  districts,  which  they  either  inherited  or  purchased.  That 
Mompelgard  was  towards  the  end  of  the  14th  century  acquired  by  marriage, 
has  already  been  mentioned  under  the  head  of  France,  page  203.  In  this 
way  the  earldom  (whose  name  was  derived  from  the  ancestral  castle  of  Wir- 
tineberg,  or  Wiirtemberg,  near  Canstadt)  gradually  increased  to  an  extent, 
that  Emperor  Maximilian  1.  was  induced  to  raise  it  to  the  dignity  of  a  duchy 
in  1495.  Its  last  duke,  since  1*797,  was  Frederic  II.,  who  in  the  treaty  of 
peace  concluded  at  Luneville  in  1801,  ceded  Mompelgard  to  France,  but  was 
in  1803  amply  indemnified  by  the  territories  of  several  immediate  prelates 
and  imperial  cities  ;  at  the  same  time  the  electoral  title  was  conferred  on  him. 
By  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Presburg  in  1805,  the  earldom  of  Hohenberg, 


GERMANY.  331 


The  Kingdom  of  Wirteinberg— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


and  several  other  dominions,  were  ceded  to  him,  and  he  assumed  the  royal 
title.  He  died,  as  King  Frederic  I.,  in  1816,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
the  still  reigning  king,  William  /.,  born  in  1781. 

The  kingdom  is,  since  1817,  divided  into  4  provinces,  styled 
circles,  which  are  subdivided  into  64  bailiwicks.  The  capitals  of 
the  circles  will  be  found  marked  with  a  cross  (-{-). 

I.  The  Neckar  Circle,  comprising  chiefly  parts  of  the  ancient  duchy  of 
Wirteinberg,  containing :  Stuttgaet,  capital  of  the  kingdom,  and  royal  resi- 
dence, on  the  little  Nesenbach  river,  a  branch  of  the  Neckar,  south-eastward 
and  40  miles  distant  from  Carlsruhe,  and  north-westward  and  120  miles  dis- 
tant from  Munich,  has  46,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  magnificent 
royal  palace,  its  opera-house,  and  its  royal  library,  which,  among  other 
valuable  works,  contains  a  collection  of  12,000  bibles,  in  68  different  lan- 
guages. Stuttgart  has  been  the  seat  of  its  sovereigns  since  the  year  1321. 
-|-Lltdwigsburg,  capital  of  the  Neckar  Circle,  near  Hie  Neckar,  northward 
and  9  miles  distant  from  Stuttgart,  has  10,700  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its 
extensive  royal  palace,  containing  valuable  collections  of  paintings,  etc.  In 
its  vicinity  is  situated  the  market-town  of  Asperg,  with  1,700  inhabitants, 
and  the  fortress,  or  fortified  castle  of  Hohenasperg.  Canst att,  a  town  on  the 
Neckar,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Stuttgart,  has  6,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted 
for  its  mineral  waters.  Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are :  Mark- 
grbningen  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Vaihlngen  (with  3,200  inhabitants), 
Lauffen  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Brackenheim  (with  1,700  inhabitants),  Gug- 
glingen  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Besigheim  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Bietig- 
heim  (with  2,900  inhabitants),  Bbnnigheim  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  Neustadt 
an  der  Linde  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Mbckmuhl  (with  1,600  inhabitants), 
Widdern  (with  1,400  inhabitants),  Marbach  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Gross- 
bottwar  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Backnang  (with  4,500  inhabitants),  Murrhard 
(with  2,500  inhabitants),  Waiblingen  (with  3,100  inhabitants),  Winnenden 
(with  3,100  inhabitants),  Bbblingen  (with  3,400  inhabitants),  Sindelfingen 
(with  3,700  inhabitants),  and  Leonberg  (with  2,200  inhabitants).  The  village 
of  Maulbronx  is  remarkable  for  its  ancient  Cistercian  monastery  (instituted 
in  1187),  which  after  the  Reformation  was  transformed  into  a  theological 
seminary.  Weinsberg,  a  town  on  the  Sulm  river,  northward  and  28  miles 
distant  from  Stuttgart,  with  the  ruins  of  a  once  highly  renowned  castle,  and 


332  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Germany.— Kingdom  of  Wirteraberg. 


2,100  inhabitants.  Oberstenfeld,  a  market-town  between  Stuttgart  and 
Weinsberg,  has  1,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  pensionnaire,  or  board- 
ing-school for  young  ladies  of  rank.  In  its  vicinity  is  situated  the  solitary 
village  of  Prevorst,  with  450  inhabitants.  2.  The  following  were  imperial 
cities  until  1803 :  Heilbronn,  a  city  on  the  Neckar,  northward  and  20  miles 
distant  from  Stuttgart,  has  11,700  inhabitants,  carries  on  a  considerable  in- 
land trade,  and  is  noted  for  its  manufactures.  Esslingen,  formerly  an  impe- 
rial city,  on  the  Neckar,  south-eastward  and  7  miles  distant  from  Stuttgart, 
has  12,100  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  optical  and  other  similar  instru- 
ments, and  its  wines.  Weil,  formerly  an  imperial  city,  on  the  Wurm  river, 
and  north-westward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Stuttgart,  has  2,000  inhabitants, 
and  is  remarkable  as  the  birth-place  of  the  celebrated  astronomer  Keppler 
(born  in  1571,  and  -j-1630  at  Ratisbon).  3.  The  mediate  earldom  of  Lbwen- 
stein  (53  square  miles,  and  7,000  inhabitants),  belonging  to  the  prince  of 
Lowenstein,  contains :  Lowenstein,  its  capital,  in  the  vicinity  of  Weinsberg, 
is  noted  as  a  watering-place,  and  has  2,000  inhabitants.  4.  The  mediate 
lordship  of  Schwaigern,  belongs  to  the  earl  of  Neipperg,  (son-in-law  of  the 
reigning  king  of  Wirtemberg),  and  contains,  among  others,  the  town  of 
Schwaigern,  with  a  palace  of  the  earl,  and  2,000  inhabitants.  5.  The  towns 
of  Neckarsulm  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  and  Gundelsheim  (with  1,200  inhabi- 
tants), formerly  belonged  to  the  Teutonic  order. 

II.  The  Black  Forest  Circle,  comprising  other  parts  of  the  ancient  duchy 
of  "Wirtemberg,  the  former  earldom  of  Hohenberg,  and  the  following  (until 
1803)  imperial  cities :  -j-Reutlingen,  at  present  the  capital  of  this  circle,  south- 
ward and  18  miles  distant  from  Stuttgart,  is  noted  for  its  numerous  printing- 
offices  and  manufactures,  and  has  12,800  inhabitants.  Rottweil,  formerly 
an  imperial  city,  on  the  Neckar,  south-westward  and  32  miles  distant  from 
Reutlingen,  with  considerable  trade,  and  5,600  inhabitants.  2.  The  former 
earldom  of  Hohenberg,  which  since  1381  did  belong  to  Austria,  and  was 
ceded  to  Wirtemberg  in  1805,  containing:  Rottenburg,  a  city  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Tjibingen,  is  the  residence  of  the  Catholic  bishop  of  Wirtemberg,  and 
noted  for  its  musical  instruments,  and  has  6,500  inhabitants.  Horb,  a  town 
on  the  Neckar,  with  cloth  manufactures,  and  2,050  inhabitants.  Other  towns 
are :  Oberndorf  ( with  1,900  inhabitants),  Schramberg  (with  2,800  inhabitants), 
Spaichingen  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  Schemberg  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  and 
Fricdingen  (with  1,000  inhabitants).  3.  The  ancient  duchy  of  Wirtemberg, 
within  the  limits  of  this  circle,  contains :  Tuebingen,  considered  as  the  second 


GERMANY.  833 


The  Kingdom  of  Wirtemberg— Us  Geographical  Division?. 


capital  of  the  kingdom,  on  the  Neckar,  18  miles  south-south-west  of  Stutt- 
gart, has  9,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  university  (see  above  and 
page  287).  Urach,  a  town  on  the  Rough  Alp,  south-eastward,  and  20  miles 
distant  from  Stuttgart,  has  3,500  inhabitants,  and  is  renowned  for  its  damask 
linen.  In  its  vicinity  is  situated  the  town  of  Metzingen,  surnamed  unter 
Urach  (beneath,  or  at  the  foot  of  Urach),  with  4,200  inhabitants,  and  noted 
for  its  wines  and  corn-markets.  Ehningen,  the  largest  and  finest  market-town 
in  the  kingdom,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Reutlingen,  has  5,000  inhabitants, 
who  for  the  most  part  consist  of  pedlars.  Pfullingen,  a  romantically  situa- 
ted town,  near  Reutlingen,  with  4,000.  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  fruits  and 
wines.  Calw,  one  of  the  most  industrious  manufacturing  towns  in  the  coun- 
try, westward  and  22  miles  distant  from  Stuttgart,  with  4,500  inhabitants. 
The  neighboring  village  of  Hirschau  (with  800  inhabitants),  was  once  noted 
for  its  magnificent  Benedictine  convent,  instituted  in  830.  The  romantically 
situated  village  of  Deinach  (with  500  inhabitants),  is  much  resorted  to  as  a 
watering-place.  Other  noted  watering-places  are  the  towns  of  Liebenzell 
(with  1,100  inhabitants),  and  Wildbad  (with  1,800  inhabitants).  Tuttlingen, 
a  town  on  the  upper  Danube,  28  miles  north-north  west  of  Constance,  has 
5,700  inhabitants,  carries  on  a  considerable  corn-trade,  and  is  noted  for  its 
manufactures  of  cutlery.  Not  far  from  here  is  situated,  on  a  solitary  steep 
rock,  2,174  feet  high,  the  once  celebrated  fortress  of  Hohentwiel,  now  iu 
ruins.  The  towns  of  Balingen  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  and  Ebingen  (with 
4,400  inhabitants),  carry  on  a  considerable  trade  in  corn  and  cattle.  Other 
more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are :  Nurtingen  (noted  for  its  musical  instru- 
ments, has  3,900  inhabitants),  Neuffen  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  Grotzingen 
(with  1,100  inhabitants),  Herrenberg  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  Nagold  (with 
2,600  inhabitants),  Altensteig  (with  2,100  inhabitants),  Bulach  (with  1,300  in- 
habitants), Neuenburg  (with  1,700  inhabitants),  Freudenstadt  (with  4,100  in- 
habitants). Dornstetten  (with  1,250  inhabitants),  Alpirspach  (with  1,800 
inhabitants),  Sidz  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  and  Dornhan  (with  1,500  inhabi- 
tants). 

III.  The  Danube  Circle,  comprising  only  a  small  part  of  the  ancient  duchy 
of  Wirtemberg,  while  the  remainder  consists  of  territories  annexed  to  the 
kingdom  since  the  year  1803.  -4-Ulm,  at  present  the  capital  of  this  circle, 
formerly  an  imperial  city,  on  the  Danube  at  its  junction  with  the  Uler,  south, 
eastward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Stuttgart,  and  westward  and  42  miles 
distant  from  Augsburg,  is  strongly  fortified,  and  has  18,400  inhabitants,  and 


334  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Germany. — Kingdom  of  Wirtemberg. 


is*,  besides  for  numerous  manufactures,  especially  noted  for  its  magnificent 
Gothic  minster  or  cathedral,  which  is  485  feet  long,  200  wide,  and  141  feet 
high,  and  whose  steeple  is  337  feet  in  height.  In  the  middle  ages,  Ulm  was 
in  high  reputation  for  its  extensive  trade.  In  1805  the  Austrian  general 
Mack  capitulated  here  with  30,000  men.  Ulm  had,  being  an  imperial  city, 
a  considerable  territory,  which,  among  other  places,  contained  Geislingen, 
a  town  with  2,200  inhabitants,  and  noted  for  its  fine  turneries  in  ivory, 
horn,  &c.  Isny,  an  imperial  town  until  1803,  near  the  frontier  of  Bavaria, 
with  important  linen  trade,  and  2,000  inhabitants.  It  belongs  at  present  to 
the  count  of  Quadt.  Wangen,  formerly  an  imperial  city,  westward  and  9 
miles  distant  from  Isny,  with  various  manufactures,  and  1,700  inhabitants. 
Leutkirch,  likewise  an  imperial  city  until  1803,  southward  and  40  miles  dis- 
tant from  Ulm,  is  noted  for  its  linen,  and  has  2,200  inhabitants.  Bucuhorn, 
an  imperial  city  until  1803,  on  the  lake  of  Constance,  received  by  the  late 
king  Frederick  I.,  the  name  of  Friedrichshafen,  and  has  1,300  inhabitants. 
Ravensburg,  likewise  an  imperial  city  formerly,  46  miles  south-south-west  of 
Ulm,  with*  various  manufactures,  important  trade,  and  5,300  inhabitants. 
Biberach,  an  imperial  city  until  1803,  on  the  little  Riss  river,  23  miles  south- 
south-west  of  Ulm,  with  various  manufactures,  and  5,100  inhabitants.  Buchau, 
formerly  an  imperial  city,  on  the  Feder  lake,  9  miles  west-south-west  of  Bib- 
erach, has  1,900  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  stately  castle  or  palace,  of  the 
prince  of  Thurn  and  Taxis  (see  Ratisbon),  which  was,  until  1803,  the  seat  of 
an  independent  abbey,  instituted  in  the  beginning  of  the  10  th  century.  Among 
the  other  formerly  independent  abbeys,  is  especially  to  be  noticed  the  Benedic- 
tine abbey  of  Weingarten  (close  by  the  market-town  of  Altdorf  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Ravensburg),  instituted  in  920  as  a  nunnery,  but  in  1047 
transformed  into  a  monastery.  Its  buildings  are  magnificent  and  extensive, 
and  its  church  contains  an  organ  with  6,666  pipes.  In  1803,  when  this  abbey 
was  secularized,  the  house  of  Orange-Nassau  became  possessed  of  it,  but  in 
1806  it  was  ceded  to  Wirtemberg.  2.  Of  the  territories  of  8  princes,  who 
respectively  until  1803  and  1806  were  sovereign  or  independent,  deserve  to  be 
noticed  the  dominions  of  the  princes  of  Waldburg  (181  square  miles,  and 
36,000  inhabitants),  containing:  Wurzach,  a  town  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Leutkirch,  with  1,100  inhabitants,  and  a  palace  of  the  prince  of  Waldburg- 
Zeil- Wurzach,  Aichstetten  (with  700  inhabitants),  and  Winterstettenstadt 
(with  450  inhabitants),  market-towns.  3.  The  formerly  so-called  Swabian 
Austria,  which  in   1805  was  ceded  by  Austria  to  Wirtemberg,  contains: 


GERMANY.  335 


The  Kingdom  of  Wirtemberg— its  Geographical  Divisions. 

Ehingen,  a  town  on  the  Schmiechen  river,  south-westward  and  16  miles  dis- 
tant from  Ulna,  with  considerable  trade,  and  3,000  inhabitants.  Munderkin- 
gen,  a  town  on  the  Danube,  has  1,900  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  horse- 
marts.  Saulgau,  a  town  on  the  Schwarzach,  with  considerable  corn  trade, 
and  2,300  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  town-hall,  and  church  with  beautiful 
paintings  on  glass.  Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are :  Wa/dsee 
(with  1,800  inhabitants),  Mengen  (with  2,100  inhabitants),  Riedlingen  (with 
1,800  inhabitants),  and  Tettnang  (with  1,400  inhabitants).  The  market-town 
of  Langenargeii  (with  1,100  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  corn  trade.  4.  The 
ancient  duchy  of  Wirteinberg  within  the  limits  of  the  Danube  circle,  contains : 
Blaubeuren,  a  town  on  the  Blau,  a  branch  of  the  Danube,  westward  and  9 
miles  distant  from  Ulm,  has  2.100  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  linen,  and 
especially  for  its  theological  seminary,  in  the  buildings  of  a  former  Benedic- 
tine convent,  instituted  in  1095.  Goeppingen,  a  town  on  the  Fils  river,  23 
miles  east-south-east  of  Stuttgart,  is  noted  for  its  manufactures,  and  has  5,500 
inhabitants.  In  its  vicinity  is  situated  the  market-town  of  Hohenstaufex, 
with  the  ruins  of  the  ancestral  castle  of  the  once  so  renowned  family  of  this 
name,  and  1,100  inhabitants.  Munsingen,  a  town  on  the  Rough  Alp,  westward 
and  23  miles  distant  from  Ulm,  is  noted  for  its  damask  linen,  and  has  1,550 
inhabitants.  Kirchheim,  surnamed  unter  Teck,  a  town  on  the  Lauter  (a  branch 
of  the  Danube,  and  thus  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Lauter  in  the  Bava- 
rian palatinate),  north-westward  and  32  miles  distant  from  Ulm,  with  5,600 
inhabitants,  various  manufactures,  and  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  castle  of  Teck? 
once  the  ancestral  seat  of  the  dukes  of  this  name,  whose  dominions  were  pur- 
chased by  the  Earl  Eberhard  of  Wirtemberg  in  1381. 

IV.  The  Jaxt  Circle,  comprising  for  the  most  part  territories  annexed  to 
Wirtemberg  since  the  year  1803.  Among  them  are : — 1.  Those  of  the  formerly 
sovereign  or  independent  provostship  of  JMlwan.gen,  which  was  instituted 
in  764  as  a  Benedictine  convent,  and  secularized  in  1803,  containing:  -(-Ell- 
wangen,  at  present  the  capital  of  this  circle,  formerly  the  residence  of  the 
provost,  on  the  Jaxt  river,  north-eastward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Stuttgart, 
with  remarkable  Gothic  church,  noted  horse-marts,  and  3,800  inhabitants. 
WassercUfingen,  a  market-town,  with  iron-works,  and  1,600  inhabitants. 
Abtsgemund,  a  village  on  the  Kocher,  with  iron-works  and  750  inhabitants. 
2.  The  following  5  cities  were  imperial  cities  until  1803:  Hall,  or  Schwdbisch 
Hall  (Swabian  Hall),  on  the  Kocher,  eastward  and  27  miles  distant  from 
Heilbronn,  has  6,800  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  salt  springs,  Gothic 


836  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom  of  Wirtemberg. 

church,  town-hall,  and  trade  in  cattle.  Gmund,  or  Sckwabisch  Gmund  (an- 
ciently it  was  called  Kaiser sreuth),  on  the  Rems  river,  was  once  renowned 
for  its  manufactures  of  glass,  wax- candles,  gold  and  silver  articles,  but  has  at 
present  only  7,000  inhabitants.  Aalen,  on  the  Kocher,  southward  and  9 
miles  distant  from  Ellwangen,  is  noted  for  its  breweries  and  iron-works,  and 
has  3,300  inhabitants.  Giengen,  on  the  Brunz  river,  has  2,350  inhabitants, 
and  is  noted  for  its  mineral  water  and  manufactures  of  cutlery ;  and  Bopfin- 
gen,  in  the  vicinity  of  Ellwangen,  with  1,600  inhabitants.  3.  The  Teutonic 
Order,  instituted  (as  has  already  been  related,  page  46)  in  Palestine  in  1190, 
and  since  the  year  1230  conquering  the  ancient  Prussia,  left  it,  since  its  secu- 
larization in  1525,  and  went  to  Germany,  having  there  considerable  dominions 
(together,  809  square  miles,  with  84,000  inhabitants),  which  were  secularized 
in  1809,  and  partly  ceded  to  Bavaria,  partly  to  Wirtemberg.  The  grand- 
master of  the  order  resided  at  Mergentheim,  a  town  on  the  Tauber,  near  the 
frontiers  of  Bavaria  and  Baden,  with  a  beautiful  church,  mineral  waters,  and 
2,400  inhabitants.  Lauchheim,  a  town  on  the  Jaxt,  with  1,200  inhabitants. 
4.  To  the  former  margraviate  or  principality  of  Ansbach  (see  Bavarian  circle 
of  Central  Franconia),  did  belong  and  were  ceded  to  Wirtemberg  in  1810: 
Crailsheim,  or  Krailsheim  (northward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Ellwangen, 
with  numerous  manufactures  and  3,000  inhabitants),  Gerabronn  (with  700 
inhabitants),  and  Creglingen  (with  1,400  inhabitants),  towns.  5.  The  formerly 
sovereign  or  independent,  but  since  1806  mediate  principalities  of  Hohen- 
lohe,  belonging  to  the  princes  of  this  name  (descendants  of  Duke  Eberhard 
of  Franconia,  brother  to  Emperor  Conrad  I.),  who  at  present  are  divided  into 
two  chief  branches;  viz.,  the  Catholic  branch  of  Hohenlohe-Waldenburg 
(with  the  collateral  lines  of  Bartenstein,  Jaxtberg,  and  Schillingsfurst),  and 
the  Protestant  branch  of  Hohenlohe-Neuenstein  (with  the  collateral  lines  of 
Langenburg,  Kirchberg,  and  Oehringen,  the  latter  being  formerly  named 
Ingelfingen),  and  having  together  an  area  of  735  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  114,000  inhabitants,  contain:  Oeheingen,  a  town  on  the  Ohrn  river, 
north-eastward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Heilbronn,  is  the  residence  of  the 
prince  of  Hohenlohe-Oehringen  (formerly  named  Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen),  and 
has  3,300  inhabitants  Ingelfingen,  a  town  on  the  Kocher,  with  1,550  inhab- 
itants. Langenburg,  a  town  on  the  Jaxt,  with  900  inhabitants,  is  the  rosidence 
of  the  prince  of  Hohenlohe-Langenburg.  Kirchberg,  a  romantically  situ- 
ated town  on  the  Jaxt,  eastward  and  22  miles  distant  from  Oehringen,  has 
1,800  inhabitants,  and  is  the  residence  of  the  prince  of  Hohenlohe-Kirchberg. 


GERMANY.  337 


The  Kingdom  of  Wirtemberg— its  Geographical  Divisions.— Grand  Duchy  of  Baden. 

Bartenstein,  a  town  13  miles  east-north-east  of  Ingelfingen,  has  1,100  inhab- 
itants, and  a  stately  palace  of  the  prince  of  Hohenlohe -Bartenstein.  Jaxt- 
3erg,  a  town  on  the  Jaxt,  with  1,400  inhabitants,  belongs  to  the  prince  of 
Hohenlohe-Jaxtberg.  The  town  of  Waldenburg  (with  1,100  inhabitants), 
and  the  market-towns  of  Kupferzell  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  and  Adolzfurth 
^with  600  inhabitants),  belong  to  the  prince  of  Hohenlohe-Schillingfurst  (see 
page  322).  Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  of  these  principalities  are : 
Neuenstein  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  Forchtenberg  (with  1,600  inhabitants), 
Kunnzehau  (with  2,650  inhabitants),  Niedernhall  (with  1,700  inhabitants), 
Weikersheim  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Sindxingen  (with  1,000  inhabitants), 
and  Niederstetten  (with  1,700  inhabitants).  6.  The  ancient  duchy  of  Wir- 
temberg, within  the  limits  of  this  circle,  contains :  Schorndorf,  a  town  on  the 
Rems,  14  miles  east-north-east  of  Stuttgart,  with  various  manufactures,  and 
3,700  inhabitants.  Beutelsbach,  a  market-town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Schorn- 
dorf, has  1,900  inhabitants,  and  is  remarkable  as  the  burial-place  of  some  of 
the  ancient  earls  of  Wirtemberg.  Heidenheim,  a  town  on  the  Brenz,  south- 
ward and  18  miles  distant  from  Ellwangen,  has  2,800  inhabitants,  and  is  noted 
for  its  linen  trade  and  numerous  manufactures  of  linen,  cotton  goods  and 
hardware.  Welzheim,  a  town  north-eastward  and  7  miles  distant  from 
Schorndorf,  with  1,800  inhabitants,  and  considerable  trade  in  flax  and  timber. 
Lorch  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  and  Konigsbronn  (with  considerable  iron- 
works), market-towns. 


V.— THE  GRAND-DUCHY  OF  BADEN. 

Area  :  5,932  square  miles. 
Population  :  1,379,000  inhabitants. 

It  is  situated  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  (by  which 
river  it  is  separated  from  France),  on  the  south  bound  by  Swit- 
zerland and  the  lake  of  Constance,  and  on  the  east  bound  by 
Wirtemberg. 

\o 


338  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Germany.— Grand-Duchy  of  Baden. 


The  population  consists  of  about  804,000   Catholics  (with  a 
archbishop  at  Freiburg),  553,000  Protestants,  and  22.000  Jews. 

The  country  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  lake  of  Constance,  an* 
partly  along  the  Rhine,  is  more  or  less  level ;  but  in  the  interio 
the  surface  is  mountainous.  The  chief  mountain  ranges  are  th< 
Black  Forest  and  the  Odenwald  (see  page  7).  The  country  i; 
intersected  by  numerous  branches  of  the  Rhine  (as  for  instance 
the  Aach,  Murg,Wiese,  Dreysam,  Acher,  Pfinz,  etc.),  but  its  prin 
cipal  tributary  here,  is  the  Neckar.  About  the  lakes,  see  page  1 1 
Other  remarkable  lakes,  in  the  Black  Forest,  are  the  Mnmmel 
the  Wilder,  and  the  Nonnenmattweiher  lakes.  There  are  about  6C 
watering-places  in  the  country,  the  most  renowned  of  which  arc 
Baden  and  Ueberlingen. 

Some  parts  of  the  country  have  a  most  fertile  soil,  especially  the 
former  margraviate  of  Baden  ;  others,  as  for  instance  some  of  the 
mountainous  districts,  are  less  fertile,  and  partly  even  sterile  ; 
yet,  upon  the  whole,  the  grand-duchy  rivals  Wirtemberg  in  the 
natural  products.  Thus,  the  chief  staples  are  almost  the  same 
as  in  the  just-named  kingdom,  perhaps  with  the  exception  of  iron, 
which  abounds  in  Baden  more  than  in  Wirtemberg. 

The  manufactures  are  various  and  mostly  important.  The  prin- 
cipal articles  of  fabrication  are  clocks  (nearly  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  known  by  the  name  of  Black  Forest  clocks),  hardware 
and  jewelleries,  next  to  them  linen,  woollen,  cotton  goods  and  chemical 
articles.     The  inland  trade  is  very  considerable. 

Besides  the  universities  (see  page  287)  at  Heidelberg  (in  184(5 
frequented  by  864  students),  and  Freiburg  (in  1845  frequented 
by  213  students),  there  are  6  lycea,  5  gymnasia  (about  the  sig- 
nification of  these  terms,  see  page  65),  1,916  common,  and  65 
other  schools  of  various  distinction. 

The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy  like  that  of  Wirtem- 
berg, with  the  only  difference  that  the  sovereign  of  Baden  bears 


GERMANY.  339 


Grand-Duchy  of  Baden— its  Finances  and  History. 


the  title  of  grand  duke.  The  public  revenue  in  the  two  years 
1844  and  1845  amounted  to  32,847,690  florins,  and  the  total  ex- 
penditure in  these  two  years  to  30,950,034  florins.  In  1845  the 
public  debt  was  41,271,434  florins  (inclusive  of  a  loan  of  14  mil- 
lions which  had  been  contracted  for  constructing  the  rail-roads  of 
the  country).  The  regular  army  consists  respectively  of  4,595 
and  10,423  men.  The  troops  to  the  confederacy  (see  under  the 
head  of  Bavaria  and  Wirtemberg) :  10,000  men. 

There  are  the  following  orders  of  honor:  1.  The  order  of  loyalty 
(Orden  der  Treue),  in  2  classes,  instituted  in  1715,  and  renew- 
ed in  1803.  2.  The  military  order  of  merit,  instituted  by  Charles 
Frederic  in  1807,  in  3  classes.  3.  The  order  of  the  lion  of  Zdh- 
ringen,  instituted  in  1812,  in  3  classes. 

History. — The  present  grand-duchy  of  Baden  which,  in  respect  to  extent 
and  population,  rivals  German  kingdoms,  was  until  the  year  1803  a  mar- 
graviate  with  an  area  of  only  1,384  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  no 
more  than  220,000  inhabitants.  All  the  remainder  has  since  been  annexed  to 
this  primitive  country,  which  was  first  under  the  sway  of  the  Bertilons,  but 
already  in  the  10th  century  under  that  of  the  Zahringians,  whose  ancestral 
seat  was  the  castle  of  the  same  name  (now  in  ruins)  near  Freiburg.  Berthold 
of  Zahringen,  proprietor  of  wealthy  estates  both  in  Swabia  and  Alsace,  was 
in  1060  nominated  duke  of  Carinthia  and  margrave  of  Verona,  and  since 
that  period  the  title  of  margrave  rested  with  the  members  of  this  dynasty. 
Berthold's  son  Hermann  acquired  Baden  by  marriage ;  and  his  son  of  the 
same  name  was  theirs*  margrave  of  Baden,  by  the  name  of  Hermann  L  He 
died  in  1 1 30,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Hermann  II.  When  in  1 190  his  son 
Hermann  III.  died,  he  left  behind  two  sons,  the  younger  of  whom  became  the 
author  of  the  collateral  line  of  Hochberg.  Margrave  Christoph  of  Baden  re- 
united the  territories  of  both  hues,  but  his  sons  Bernhard  and  Ernesd  divided 
them  again,  and  there  were  two  reigning  lines  of  Baden-Baden,  and  Baden- 
Durlach,  until  they  were  once  more  and  permanently  reunited  in  1771  by 
the  margrave  Charles  Frederic  of  Baden- Durlach.  The  long  reign  of  this 
sovereign  (from  respectively  1738  and  1746  to  1811)  proved  in  every  respect 
beneficial  to  the  country.     By  the  treaty  of  Luneville  in  1801  he  lost  some 


340  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany.— Grand-Duchy  of  Baden. 

territories  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  but  was  amply  indemnified  in  1801 
by  the  Lower  Palatinate,  the  territories  of  several  prelates,  imperial  cities,  etc. 
together  at  the  extent  of  1,949  square  miles,  with  215,000  inhabitants.  A 
the  same  time  he  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  an  elector,  and  in  1806  to  tha 
of  a  grand  duke,  and  made  fresh  acquisitions  in  the  years  1806,  1809  and  10 
He  died  in  1811,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Charles  Louis  Frederic 
who  died  in  1818,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  uncle  Louis,  who  died  in  1830 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  step-brother,  the  still  reigning  grand  duke  Leopold 
born  in  1790.     About  the  revolution  in  1849  see  above,  page  305. 

The  grand-duchy  is,  since  1832,  divided  into  4  provinces,  styled 
circles,  which  are  subdivided  into  79  bailiwicks.  The  capitals 
of  the  circles  are  in  the  following  topography  marked  with  a 
cross  (+)• 

I.  The  Middle  Rhine  Circle,  comprising  chiefly  the  territories  of  the  an- 
cient margraviates  of  Baden-Durlach  and  Baden-Baden,  and  besides  them 
some  former  imperial  cities,  etc.  1.  The  ancient  margraviate  of  Baden-Dur- 
lach (formerly  also  styled  the  Lower  Margraviate  of  Baden),  contains  :  Carls- 
ruhe,  the  capital  of  the  whole  country,  and  residence  of  the  grand  duke,  at 
3 i  miles  distance  from  the  Rhine,  north-westward  and  40  miles  distant  from 
Stuttgart,  has  24,800  inhabitants,  is  very  regularly  laid  out  and  fan-shaped, 
has  many  stately  palaces,  of  which  that  where  the  grand  duke  resides  is 
very  extensive,  and  other  remarkable  public  edifices,  and  is  noted  for  its  lite- 
rary institutions  and  manufactures.  The  foundation  of  the  city  was  laid  in 
1715  by  the  margrave  Charles  of  Baden-Durlach.  On  the  Rhine  is  the  vil- 
lage of  Schrock,  with  700  inhabitants,  and  a  landing  at  present  called  Leopolds- 
hafen.  Durlach,  formerly  the  capital  and  residence  of  the  margrave  of 
Baden-Durlach,  on  the  Pfinz,  eastward  and  2  miles  distant  from  Carlsruhe, 
with  some  manufactures  and  5,000  inhabitants.  Grbtzingen,  a  village  with 
2,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  madder  and  wines.  Pforzheim,  the  most 
important  manufacturing  town  in  the  country,  on  the  Enz,  south-eastward  and 
14  miles  distant  from  Carlsruhe,  has  8,400  inhabitants,  and  its  principal  man- 
ufactures are  those  of  jewelleries  and  similar  other  articles.  Kurnbach,  a 
market-town,  one  half  of  which  belongs  to  Baden,  and  the  other  to  Hesse- 
Darmstadt.  The  former  half  has  550  inhabitants.  2.  The  ancient  margra- 
viate of  Baden-Baden  (formerly  also   known  by  the   name   of  the  upper 


GERMANY.  341 


The  Grand-Duchy  of  Badon— its  Goographical  Divisions. 


nargraviate  of  Baden),  contains :  Baden,  formerly  the  capital  of  this  margra- 
iate,  at  present  one  of  the  most  frequented  watering-places  in  Germany,  is 
omantically  situated  in  a  valley,  about  half-way  between  Strasburg  and 
Karlsruhe,  and  has  6,300  inhabitants.  -(-Rastadt,  formerly  the  residence  of 
he  margrave  of  Baden-Baden,  at  present  the  capital  of  the  Middle  Rhine 
Circle,  on  the  Murg,  about  3  miles  from  its  junction  with  the  Rhine,  and  north- 
ward and  7  miles  distant  from  Baden,  is  strongly  fortified,  and  has  8,800  in- 
habitants. The  foundation  of  Rastadt  was  laid  by  the  margrave  Louis  Wil- 
liam of  Baden-Baden,  who  reigned  in  the  period  of  1691-1707.  The  little 
village  of  Ajfcnthal  is  noted  for  its  wines.  Steinbach,  a  town  in  the  vicinity 
of  Baden,  with  2,800  inhabitants,  is  remarkable  as  the  birth-place  of  the  cele- 
brated architect  Erwin  of  Steinbach  (+1318),  who  was  the  chief  architect 
for  that  fine  structure,  the  cathedral  of  Strasburg.  The  town  of  Kehl,  on  the 
Rhine,  opposite  to  Strasburg,  has  1,400  inhabitants,  and  was  formerly  noted  for 
its  strong  fortifications,  which  in  1815  were  razed.  Geknsbach,  a  town  on  the 
Murg,  at  about  9  miles  distance  from  Rastadt,  with  considerable  trade  in  tim- 
ber, and  2,400  inhabitants.  Achern,  a  town  on  the  Acher,  eastward  and 
16  miles  distant  from  Strasburg,  has  2,000  inhabitants,  and  is  situated  in  a 
district  called  the  Ortenau,  of  which  the  duke  Ferdinand  of  Modena  was  pos- 
sessed in  the  short  period  from  1803  to  1805.  Ettlingen,  a  town  on  the  lit- 
tle Alb  river,  with  powder  mills,  paper  manufactures,  and  4,500  inhabitants. 
Buhl,  a  town  southward  and  12  miles  distant  from  Rastadt,  has  2,800  inhab- 
itants, and  is  noted  for  its  cattle-fairs.  3.  The  following  imperial  cities  came 
in  1803  under  the  sway  of  Baden:  Offenburg,  formerly  an  imperial  city, 
on  the  Kinzig,  12  miles  south-east  of  Strasburg,  with  4,200  inhabitants.  Gen- 
genbach,  formerly  an  imperial  city,  in  the  vicinity  of  Offenburg,  with  2,700 
inhabitants.  Zell,  surnamed  am.  Hammersbach,  an  imperial  city  until  1803, 
on  a  little  river  called  Hammersbach,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Gergenbach, 
with  1,400  inhabitants.  4.  The  former  territory  of  the  ancient  bishopric  of 
Spire  (see  page  327),  which  in  1803  was  annexed  to  Baden,  contains: 
Bruchsal,  formerly  the  residence  of  the  bishop,  whose  magnificent  palace  is 
still  extant,  is  situated  north-eastward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Carlsruhe, 
and  has  7,800  inhabitants.  5.  To  the  former  independent  bishopric  of  Stras- 
burg (see  page  197),  belonged  the  towns  of  Oberkirch  (has  2,000  inhabi- 
tants, and  is  noted  for  its  wines  and  fruits),  Oppenau  (with  2,100  inhabitants), 
and  Renchen  (with  2,700  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  hemp),  and  the  vil- 
lage of  Sasbach  (with  1,400  inhabitants),  eastward  and  14  miles  distant  from 


342  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany.— Grand-Duchy  of  Baden. 

Strasburg,  is  remarkable  for  that  the  French  marshal,  Turenne,  was  struck 
dead  here  by  a  cannon-ball,  on  the  27th  July,  1675.  6.  The  towns  of  Bisch- 
ofsheim,  or  Rliein-Bishofsheim  (near  the  Rhine,  north-eastward  and  10  miles 
distant  from  Strasburg,  is  noted  for  its  hemp,  and  has  1,800  inhabitants),  and 
Lichtenau  (likewise  noted  for  its  hemp,  and  with  1,600  inhabitants),  until 
1803  belonged  to  the  ancient  lordship  of  Hanau-Lichtenberg  (see  page  328). 
The  town  of  Lahr  (18  miles  south-south-east  of  Strasburg,  with  important 
manufactures,  considerable  inland  trade,  and  7,500  inhabitants),  did  formerly 
belong  to  a  collateral  line  of  the  house  of  Nassau.  To  Electoral.  Palatinate 
(see  below)  belonged :  Bretten,  a  town  on  the  Sulzbach,  eastward  and  15 
miles  distant  from  Carlsruhe,  has  3,100  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  as  the  birth- 
place of  Melanchthon.  The  house  where  he  was  born  is  still  extant.  Eppin- 
gen,  a  town  on  the  Elsenz,  north-eastward  and  28  miles  distant  from  Carls- 
ruhe, with  a  remarkable  Gothic  church,  and  3,100  inhabitants.  Heidelsheim, 
a  town  with  2,300  inhabitants.  7.  To  the  dependent  principality  of  Fursten- 
berg  (see  below,  under  the  head  of  Donaueschingen  and  Trochtelfingen), 
belong  the  towns  of  Hausen,  or  Hausach  (with  1,300  inhabitants),  Wolfach 
(with  copper  and  other  mines,  and  1,700  inhabitants),  and  Haslach  (with 
1,750  inhabitants). 

II.  The  Lower  Rhine  Circle,  comprising  chiefly  the  principal  territory 
of  ancient  Electoral  or  Lower  Palatinate,  which  had  the  following  origin. 
Emperor  Otto  I.  (936-972)  appointed  Palatines  in  several  parts  of  the  em- 
pire, who  had  to  pronounce  sentences  in  the  name  of  the  king  or  emperor,  and 
to  watch  over  the  royal  rights  and  prerogatives.  Their  title  was  derived 
from  the  Latin  palatium  (palace),  because  they  commonly  had  their  seat  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  royal  or  imperial  palaces,  of  which  there  was  a 
considerable  number  throughout  Germany,  but  especially  along  the  Rhine. 
In  the  course  of  time  the  Palatine  on  the  Rhine  became  the  most  noted  and 
powerful  among  these  representatives  of  the  emperor  ;  and  so  early  as  in  the 
beginning  of  the  13th  century,  he  belonged  to  those  powerful  princes,  who, 
under  the  title  of  electors  (see  page  293),  exercised  the  exclusive  right  of 
electing  the  emperor.  His  dominions  consisted  of  the  territories  in  the  north, 
era  part  of  the  present  grand-duchy  of  Baden,  and  in  the  present  Bavarian 
palatinate  (see  page  327),  and  were  frequently  called  Lower  Palatinate,  to 
distinguish  them  from  Upper  Palatinate  (see  page  317).  Since  the  middle 
of  the  15th  century,  a  collateral  line  of  the  reigning  Bavarian  house  of  Wit- 
telsbach  was  possessed  of  the  Palatinate,  but  was,  in  1623  (because  the  Pala- 


GERMANY.  343 


The  Grand-Duchy  of  Bsuien— its  Geographical  Divisions. 

tiue  and  Elector,  Frederic  V.,  had,  as  it  were,  committed  felony  by  accepting 
the  crown  of  Bohemia,  and  led  his  troops  against  the  emperor)  deprived  both 
of  the  Upper  Palatinate  and  the  electoral  dignity,  which  was  conferred  on  the 
duke  of  Bavaria.  However  by  the  Westphalian  treaty  of  peace  in  1648,  an 
eighth  electoral  dignity  was  created  in  favor  of  Frederic  V.'s  son  and  succes- 
sor. In  1777  the  principal  line  of  the  reigning  house  of  Bavaria  became  ex- 
tinct, and  now  the  elector  Charles  Theodore  of  the  Palatinate  inherited  the 
whole  electorate  of  Bavaria.  He  died  in  1799,  and  was  succeeded  by  Max- 
imilian Joseph  (see  page  314),  who  in  1803  ceded  that  part  of  the  Lower 
Palatinate  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  to  Baden ;  while  the  other 
part,  on  the  left  bank,  is  retained  by  Bavaria.  "We  have  thus  to  describe 
here  only  the  former,  containing :  -{-Mannheim,  at  present  the  capital  of  the 
Lower  Rhine  Circle,  formerly  the  second  capital  of  the  Palatinate,  and,  in 
the  period  from  1720  to  1799,  the  residence  of  the  Palatine  elector,  on  the 
Neckar,  at  its  junction  with  the  Rhine,  has  23,800  inhabitants,  is  very  regu- 
larly laid  out,  and  noted  for  its  extensive  former  electoral  palace  (with 
1,500  windows  for  instance),  considerable  trade  and  numerous  manufactures. 
Heidelberg,  once  the  capital  of  the  whole  Palatinate,  and,  since  1386,  also 
noted  for  its  university  (see  above  and  page  287),  on  the  Neckar,  not  far  from 
Mannheim,  has  15,000  inhabitants.  The  remarkable  castle,  where  the  pala- 
tines and  electors  resided,  was  in  1689  laid  waste  by  the  French,  and  in  1764 
struck  by  lightning.  Its  cellar  contains  the  noted  wine-cask,  holding  2,100 
tierces,  though  it  may  never  have  actually  been  filled  with  such  an  immense 
quantity  of  wine.  The  neighboring  village  of  Hanschuchsheim,  with  2,100  in- 
habitants, is  noted  for  its  fruit,  especially  cherries.  Nusloch,  a  market-town, 
noted  for  its  iron-mines  and  wines,  has  2,000  inhabitants.  Still  noted  for  its 
wines,  is  the  town  of  Weinheim,  with  5,900  inhabitants.  Ladenburg,  a  town 
already  existing  in  the  days  of  the  Romans,  by  whom  it  was  called  Lupodum 
or  Lupodanum,  is  noted  for  its  madder,  and  has  2,500  inhabitants.  Schdnaic, 
a  town  on  the  Odenwald,  with  iron-works,  bleacheries,  and  1,700  inhabitants. 
Leimen,  a  market-town,  noted  for  its  wines,  has  1,500  inhabitants.  Lauden- 
bach,  a  village  with  1,750  inhabitants,  cultivates  the  best  sort  of  the  so-called 
Bergstrasser  wines.  Netkargemund,  a  town  on  the  Neckar  at  its  junction 
with  the  Elsenz,  is  noted  for  its  potteries,  and  has  2,700  inhabitants.  Schwet- 
zingen,  a  town  on  the  Leimbach  river,  westward  and  7  miles  distant  from 
Heidelberg,  has  2,900  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  grand-ducal  palace,  and 
highly-renowned  gardens.    Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are :   Wies- 


344  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany. — Grand-Duchy  of  Baden. 

loch  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  Boxberg  (with  800  inhabitants),  Mosbach  (with 
2,700  inhabitants),  Eberbach  (with  3,800  inhabitants),  Sinshehn  (with  2,800 
inhabitants),  and  Hilsbach  (with  1,350  inhabitants).  2.  To  the  former  terri- 
tory of  the  ancient  archbishopric  and  electorate  of  Mentz  belonged :  Bisch- 
ofsheim,  or  Tauber-Bischofsheim,  a  town  on  the  Tauber  river,  north-eastward 
and  52  miles  distant  from  Heidelberg,  with  2,500  inhabitants.  Kbnigheim,  a 
market- town  noted  for  its  wines,  has  2,100  inhabitants.  Other  more  or  less 
remarkable  towns  are :  Kulsheim  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  Walldurn  (with 
3,200  inhabitants),  Buchen  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  Burken  or  Osterburken 
(with  1,200  inhabitants),  K'dnigshofen  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Krautheim 
(with  900  inhabitants),  Neudenau,  or  Neidenau  (with  1,300  inhabitants),  and 
Ballenberg,  which  latter  has  only  600  inhabitants,  but  is  remarkable  as  the 
birth-place  of  George  Metzler,  chief  leader  in  the  war  of  peasantry  in  1525 
3.  The  former  immediate  earldom,  at  present  dependent  lordship  of  Wertheim, 
belonging  to  the  prince  of  Lowenstein  (see  page  332),  contains :  Wertheim, 
formerly  its  capital,  on  the  Mayne,  at  its  junction  with  the  Tauber,  is  noted 
for  its  wines,  and  has  5,000  inhabitants.  Freudenberg,  a  town  on  the  Mayne, 
with  1,700  inhabitants.  4.  To  the  former  sovereign  or  independent  bishoprics 
of  Spire  and  Wurzburg  (pp.  322,  327),  and  to  the  Swabian  and  Franconian 
knighthood  of  the  empire,  did  respectively  belong :  Phtlippsburg,  formerly  a 
fortress  of  the  empire,  on  the  Rhine,  northward  and  16  miles  distant  from 
Carlsruhe,  with  1,700  inhabitants.  Waibstadt,  likewise  once  a  fortress  of  the 
empire,  with  linen  and  leather  manufactures,  and  1,900  inhabitants.  Ger- 
lachsheim,  a  market-town  on  the  Tauber,  is  noted  for  its  wines,  and  has  1,150 
inhabitants.  Grunsfeld  and  Lauda,  towns  with  respectively  1,300  and  1,100 
inhabitants.  Neckar-Bischofsheim,  a  town  near  the  Neckar,  is  noted  for  its 
linen,  and  has  2,100  inhabitants.  Adelsheim,  a  town  on  the  Odenwald,  east- 
ward and  32  miles  distant  from  Heidelberg,  with  3  ancient  castles,  and  1,600 
inhabitants. 

III.  The  Upper  Rhine  Circle,  comprising  chiefly  the  ancient  Breisgau 
and  former  margraviate  of  Hochberg.  1.  The  Breisgau,  a  name  still  much 
used  in  common  life,  is  a  considerable  district  in  the  Black  Forest,  which  in 
the  middle  ages  had  its  distinct  political  boundaries,  primitively  belonging  to 
the  dukes  of  Zahringen,  and  subsequently  inherited  by  the  collateral  line  of 
Hochberg  (see  above  page  339).  In  1367  it  was  sold  to  Austria  that  retained 
it  until  1803,  when  it  was  ceded  to  the  duke  of  Modena  (see  page  118),  while 
in  1805  it  was  annexed  to  Badea     The   Breisgau  contains:   -+-Freibdrg 


GERMANY.  345 


The  Grand-Duchy  of  Baden — its  Geographical  Divisions. 

(commonly  surnamed  im  Breisgau,  -whose  capital  it  was),  at  present  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Upper  Rhine  Circle,  on  the  Dreisam  river,  74  miles  south-south- 
west of  Carlsruhe,  and  32  miles  north-north-east  of  Basle,  has  various  manu- 
factures and  14,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  university  (see  above  and 
page  287),  and  especially  also  for  its  minster,  whose  foundation  was  laid  in 
the  12th  century,  and  which  belongs  to  the  finest  specimens  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. Its  steeple  is  356  feet  in  height.  Not  far  from  Freiburg  are  the 
ruins  of  the  ancestral  castle  of  Zahringen  (see  above,  page  339).  Breisach 
(or  Alt-Breisach,  to  distinguish  it  from  Neu- Breisach,  on  the  opposite  side  and 
belonging  to  France),  a  town  on  the  Rhine,  westward  and  14  miles  distant 
from  Freiburg,  with  a  remarkable  Gothic  church,  and  3,400  inhabitants.  Try- 
berg,  or  Triberg,  a  town  in  the  Black  Forest,  north-eastward  and  18  miles 
distant  from  Freiburg,  has  1,200  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  wooden 
clocks,  of  which  immense  quantities  are  exported  every  week.  Other  more 
or  less  remarkable  towns  are:  Staufen  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  Burkheim 
(with  750  inhabitants),  Schonau  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  Todtnau  (with  1,500 
inhabitants),  Zell  (with  1,400  inhabitants),  Waldkirch  (with  2,600  inhabitants), 
Elzach  (with  1,050  inhabitants),  Kenzingen  (with  2,600  inhabitants),  Herbolz- 
heim  (with  2,100  inhabitants),  Endingen  (with  3,300  inhabitants),  Waldshut 
(with  1,400  inhabitants),  and  Sackingen  (with  1,500  inhabitants).  Formerly 
renowned  Benedictine  abbeys,  instituted  in  the  8th  century,  were  St.  Blasien 
and  Ettenheimmunster.  In  the  town  of  Neuenburg  (on  the  Rhine,  with  1,200 
inhabitants),  it  was  where  the  Duke  Bernhard  of  Weimar,  so  renowned  as 
general  in  the  thirty  years'  war,  died  on  the  16th  July,  1639,  probably  poi- 
soned. 2.  The  former  margraviate  of  Hochberg  (during  a  long  period  pos- 
sessed by  a  collateral  line  of  the  house  of  Zahringen  see  page  339),  contains : 
Badexweiler,  a  market-town,  with  1,300  inhabitants,  is  noted  as  a  watering- 
place  much  resorted  to.  Emmendingen,  a  town  on  the  Elz,  northward  and  9 
miles  distant  from  Freiburg,  with  2,000  inhabitants,  and  the  ruins  of  the  an- 
cestral castle  of  Hochberg,  which  was  reared  in  the  9  th  century.  Muellheim, 
a  town  in  the  Black  Forest,  south-westward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Frei- 
burg, is  noted  for  its  wines,  and  has  2,600  inhabitants.  Loerrach,  a  town  on 
the  Wiese  river,  with  various  manufactures  and  2,600  inhabitants.  In  the 
vicinity  of  Kaxderx  (  a  town  with  various  manufactures  and  1,400  inhabi- 
tants), are  the  ruins  of  the  once  renowned  castle  of  Sausenberg.  The  village 
of  Hansen  (with  600  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  iron-works.  Schopfheim,  a 
manufacturing  town  on  the  Wiese  river,  with  1,700  inhabitants.  3.  To  the 
15* 


346  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Germany. — Grand-Duchy  of  Baden. 


former  bishopric  of  Strasburg  (see  page  197),  belonged  the  town  of 
Ettenheim,  on  the  Ettenbach,  23  miles  south-south-east  of  Strasburg,  with 
considerable  trade  in  linen,  hemp,  &c,  and  3,300  inhabitants.  In  the  night 
of  the  14th  March,  1804,  the  duke  of  Enghien  was  seized  here  by  French 
troops,  whence  he  was  conveyed  to  Paris,  and  shot  on  the  20th  March,  at 
Vincennes.  4.  The  town  of  Heitersheim,  south-westward  and  13  miles  dis- 
tant from  Freiburg,  with  beautiful  gardens  and  1,600  inhabitants,  did  until 
1805  belong  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John  (see  page  46).  Mahlberg,  a  town 
near  Ettenheim,  with  1,150  inhabitants,  was  anciently  the  capital  of  the  lord- 
ship of  Mahlberg,  of  which  Baden-Baden  became  possessed  in  1629.  The 
towns  of  Hornberg  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  and  Schiltach  (with  1,600  inhab- 
itants), formerly  belonged  to  Wirtemberg.  The  town  of  Thiengen  (on  the 
Wutach,  with  1,200  inhabitants)  was  formerly  the  capital  of  a  landgraviate 
of  Klettgan,  and  belongs  to  a  line  of  the  princely  house  of  Schwarzenberg. 

IV.  The  Lake  Circle  (whose  name  has  reference  to  the  lake  of  Constance, 
along  which  it  is  chiefly  situated),  comprising  various  territories  annexed  to 
Baden,  since  the  year  1803.  1.  To  the  so-called  Swabian  Austria  (see  page 
334)  did  formerly  belong :  -{-Constance,  capital  of  the  circle,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  that  issues  here  from  the  lake  of  Constance,  south-eastward 
and  70  miles  distant  from  Freiburg,  with  various  manufactures,  considerable 
trade,  and  7,000  inhabitants.  Its  most  remarkable  public  edifices  are  the 
cathedral,  the  ancient  monastery  of  Dominican  friars  (where  John  Huss  was 
kept  prisoner  before  he  was  burnt  in  1415),  the  town-hall,  and  the  building 
where  the  principal  sessions  of  the  council  in  the  years  1414-1418  were  held. 
In  this  last-named  period  there  were  once  not  less  than  150,000  foreigners  in 
the  city.  Radolphzell  (with  1,250  inhabitants),  and  Stockack  (with  1,800 
inhabitants),  towns.  2.  To  the  former  independent  bishopric  of  Constance 
(which  was  instituted  in  570,  had  its  cathedral  in  Constance,  but  in  other  re- 
spects nothing  in  common  with  this  city,  and  was  in  1803  incorporated  with 
Baden)  belonged :  Meersburg,  or  Morsburg,  formerly  the  residence  of  the 
bishop,  has  1,400  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  wines.  Markdorf  a  town 
with  1,800  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  cattle-fairs.  Reichenau  is  a  beautiful 
and  highly  fertile  isle  in  the  Lower  Lake  or  Untersee,  formerly  with  a  re- 
nowned Benedictine  abbey,  has  1,500  inhabitants.  3.  Pfullendorf  (north- 
ward and  22  miles  distant  from  Constance,  with  a  remarkable  church,  and  1,800 
inhabitants),  and  Ueberlingen  (noted  for  its  wines,  has  2,800  inhabitants), 
were  until  1803  imperial  cities.    4.  The  dependent  territories  of  the  princes  of 


GERMANY.  347 


The  Grand-Duchy  of  Baden— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


Fuerstenberg  (whose  possessions  in  Baden,  Wirtemberg,  and  Bohemia,  have 
a  total  area  of  almost  800  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  114,000  inhabi- 
tants, yielding  revenues  to  the  amount  of  about  600,000  florins  annually) 
contain  the  following  towns :  Donaueschingen,  town  and  residence  of  the 
prince  of  Furstenberg,  near  the  head  of  the  Danube,  eastward  and  32  miles 
distant  from  Freiburg,  with  a  noble  princely  palace,  and  3,300  inhabitants. 
Hufingen,  a  town  on  the  Brege,  with  1.600  inhabitants.  The  town  of  Fursten- 
berg has  only  400  inhabitants,  but  is  remarkable  for  the  ruins  of  the  ancestral 
castle  of  the  princes  of  Furstenberg.  Mohringen,  a  town  on  the  Danube 
with  1,200  inhabitants),  is  noted  for  its  cattle-  and  sheep-markets.  Other 
more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are :  Geisingen  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Lbf- 
fingen  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Vbhrenbach  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  Stuhl- 
ingen  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Engen  (with  1,400  inhabitants),  Heiligenberg 
(with  600  inhabitants),  and  Moskirch  (with  1,700  inhabitants).  Near  Engen 
are  the  ruins  of  the  anciently  famous  feudal  castles  of  Hohenheben,  Hohen- 
krahen,  and  Hohenstoffeln.  5.  The  towns  of  Villingen  (noted  for  its  brew- 
1  eries,  iron- works,  and  corn  trade,  has  3,900  inhabitants),  and  Braeunlingen 
(with  1,650  inhabitants),  did  formerly  belong  to  the  Austrian  Breisgau  (see 
above).  The  town  of  Blum/eld  (north-westward  and  27  miles  distant  from 
Constance,  with  450  inhabitants),  and  the  romantical  and  fertile  isle  of  Meinau 
(in  the  lake  of  Ueberlingen),  did  formerly  belong  to  the  Teutonic  order. 


VL-VIL— THE  PRINCIPALITIES  OF  HOHENZOLLERN. 

Area  :  458  square  miles. 
Population  :  66,000  inhabitants. 

These  two  principalities  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen  (the 
largest)  and  Hohenzolkrn-Hechingen  (the  smallest),  in  Southern 
Germany,  are  entirely  surrounded  by  territories  of  Baden  and 
Wirtemberg,  and  are  situated  about  half-way  between  Ulm  and 


348  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Germany.— Principalities  of  Hohenzollern. 

Freiburg,  not  very  far  from  the  lake  of  Constance.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  Catholics,  and  depend  for  subsistence  chiefly  on  hus- 
bandry. The  natural  products  are  in  general  the  same  as  in  Ba- 
den and  Wirtemberg.  The  government  is  monarchical,  but  less 
limited  than  in  Baden  or  Wirtemberg.  The  public  charges  are 
at  a  very  low  standard,  especially  in  Sigmaringen,  whose  sove- 
reign is  possessed  of  large  private  estates  (for  instance,  in  Gelder- 
land),  which,  together  with  his  dominions  in  the  country  itself, 
yield  an  annual  revenue  of  more  than  300,000  florins,  covering 
by  far  the  greatest  part  of  the  public  expenditure.  The  revenues 
of  the  prince  of  Hechingen  (who,  among  other  private  estates,  has 
some  even  in  Spain)  amount  to  160,000  florins  per  annum.  To 
the  army  of  the  Confederation  are  to  be  furnished  respectively 

356  and  145  men. 

i 

History. — The  ancestor  of  the  house  of  Hohenzollern  is  Thassilo,  a  powerful 
baron,  who  lived  in  the  days  of  Charlemagne,  or  about  the  year  800.  One 
of  his  descendants,  Earl  Frederic,  reared  in  980  the  castle  near  the  present 
city  of  Hechingen,  and  called  it  Hohenzollern,  which  has  since  become  the 
family  name  of  this  dynasty.  Earl  Rodolph  II.  of  Hohenzollern,  who  lived 
about  the  year  1165,  had  two  sons:  the  eldest,  Frederic  IV.,  inherited  the 
patrimonial  estates,  comprising  in  substance  the  present  principalities  of  Ho- 
henzollern ;  while  the  younger  son,  Conrad,  was  appointed  burgrave  of  Nu- 
remberg, and  became  the  ancestor  of  the  house  of  Brandenburg.  (See  page 
318).  Here,  however,  we  have  only  to  do  with  Frederic  IV.  and  his  de- 
scendants, the  most  remarkable  of  whom  were  Earl  Eitel  Frederic  IV.  (who 
in  1495  was  appointed  president  of  the  then  instituted  Supreme  Court  of  the 
empire),  and  Earl  Charles  I.  (who  was  highly  estimated  and  honored  by  Em- 
peror Charles  V.).  "When  the  latter,  or  Charles  I.  died,  in  1576,  he  leftB&ind 
two  sons,  who  divided  the  patrimonial  dominions  in  such  manner ;  the*T?>he, 
Eitel  Frederic  VI.,  became  possessed  of  the  smaller  portion,  and  assumed  the 
title  of  Hohenzollern- Hechingen,  while  the  other,  Charles  II.,  obtained  the 
larger  portion,  and  called  himself  earl  of  Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen.  Both 
lines  are  still  extant,  and  respectively  in  1623  and  1696  the  princely  title  was 
conferred  upon  them  by  the  emperor. 


GERMANY.  349 


The  Principalities  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen  and  Hohenzollern-Hechingen. 


We  shall  now  describe  the  two  principalities  separately  : 

L  HOHENZOLLERN-SIGMARINGEN. 

This  principality  has  an  area  of  341  square  miles,  and  a  popu- 
lation of  45,100  inhabitants;  is  on  the  north  bound  by  Hechin- 
gen,  on  the  east  by  the  Danube  Circle  of  Wirtemberg,  and  on 
the  south  and  west  by  the  Lake  Circle  of  Baden.  The  reigning 
prince  since  1848,  is  Charles  Anton,  born  in  181 1. 

Sigmaringen,  the  capital  of  the  principality  and  princely  residence,  on  the 
Danube,  south-eastward  and  40  miles  distant  from  Ulm,  and  southward  and 
46  miles  distant  from  Stuttgart,  with  an  extensive  and  stately  princely  palace, 
and  2,100  inhabitants.  Vohringen,  a  town  on  the  Lauchart  river,  with  the 
ruins  of  a  once  remarkable  feudal  castle,  and  800  inhabitants.  Other  town9 
are :  Gamertingen  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Hettingen  (with  600  inhabitants), 
and  Haigerloch  (with  1,400  inhabitants).  The  market-towns  of  Ostrach  (with 
1,100  inhabitants),  and  Steassberg  (with  800  inhabitants),  belong  at  present 
to  the  prince  of  Thurn  and  Taxis  (see  page  317),  while  the  town  of  Troch- 
telfingen  (with  1,200  inhabitants)  belongs  to  the  prince  of  Furstenberg  (see 
above,  under  the  head  of  Lake  Circle  of  Baden),  of  course  without  prejudice 
to  the  sovereignty  of  the  prince  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringea 

II.  HOHENZOLLERN-HECHINGEN. 

This  principality  has  an  area  of  117  square  miles,  and  a  popu- 
lation of  21,000  inhabitants,  and  is  on  the  south,  and  partly  on 
the  west,  bound  by  the  former  principality.  The  reigning 
prince  is,  since  1838,  Frederic,  born  in  1801. 

Hechingen,  the  capital  of  this  principality,  and  residence  of  the  prince,  on 
the  Starzel  river,  north-westward  and  20  miles  distant  from  Sigmaringen, 
with  a  stately  princely  palace,  and  3,500  inhabitants.  Not  far  from  here  is 
situated,  on  a  steep  hill,  the  ancient,  and  in  1826,  entirely  restored  castle  of 
Hohenzollern,  once  the  renowned  seat  of  the  ancestors  of  both  the  princes 
of  Hohenzollern  and  kings  of  Prussia,  reared  in  the  year  980.  Stetten,  a 
market-town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Hechingen,  has  600  inhabitants,  and  a 


350  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany.— Principality  of  Liechtenstein. 

remarkable  church,  where  several  earls  of  Hohenzollern  are  buried.  The 
market-town  of  Burladingen,  with  1,400  inhabitants,  is  likewise  noted  for  its 
church.  The  market  town  of  Grosselfingen,  with  1,600  inhabitants,  is  noted 
for  its  potteries. 


VHL— THE  PRINCIPALITY  OF  LIECHTENSTEIN. 

Area  :  53  square  miles. 
Population  :  6,400  inhabitants. 

This  smallest  amoDg  the  German  states,  is  situated  about  18 
miles  south  of  the  lake  of  Constance,  bordering  upon  Switzer- 
land on  the  west  and  south,  and  bound  by  Tyrol  on  the  east. 
The  inhabitants  are  Catholics,  and  depend  for  subsistence  chiefly 
on  rearing  of  cattle,  agriculture,  and  some  wine  culture.  The 
monarchical  government  is  somewhat  limited  by  a  chamber  of 
deputies.  The  military  contingent  which  is  to  be  furnished  to 
the  army  of  the  German  Confederation,  consists  of  55  men. 
The  public  expenditure  is  at  a  very  low  rate,  and  covered  by  the 
revenue,  amounting  to  22,000  florins,  and  consisting  chiefly  of 
revenues  from  the  princely  domains  in  the  country.  The  prince 
has,  however,  far  more  considerable  dominions  in  Austria,  among 
which  are  the  dependent  principalities  of  Troppau  and  Jagerndorf, 
and  which  altogether  have  an  area  of  2,215  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  600,000  inhabitants,  and  yield  an  annual  revenue 
of  at  least  1,500,000  florins. 

History.  The  ancestor  of  the  house  of  Liechtenstein,  mentioned  in  docu- 
ments from  the  year  942,  descended  from  the  house  of  Este  (see  page  118). 
His  dominions  had,  however,  nothing  in  common  with  the  present  principal- 
ity, but  were  situated  in  the  subsequent  Austrian  provinces.  Among  his 
descendants  are  to  be  noticed  the  earls  Ulric  and  Henry  of  Liechtenstein, 


GERMANY.  351 


The  Principality  of  Liechtenstein.— The  Grand-Duchy  of  Hesse. 


who  acted  an  important  part  in  the  quarrel  between  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg 
and  King  Ottocar  of  Bohemia  (see  page  301).  Earl  Hartmann  IV.,  who 
died  in  1585,  left  behind  two  sons,  Charles  and  Gundakar,  who  respectively 
in  1618  and  1623,  were  promoted  to  princes  by  the  emperors  Matthias  and 
Ferdinand  IL,  while  at  the  same  time  Charles  was  invested  with  the  Silesian 
principalities  of  Troppau  and  Jagerndorf.  His  grandson,  Prince  John  Adam 
Andrew,  purchased  in  1699  from  the  earl  of  Hohenembs  the  immediate 
lordships  of  Vadutz  and  Schellenberg,  and  these  are  the  constituent  parts  of 
the  present  principality  of  Liechtenstein.  The  reigning  prince  since  1836,  is 
Aloys,  born  in  1796. 

Thus  the  principality  of  Liechtenstein  consists  of  the  former 
dominion  or  lordship  of  Vadutz,  forming  its  southern  part,  and  of 
the  former  earldom  of  Schellenberg,  forming  its  northern  part. 

Vadutz,  its  capital,  has  in  recent  times  received  the  name  of  Liechtenstein,  is 
situated  near  the  Rhine,  50  miles  east-south-east  of  Zurich,  and  100  miles  west- 
south-west  of  Innspruck,  and  has  1,000  inhabitants.  The  princoly  palace  or 
castle  towers  on  a  rock,  but  the  usual  residence  of  the  prince  is  Vienna.  Be- 
sides Vadutz,  deserve  only  to  be  mentioned  the  castle  of  Schellenberg,  north 
of  Vadutz,  and  the  villages  ©f  Balzers,  Triesen  or  Treisen,  and  Benderen. 


IX.— THE  GRAND-DUCHY  OF  HESSE. 

Area  :  3,259  square  miles. 
Population  :  845,000  inhabitants. 

This  grand-duchy,  officially  styled  Hesse  and  at  Rhine  (Hessen 
und  bei  Rhein),  and  more  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  is  situated  towards  the  centre  of  Germany,  half-way 
between  Bohemia  and  the  Netherlands,  along  the  Rhine  and 
Mayne. 


352  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany. — Grand-Duchy  of  Hesse. 


Nearly  one  half  of  the  population  consists  of  Lutherans,  anc 
the  remainder  of  about  150,000  Evangelicals  (see  page  291) 
40,000  Calvinisls,  209,500  Roman  Catholics,  1,450  Mennonites. 
and  28,300  Jews. 

The  chief  staples  are  fruits  of  various  kinds  (even  chestnuts 
and  almonds  in  the  so-called  Bergstrasse  and  in  Rhenish  Hesse), 
wines  (some  sorts  in  Rhenish  Hesse  rank  among  the  choicest 
Rhenish  wines),  grain  and  timber.  The  rearing  of  cattle  is  very- 
considerable  in  the  provinces  of  Starkenburg  and  Upper  Hesse. 
The  chief  products  from  the  mineral  kingdom  are  iron  and  peat. 
The  manufactures  consist  chiefly  of  linen  and  woolhn  goods.  The 
principal  manufacturing  place  is  Offenbach.  Mentz  carries  on  a 
considerable  trade. 

Besides  the  university  at  Giessen  (see  page  288),  which  in 
1846  was  frequented  by  535  students,  there  are  7  lycea  and 
gymnasia,  5  seminaries  (see  page  65,  about  the  signification  of 
these  terms),  etc.,  and  1,600  common  schools.  The  government 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Baden.  According  to 
the  budget  of  the  period  1839-1841,  the  public  revenue  was  esti- 
mated at  7,087,181,  and  the  expenditure  at  7,078,462  florins  annu- 
ally. The  public  debt  was  in  1842  reduced  to  about  3-J-  million 
florins.  The  regular  army  consists  of  6,662  men  on  the  peace, 
and  of  9,541  on  the  war  footing;  the  contingent  to  the  confed- 
erated army  was  fixed  at  6,195  men. 

There  are  the  following  two  orders  of  honor:  1.  The  Louis 
order,  in  5  classes,  and  instituted  in  1807.  2.  The  order  of  Philip 
the  Generous,  in  4  classes,  and  instituted  in  1840. 

History. — The  first  historically  known  inhabitants  of  Hesse  in  general 
were  the  Ohatts  (see  page  297) ;  and  since  the  8th  century,  when  Christianity 
was  permanently  founded  here  by  Bonifacius,  the  name  of  Hesse  seems  to 
have  originated.  In  the  days  of  the  Carlovingians  the  country  was  ruled  by 
native  earls.     About  the  middle  of  the  11th  century,  Louis,  surnamed  the 


GERMANY.  353 


The  Grand-Duchy  of  Hesse— its  History. 


Bearded,  a  descendant  of  the  princes  of  Lorraine,  was  invested  with 
Thuringia  (see  its  history,  under  the  head  Saxe- Weimar) ;  while  his  descend- 
ants subsequently  became  the  sovereigns  of  Hesse ;  first  by  acquiring  con- 
siderable estates  in  the  way  of  marriage,  and  then  by  inheriting  other  exten- 
sive territories  there.  In  1247  the  male  line  of  the  landgraves  of  Thuringia 
became  extinct,  and  now,  while  the  landgraviate  itself  was  inherited  by  the 
margraves  of  Meissen,  the  niece  of  the  last  landgrave,  the  duchess  Sophia  of 
Brabant,  became  possessed  of  the  Hessian  dominions,  which  she  bequeathed 
to  her  son  Henry,  who  thus  became  the  first  independent  ruler  of  Hesse,  in 
1263.  This  Henry  I.,  surnamed  the  Child,  was  in  1292  by  Emperor  Adol- 
phus  promoted  to  the  dignity  of  a  landgrave,  and  made  Cassel  his  residence. 
He  died  in  1308,  and  by  his  successors  and  descendants  frequently  partitions 
of  the  country  were  agreed  upon,  though  also  fresh  acquisitions  were 
made,  as,  for  instance,  Hersfeld,  Ziegenhain,  Nidda,  Katzenellnbogen  (in  1479), 
Homburg  (in  1504),  etc  Finally  all  constituent  parts  of  the  landgraviate  of 
Hesse  were  reunited  in  1504  by  William  II.,  who  died  in  1509,  and  bequeathed 
the  whole  to  his  son  Philip,  surnamed  the  Generous,  well  known  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Reformation.  Philip  died  in  1567  at  Cassel,  after  having  divided 
the  country  among  his  four  sons,  of  whom  the  youngest,  George,  obtained  the 
so-called  upper  earldom  of  Katzenellnbogen,  comprising  the  city  of  Darm- 
stadt, etc.  Landgrave  George  I.  of  Hesse-Darmstadt  died  in  1596,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Louis  V.  (for  it  was  counted  here  according  to  the  gen- 
eral rule  for  all  Hesse),  who  inherited  the  present  province  of  Upper  Hesse, 
and  died  in  1626.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  descendants  in  the  following 
order  of  succession:  George  II.  (1626-1661),  Louis  VL  (until  1678),  Ernest 
Louis  (-J-1736),  Louis  VIII.  (+1769),  Louis  IX.  (+1790),  and  Louis  X., 
who,  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Luneville  in  1801,  was  deprived  of  his  do- 
minions on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  but  amply  indemnified  in  1803,  by  the 
annexation  of  the  ancient  duchy  of  Westphalia  (see  under  the  head  of  the 
Prussian  province  of  Westphalia),  some  imperial  cities,  etc.  In  1806  the 
landgrave  became  a  member  of  the  Rhenish  Confederation  (see  page  294)  as 
Grand  Duke  Louis  I.  In  1816  he  ceded  the  duchy  of  Westphalia  to  Prussia, 
and  made  several  other  cessions,  instead  of  which  he  became  possessed  of  the 
present  Rhenish  Hesse.  He  died  in  1830,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Louis 
II.,  who  abdicated  on  the  16th  June,  1848,  in  favor  of  his  son,  Louis  III.,  the 
reigning  grand  duke,  born  in  1806. 


354  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany.— Grand-Duchy  of  Hesse. 

The  grand-duchy  is  divided  into  3  provinces,  the  northernmost 
of  which  is  surrounded  by  territories  of  Hesse-Cassel,  and  by  them 
separated  from  the  two  other  provinces  that  are  separated  from 
each  other  by  the  Rhine.  The  provinces  are  subdivided  into  circles. 

I.  The  province  of  Starkenburg,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mayne.  It  has  derived  its  name  from  an  ancient 
castle,  formerly  belonging  to  the  electorate  of  Mentz,  yet  now  in  ruins,  and 
comprises  both  ancient  Hessian  dominions  and  recently  (since  1803)  acquired 
territories.  1.  The  principal  of  those  dominions  is  the  so-called  Upper  Earl- 
dom of  Katzenellnbogen,  whose  native  earls  became  extinct  in  1479,  when  it 
was  inherited  by  the  house  of  Hesse.  Witty  remarks  about  it  will  be  found 
in  Washington  Irving's  interesting  tale  entitled  "  The  Spectre  Bridegroom." 
It  contains :  -{-Darmstadt,  the  capital  of  the  grand-duchy,  and  grand-ducal 
residence,  on  the  little  Darm  river,  southward  and  14  miles  distant  from 
Frankfort,  with  31,000  inhabitants,  and  various  manufactures.  The  most  re- 
markable of  its  public  edifices  are  the  extensive  grand-ducal  palace  (whose 
foundation  was  laid  by  George  I.),  the  Catholic  church,  and  the  so-called  drill- 
house,  at  present  used  as  an  arsenal.  The  neighboring  castle  of  Krauich stein 
is  noted  as  a  grand-ducal  hunting-seat.  The  village  of  Oberramstadt  (in  the 
vicinity  of  Darmstadt,  with  2,000  inhabitants),  is  noted  as  the  birth-place  of 
Lichtenberg,  the  celebrated  German  author  of  the  interesting  commentary  to 
Hogarth's  engravings.  Grossgerau,  a  town  with  2,000  inhabitants,  is  noted 
for  its  greens.  Trebur,  a  market-town  near  the  Rhine,  14  miles  west-north- 
west of  Darmstadt,  has  at  present  only  1,500  inhabitants,  but  was  in  the  mid- 
dle ages  noted  for  several  councils  and  diets  held  here,  and  for  a  palace  where 
Charlemagne  frequently  resided.  Zwingenberg,  a  town  on  the  Bergstrasse, 
with  1,500  inhabitants,  was  anciently  a  strong  fortress.  Reinhehn,  a  town  on 
the  Odenwald,  with  1,300  inhabitants.  Babenhaitsen,  a  town  on  the  Gersprenz 
river,  with  1,600  inhabitants.  2.  To  the  electorate  of  Mentz  formerly  belonged : 
Heppenheim,  a  town  on  the  Bergstrasse,  with  4,200  inhabitants,  is  noted 
for  its  fruits  and  wines.  Not  far  from  here  are  the  ruins  of  the  above-men- 
tioned ancient  castle  of  Starkenburg,  reared  in  1064  by  the  abbot  of  the  once 
highly  renowned  monastery  of  Lorsch  (instituted  in  764),  whose  seat  was 
the  present  market-town  of  this  name  (with  2,600  inhabitants).  Gernsheim, 
a  town  on  the  Rhine,  with  considerable  corn-trade,  and  3,000  inhabitants. 


GERMANY. 


The  Grand-Duchy  of  Hesse— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are :  Seligenstadt  (with  3,300  inhabitants), 
Steinheim  (with  1,150  inhabitants),  Dieburg  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  and 
Hirschhorn  (with  1,850  inhabitants).  3  To  the  Electoral  Palatinate  (see 
page  342)  and  other  formerly  independent  territories  belonged :  Umstadt,  a 
town  at  the  foot  of  the  Odenwald  Mountains,  eastward  and  12  miles  distant 
from  Darmstadt,  with  3,100  inhabitants,  Linden/els  and  Hering,  towns  with 
respectively  900  and  500  inhabitants,  Neckarsteinach,  a  town  on  the  Neckar, 
with  1,300  inhabitants,  Frankisch-Krumbach,  a  village  with  1,200  inhabitants, 
and  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  castles  of  Rodenstein  and  Schnellerts,  notori- 
ous for  a  strange  noise  heard  here  sometimes,  the  natural  cause  of  which 
has  never  yet  been  discovered.  About  the  market-town  of  Kurnbach,  see 
page  340.  Its  Hessian  half  has  600  inhabitants.  Wimpfen,  until  1803  an 
imperial  city,  on  the  Neckar,  has  considerable  salt-works,  and  2,300  inhabi- 
tants, and  is  noted  in  history  for  a  battle  on  the  6th  May,  1622.  4.  The  for- 
merly sovereign  or  independent,  but  since  1806  dependent  earldom  of  Erbach, 
belonging  to  the  earls  of  this  name  (descendants  of  Eginhard,  son-in-law  to 
Charlemagne),  who  at  present  are  divided  into  three  chief  branches,  and  hav- 
ing, together  with  dominions  in  Bavaria,  an  area  of  266  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  34,000  inhabitants,  contains :  Erbach,  its  capital,  on  the  Mum- 
ling  river,  with  a  very  remarkable  palace  of  the  earls,  and  2,100  inhabitants. 
Michelstadt  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Neustadt,  surnamed  in  der  Rosenan 
(with  1,000  inhabitants),  towns.  5.  The  formerly  likewise  independent,  but 
since  1815  dependent  principality  of  Isenburg  (properly  styled  Upper  Isen- 
burg),  belonging  to  a  branch  of  the  princes  and  earls  of  this  name,  and  of  an- 
cient origin,  and  having  an  area  of  160  square  miles,  with  17,500  inhabitants, 
and  yielding  an  annual  revenue  of  more  than  104,000  florins,  contains:  Of- 
fenbach, its  capital  and  usual  princely  residence,  on  the  Mayne,  at  about  2 
miles  distance  from  Frankfort,  has  11,250  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its 
various  manufactures  and  considerable  inland  trade.  Dreieicherhain,  a  town 
southward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Frankfort,  has  1,000  inhabitants,  and  is 
in  various  respects  remarkable  in  history.  Philippseich,  a  village  with  400 
inhabitants,  and  a  palace  remarkable  as  the  residence  of  the  earl  of  Isenburg- 
Philippseich,  belonging  to  a  collateral  line  of  that  named  house. 

II.  The  province  of  Rhenish  Hesse,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
and  comprising  chiefly  territories,  which  formerly  belonged  to  the  electorate 
of  Mentz  and  to  the  Electoral  Palatinate.  1.  The  former  Electorate  of  Mentz 
embraced,  beside  the  territories  within  the  limits  of  this  province,  already 


356  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Germany. — Grand-Duchy  of  Hesse. 


described  above  under  the  head  of  Bavaria  (page  327),  and  Baden  (page 
343),  the  towns  of  Rudesheim,  Hochheim,  etc.,  in  the  present  duchy  of  Nas- 
sau, the  towns  of  Fritzlar  and  Amoneburg  at  present  belonging  to  Hesse-Cas- 
sel,  the  town  of  Erfurt  (at  present  belonging  to  Prussia),  and  the  so-called 
Eichsfeld,  which  at  present  is  divided  between  Prussia  and  Hanover.  That 
part  within  the  limits  of  this  province  contains:  -)-Mentz  or  Mayence  (in 
German  Mainz),  at  present  the  capital  of  this  province,  was  formerly  that  of 
the  electorate  and  the  residence  of  the  archbishop  elector,  is  situated  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Mayne,  has  the  strongest 
fortress  in  Germany,  and  34,000  inhabitants  (exclusive  of  8,000  men  of  Aus- 
trian and  Prussian  troops).  Its  principal  public  edifices  are  the  cathedral, 
the  grand-ducal  palace  (formerly  belonging  to  the  Teutonic  Order),  the  for- 
mer electoral  palace,  etc.  The  house  where  Guttenberg,  the  inventor  of  the 
art  of  printing,  was  born,  is  still  shown.  Mentz  was  founded  by  the  ancient 
Romans  shortly  before  the  Christian  era,  and  the  first  archbishop  here  was 
the  holy  Bonifacius,  appointed  in  745.  The  city  is  connected,  by  means  of  a 
bridge  of  boats  1,666  feet  long,  with  the  likewise  strongly  fortified  town  of 
Kastel  (with  2,250  inhabitants),  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine.  Bin- 
gen,  a  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  at  its  junction  with  the  Nahe,  with 
considerable  trade  and  5,000  inhabitants.  Algesheim  or  Gaualgesheim,  a 
town  noted  for  its  wines,  has  2,000  inhabitants.  The  village  of  Budesheim 
(with  1,600  inhabitants)  is  likewise  noted  for  its  wines.  2.  To  Electoral  Palat- 
inate (see  page  342)  did  belong :  Ingelheim  ( Upper  and  Lwoer),  two  mar- 
ket-towns about  half-way  between  Bingen  and  Mentz,  are  noted  for  their 
wines,  and  have  respectively  2,400  and  2,200  inhabitants.  Charlemagne  re- 
sided frequently  at  Lower  Ingelheim.  Oppenheim,  a  town  on  the  Rhine, 
with  a  remarkably  ancient  church  and  2,600  inhabitants.  The  neighboring 
village  of  Nierstein  (with  2,300  inhabitants),  is  renowned  for  its  wines. 
Alzey,  a  town  on  the  Selz  river,  with  4,600  inhabitants.  Pfeddersheim  (with 
2,000  inhabitants),  and  Odernheim  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  towns  noted  for 
their  wines.  Alsheim  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  Westhofen  (with  1,900  in- 
habitants), and  Osthofen  (with  3,800  inhabitants),  market-towns.  3.  The 
city  of  Worms,  near  the  Rhine,  12  miles  north-north-west  of  Mannheim,  and 
northward  and  23  miles  distant  from  Spire,  noted  for  its  wines  (known  by 
the  name  of  "  Liebfrauenmilch"),  and  with  9,000  inhabitants,  was  formerly  an 
imperial  city,  and  highly  renowned  in  history,  especially  for  the  diet  held 
here  in  1521.     At  that  period  it  was  flourishing  by  its  considerable  trade,  and 


GERMANY.  357 


The  Grand-Duchy  of  Hesse— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


had  40,000  inhabitants.  The  former  earldom  of  Leiningen  (see  page  328) 
contains  within  the  limits  of  this  province  the  market-towns  of  Guntersblum 
(with  2,500  inhabitants),  BechtJieim  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  and  Monsheim 
(with  900  inhabitants). 

III.  The  province  of  Upper  Hesse,  situated  north  of  the  province  of 
Starkenburg,  and  comprising  chiefly  Hessian  and  mediated  territories.  1.  The 
ancient  Hessian  territory  contains :  -j-Giessen,  the  capital  of  the  province,  at 
the  high-road  between  Cassel  and  Frankfort,  has  7,500  inhabitants,  and  is 
noted  for  its  university  (see  abovo).  Nidda,  a  town  on  the  river  of  the  same 
name,  with  some  linen  and  woollen  manufactures,  and  1,900  inhabitants. 
BiEi>ENKOPF,a  town  on  the  Upper  Lahn,  27  miles  north-north-west  of  Giessen, 
with  cloth  manufactures,  iron-works,  and  3,600  inhabitants.  Other  more  or 
less  remarkable  towns  are:  Allendorf,  surnamed  an  der Lnmda  (with  1,100 
inhabitants),  Gross-Linden  (with  950  inhabitants),  Staufenberg  (with  600 
inhabitants),  Grunberg  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Homberg  an  der  Ohm  (with 
1,800  inhabitants),  Alsfeld  (with  3,800  inhabitants),  Kirdorf  (with  1,400 
inhabitants),  Lauterbach  (with  3,550  inhabitants),  Ulrichstein  (with  950 
inhabitants),  Schotten  (with  2,100  inhabitants),  Ober-Rossbach  (with  1,200 
inhabitants),  Butzbach  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  Hatzfeld  (with  1,000  inhabi- 
tants), and  Battenberg  (with  1,000  inhabitants).  The  village  of  Thalitter 
(with  500  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  copper  mines.  liter,  a  village,  with  the 
ruins  of  an  ancient  castle  of  the  same  name.  2.  To  the  dominions  of  the  at 
present  mediatized  princes  and  earls  of  Solms  (a  very  ancient  dynasty  and 
descendants  of  the  emperor  Conrad  I.,  divided  into  two  chief  branches,  with 
several  collateral  lines),  belonged :  Rodelhetm,  a  market-town  on  the  Nidda 
and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Frankfort,  with  a  formerly  fortified  castle,  and 
2,100  inhabitants.  Laubach,  a  town  on  the  Wetter  river,  with  iron-works 
and  2,100  inhabitants.  Lich,  a  town  on  the  Wetter  river,  with  2,200  inhabi- 
tants, and  a  palace  of  the  prince  of  Solms-Lich.  A$senheim,  Hungen  and 
Miinzenberg,  towns,  with  respectively  800,  1,100,  and  900  inhabitants.  3.  The 
town  of  Buedingen  (with  2,900  inhabitants  and  various  manufactures)  belongs 
to  the  prince  of  Isenburg-Budingen  (see  above),  who  resides  here.  The  town 
of  Wenings  (with  1,000  inhabitants)  belongs  to  another  line  of  this  house. 
4.  The  town  of  Ortenberg  (on  the  Nidder,  18  miles  north-north-east  of 
Hanau,  with  1,100  inhabitants),  and  the  market-towns  of  Gedern  (with  1,900 
inhabitants)  and  Ranstadt  (with  800  inhabitants),  belong  to  the  earls  of  Stol- 
berg  (see  under  the  head  of  Prussia).     5.  The  town  of   Schlitz  (near  the 


358  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Germany. — Grand-Duchy  and  Landgraviate  of  Hesse. 

Fulda  river,  with  considerable  breweries  and  3,300  inhabitants)  belongs  to 
the  count  of  Schlitz,  surnamed  of  Qortz.  6.  The  city  of  Friedberg  was 
until  1803  an  imperial  city,  is  situated  in  the  so-called  Wetterau,  northward 
and  14  miles  distant  from  Frankfort,  and  has  various  manufactures,  a  remark- 
able Gothic  church,  and  2,800  inhabitants.  Friedberg  is  moreover  noted  for 
its  ancient  castle  of  the  same  name,  formerly  the  seat  of  a  knighthood  en- 
dowed with  substantial  privileges. 


X.— THE  LANDGRAVIATE  OF  HESSE. 

Area:  128  square  miles. 
Population  :  26,000  inhabitants. 

This  little  state,  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Hesse-Hom- 
burg,  consists  of  two  distinct  territories,  situated  about  55  miles 
apart,  and  separated  from  each  other  by  Nassau  and  Hesse- 
Darmstadt.  The  smaller  territory  (43  square  miles  and  11,500 
inhabitants),  situated  northward  and  10  miles  distant  from 
Frankfort  on  the  Mayne,  comprises  the  old  landgraviate  of  Horn- 
burg,  while  the  larger  territory  (85  square  miles  and  14,500 
inhabitants),  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  at  the 
north-western  frontier  of  the  Bavarian  palatinate,  and  comprises 
chiefly  the  ancient  dominion  of  Meisenheim,  formerly  belonging 
to  the  palatine  principality  of  Zweibriicken  (see  page  327). 

The  majority  of  the  population  consists  of  Lutherans,  and  the 
remainder  of  about  6,000  Calvinists,  and  3,000  Catholics.  The 
soil  is  fertile  and  well  cultivated.  Manufactures  are  not  lacking, 
but  in  general  of  no  great  importance.  The  government  is  at 
present  a  limited  monarchy.  The  public  revenue  amounts  to 
about  150.000  florins  annually  (exclusive  of  33,000  florins  which 


GERMANY.  359 


The  Landgraviate  of  Hesse — its  History  and  Geographical  Divisions. 

the  private  estates  of  the  landgrave  yield).     To  the  confederal 
army  are  to  be  furnished  229  men. 

History. — When  Philip  the  Generous  divided  the  whole  landgraviate  of 
Hesse  among  his  four  sons  (see  History  of  Hesse-Darmstadt),  George  obtained 
the  dominion  of  Homburg,  together  with  that  of  Darmstadt.  His  son  and 
successor,  Louis  V.  (1596-1626),  who  had  to  pay  20,000  florins  annually  as 
appanage  to  his  brother  Frederic,  found  it  more  convenient  to  cede  to  him  (in 
1622)  in  place  of  the  ready  money,  the  dominion  of  Homburg,  yet  reserving 
to  Hesse-Darmstadt  the  seignory  over  it.  Frederic  I.  died  in  1638,  and  was 
succeeded  first  by  his  son  William  Christoph  (1638-1669),  then  George  Chris- 
tian (1669-1677),  <fcc.  Frederic  V.  was,  when  his  father  died  in  1751,  still 
minor,  and  therefore  his  actual  reign  did  not  commence  before  the  year  1768, 
while  it  lasted  until  1820.  In  1806  Hesse- Darmstadt  renewed  its  ancient 
claims  upon  the  seignory  over  Homburg  (see  above),  and  indeed  realized 
them  in  so  far  as  this  landgraviate  was  deprived  of  its  political  independence. 
However,  in  1817  it  was  restored  to  it,  and  Hesse-Homburg  became  an 
actual  member  of  ihe  German  confederation.  Frederic  V.  died  in  1820,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Frederic  VI.  Joseph,  who  was  married  to  the  Eng- 
lish princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  George  III.  The  reigning  landgrave 
since  the  7th  Sept.  1848,  is  Ferdinand  (the  youngest  brother  of  Frederic  VI.), 
born  in  1783. 

The  landgraviate  of  Hesse  contains : 

1.  In  the  old  landgraviate  of  Homburg  (see  above) :  Homburg,  surnamed 
vor  der  Hohe  (i.  e.  at  the  foot  of  the  Taunus),  the  capital  of  the  whole  land- 
graviate and  residence  of  its  sovereign  (who  resides  in  a  stately  and  extensive 
castle  or  palace),  north-westward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Frankfort,  has 
4,600  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  as  a  watering-place  much  resorted  to.  The 
villages  of  Friedrichshof  and  Dornholzhausen,  whose  inhabitants  are  descen- 
dants of  Waldenses  (see  page  101),  who  settled  here  respectively  in  1687 
and  1699,  are  noted  for  their  flannel  manufactures  and  hosieries. 

2.  In  the  ancient  dominion  of  Meisenheim  (see  above) :  Meisenheim,  a 
town  on  the  Glan  river,  south-westward  and  36  miles  distant  from  Mentz, 
with  a  remarkable  Gothic  church,  considerable  trade  in  natural  products,  and 


360  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany— Duchy  of  Nassau. 

2,600  inhabitants.  Merxheim,  a  village  with  vine  culture  and  1,400  inhabi- 
tants. Ottweiler,  a  town  with  1,600  inhabitants,  formerly  belonged  to  a 
collateral  line  of  the  house  of  Nassau. 


XI— THE  DUCHY  OF  NASSAU. 

Area  :  1,708  square  miles. 
Population  :  420,000  inhabitants. 

It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  its  junction  with  the  Mayne,  is  surrounded  by  parts  of 
the  two  Prussian  western  provinces,  and  is  crossed  by  a  branch 
of  the  Rhine,  viz.,  the  Lahn,  with  its  little  tributaries.  It  com- 
prises the  chief  part  of  the  Taunus  and  Westerwald  mountains 
(see  page  8),  for  which  reason  its  surface  is  mostly  mountain- 
ous and  hilly.  Nevertheless  the  soil  is  generally  fertile  ;  and  if 
Nassau  not  exactly  abounds  in  grain,  it  can  at  least  boast  of  its 
vine-culture  and  valuable  forests.  Moreover  the  rearing  of  cattle 
is  very  considerable,  and  there  are  mines  yielding  iron  (more  than 
100,000  quintals  per  annum),  lead  (about  8,500  quintals),  copper 
(400  quintals),  and  silver  (about  3,800  marks).  The  mineral 
springs  of  Nassau  are  from  old  renowned,  and  its  watering-places 
(as,  for  instance,  Wiesbaden,  Ems,  Schwalbach,  &c.)  very  much 
resorted  to ;  while  the  waters  of  Selters  and  other  springs  are 
largely  exported  to  foreign  countries,  and  even  to  India.  Man- 
ufactures are  various,  but  not  very  considerable  ;  the  trade  is 
carried  on  at  a  rather  great  extent. 

One  half  of  the  population  consists  of  Evangelicals  (see  page 
291),  and  the  other  for  the  most  part  of  Catholics.     The  number 


GERMANY.  361 


The  Duchy  of  Nassau— its  History. 


of  Jews  amounts  to  about  7,000.  With  regard  to  the  means  of 
education,  there  are  3  seminaries,  4  gymnasia,  658  common 
schools,  etc.  (see  the  note,  page  65).  The  government  is  a  lim- 
ited monarchy,  the  sovereign  power  being  vested  in  a  duke  and 
two  legislative  chambers.  The  amount  of  the  public  revenue  and 
of  the  expenditure,  for  several  years  has  been  about  1,810,000 
florins.  The  public  debt  amounts  to  nearly  2.000,000  florins. 
To  the  confederal  army  are  to  be  furnished  4,039  men. 

History. — Emperor  Conrad  I.'s  (see  page  299)  brother  Otto,  baron  of 
Laurenburg,  is  to  be  considered  as  the  ancestor  of  the  house  of  Nassau.  His 
castle  was  situated  on  the  Lahn,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dietz.  His  descen- 
dants, the  earls  Rupert  and  Arnold,  who  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  12th 
century,  still  retained  the  name  of  Laurenburg ;  but  their  sons  assumed  in 
1158  the  names  of  earls  of  Nassau,  with  reference  to  a  castle  of  Nassau 
which  their  fathers  had  reared  in  1101,  not  far  from  the  other.  The  great- 
great-grandsons  of  one  of  them,  the  earls  Walram  and  Otto,  divided  in  1265 
the  inherited  dominions  in  such  manner,  that  Walram  obtained  the  southern 
part  (containing,  among  other  places,  Wiesbaden,  Weilburg,  and  Idstein),  and 
Otto  the  northern  part  (with  Dillenburg,  Herborn,  Hadamar,  Ems,  Ac). 
Otto  became  thus  the  ancestor  of  the  house  of  Nassau-Orange  (see  page  223) ; 
while  the  at  present  reigning  house  of  Nassau  descends  from  Walram  (whose 
son,  as  may  be  remarked  here  by  the  way,  was  the  emperor  Adolphus, 
elected  in  1291).  It  would  lead  us  too  far  to  enter  into  any  particulars  about 
the  acquisitions  made  in  the  course  of  time,  and  about  the  many  collateral 
Unes  of  both  houses,  which  lines,  moreover,  have  long  since  become  extinct ; 
and  we  will  only  mention,  that  the  descendants  of  Walram  were  in  1688  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  princes,  and  that  in  1806  Nassau  assumed  the  title  of  a 
duchy,  while  in  1803  it  had  been  indemnified  for  its  losses  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  by  the  annexation  of  various  other  territories.  The  reigning  duke 
since  1839,  is  Adolphus,  born  in  1817. 

The  present  duchy  of  Nassau  is  divided  into  28  bailiwicks, 
and  comprises,  beside  its  primitive  dominions,  chiefly  territories 
which  formerly  belonged  to  the  electorates  of  Treves  and  Mentz, 
and  were  in  1803  annexed. 

16 


362  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Germany.— Duchy  of  Nassau. 


1.  The  primitive  dominions  of  Nassau  contain  :  Wiesbaden,  the  capital  of 
the  duchy  and  (since  the  death  of  the  late  Duke  William)  the  ducal  residence, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Taunus,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mentz,  has  several 
plendid  public  edifices  and  13,100  inhabitants,  and  is  highly  renowned  and 
very  much  resorted  to  as  a  watering-place.  Not  far  from  here,  on  the  Rhine, 
is  situated  the  market-town  of  Biebrich,  with  3,100  inhabitants,  and  a  stately 
ualace,  where  the  late  Duke  William,  father  of  Adolphus,  commonly  resided. 
CJsixgen,  a  town  on  the  Usbach  river,  north-eastward  and  20  miles  distant 
from  Wiesbaden,  was  formerly  the  residence  of  the  princes  of  Nassau-Usin- 
■^en,  and  has  2,000  inhabitants.  Weilnau,  a  market-town,  with  iron-works, 
and  700  inhabitants.  Idstein,  a  town  northward  and  9  miles  distant  from 
Wiesbaden,  has  2,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  extensive  ancient  castle 
and  white  tanneries.  The  once  highly  remarkable  castle  of  Adolphseck  was 
reared  by  Emperor  Adolphus  of  Nassau.  Weilburg,  a  town  on  the  Lahn, 
and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Wetzlar,  has  2,500  inhabitants,  a  palace,  formerly 
the  residence  of  the  princes  of  Nassau- Weilburg.  Weilmunster,  a  market- 
town  with  1,400  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  iron-works  and  wines.  Dillen- 
»urg,  a  town  on  the  Dill  and  on  the  Westerwald,  northward  and  46  miles 
distant  from  Wiesbaden,  has  2,900  inhabitants,  and  a  remarkable  castle,  once 
the  residence  of  the  princes  of  Nassau-Dillenburg  and  Nassau- Orange.  In 
1567  the  prince  William  of  Orange  (see  page  267)  resided  here  for  a  while. 
flaiger,  a  town  on  the  Dill,  is  noted  for  its  iron- works,  and  has  1,200  inhabi- 
tants. Herborn,  a  town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dillenburg,  with  various 
manufactures  and  2,350  inhabitants.  Hadamar,  a  town  on  a  branch  of  the 
Lahn,  northward  and  28  miles  distant  from  Wiesbaden,  with  2,250  inhabi- 
tants, iron-works  and  an  ancient  castle,  once  the  seat  of  a  collateral  line  of  the 
house  of  Nassau.  Nassau,  a  town  on  the  Lahn,  north-westward  and  26  miles 
distant  from  Wiesbaden,  is  noted  for  the  ruins  of  the  ancestral  castle  of  the 
house  of  Nassau  (see  above),  and  has  1,200  inhabitants.  Dietz,  a  town  on  the 
Lahn,  23  miles  north-north-west  of  Wiesbaden,  has  2,500  inhabitants,  was 
once  the  residence  of  the  princes  of  Nassau-Dietz,  and  is  noted  for  its  nursery- 
garden.  The  village  of  Fachingen  (with  iron-mines,  and  800  inhabitants)  is 
noted  for  its  chalybeate  springs,  whose  waters  are  largely  exported.  Hachen- 
burg,  a  town  on  the  Westerwald,  26  miles  north-north-east  of  Coblenz,  with 
various  manufactures  and  1,600  inhabitants.  Maxsayn,  a  village  with  iron- 
works, and  800  inhabitants.  2.  To  the  former  Electorate  of  Treves  (see  its 
particulars  under  the  head  of  Coblenz)  did  belong :  Limburg,  a  town  on  the 


GERMANY.  368 


The  Duchy  of  Nassau— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


I  .aim.  at  present  the  seat  of  a  Catholic  bishop,  with  considerable  trade  and 
8,300  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  Gothic  church.  The  village  of  Selters 
(properly  styled  Nieder-Selters  or  Lower-Selters),  northward  and  18  miles  dis- 
tant from  Wiesbaden,  with  1,250  inhabitants,  has  long  been  renowned  for  its 
mineral  waters,  of  which  about  2  million  bottles  are  annually  exported. 
Montabaur  (derived  from  the  Latin  Mons  Thabor),  a  town  on  the  Wester- 
wald,  12  miles  east-north-east  of  Coblenz,  has  2,800  inhabitants,  and  was  in 
the  middle  ages  frequently  the  residence  of  the  electors  of  Treves.  The  vil- 
lages of  Hillscheid  and  Hohr  (with  respectively  1,150  and  1,300  inhabitants) 
are  noted  for  their  potteries.  3.  To  the  former  Electorate  of  Mentz  (see  un- 
der the  head  of  Mentz)  did  belong :  Hochst,  a  town  on  the  Mayne,  between 
Frankfort  and  Mentz,  has  2,300  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  manufactures 
of  snuff.  In  its  neighborhood  are  situated  the  more  or  less  remarkable  mar- 
ket-towns of  Hatter sheim  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Heddernheim  (with  1,950 
inhabitants),  and  Hofhetm  (with  1,900  inhabitants).  The  market-town  of  Hat. 
tenheim,  on  the  Rhine,  with  1,050  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  excellent  wines. 
Eltville  or  Ellfeld,  a  town  on  the  Rhine,  has  2,300  inhabitants,  and  was  for- 
merly considered  as  the  capital  of  a  district  along  the  Rhine,  which  is  still 
generally  known  by  the  name  of  Rheingau.  The  ancient  castle  of  Eltville, 
at  present  in  ruins,  was  for  a  while  inhabited  by  Emperor  Adolphus  of  Nas- 
sau, and  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries  frequently  the  residence  of  the  electors 
of  Mentz.  The  neighboring  market-town  of  Rauenthal  (with  1,000  inhabi- 
tants), is  noted  for  its  wines.  Lorch,  a  market-town  on  the  Rhine,  with  vine 
culture,  mineral  waters,  and  1,950  inhabitants.  Lorch,  mentioned  already  in 
documents  from  the  year  832,  is,  besides  the  ruins  of  remarkable  ancient 
castles,  noted  for  a  steep  rock  known  by  the  names  of  Kedrich  and  DeviPs 
Ladder,  to  which  several  interesting  common  reports  or  tales  have  reference. 
The  market-town  of  Geisenheim  (on  the  Rhine,  with  2,550  inhabitants),  and 
the  village  of  Asmannshausen  (with  600  inhabitants),  are  noted  for  their 
wines.  Still  more  noted  for  their  excellent  wines  is  the  town  of  Ruedesheim 
(romantically  situated  on  the  Rhine,  opposite  Bingen,  has  2,550  inhabitants), 
and  the  magnificent  castle  of  Johannisberg  (in  the  neighborhood  of  Riides- 
heim),  which  in  1816  became  the  property  of  the  prince  of  Metternich.  Like- 
wise renowned  for  its  wines  is  the  town  of  Hochheim,  near  the  Mayne  and 
the  city  of  Mentz,  with  2,150  inhabitants.  Weilbach,  a  village  with  mineral 
springs  and  850  inhabitants.  Oberlahnstein  or  Lahnstein,  a  town  on  the 
Rhine,  near  its  junction  with  the  Lahn,  with  iron- works,  mineral  waters  and 


364  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany.— Duchy  of  Nassau. 

1,850  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  castle  of  Lahneck,  reared 
in  the  beginning  of  the  13  th  century  by  the  electors  of  Mentz.  Konigstein, 
a  town  on  the  Taunus,  north-eastward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Wiesbaden, 
with  leather  manufactures  and  1,350  inhabitants.  Epstein,  a  market-town 
between  Koningstein  and  Wiesbaden,  with  850  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  an 
ancient  castle  of  the  same  name.  Kronberg,  a  town  romantically  situated 
on  the  Taunus,  has  2,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  nursery-gardens  and 
fruits,  and  much  resorted  to  as  a  watering-place.  4.  The  formerly  so-called 
Lower  Earldom  of  Katzenellnbogen  (see  page  354),  which  until  1813  did 
mostly  belong  to  Hesse-Cassel.  contains :  St.  Goarshausen,  a  town  on  the 
Rhine,  opposite  the  at  present  Prussian  town  of  St.  Goar,  2*7  miles  west-north- 
west of  Wiesbaden,  with  considerable  trade  and  950  inhabitants.  Close  by 
lies  on  a  steep  hill  the  ancient  castle  of  Katz,  which  in  1393  was  reared  by 
the  earl  John  III.  of  Katzenellnbogen,  and  subsequently  called  Neu-  (i.  e.  New) 
Katzenellnbogen,  to  distinguish  it  from  Alt-  (i.  e.  Old)  Katzenellnbogen,  the 
ancestral  castle  of  the  earls  of  this  name,  who  became  extinct  in  1479.  The 
latter  is  situated  close  by  the  market-town  of  Katzenellnbogen,  with  iron- 
works, and  950  inhabitants.  Not  far  from  St.  Goarshausen  is  in  the  Rhine  the 
remarkable  rock  of  Lurley.  The  ancient  castle  of  Reichenberg,  reared  about 
the  year  1284  by  the  earl  William  I.  of  Katzenellnbogen,  was  in  the  middle 
ages  one  of  the  strongest  and  most  remarkable  castles  in  Germany.  Schwal- 
bach,  a  town  situated  in  a  deep  valley,  north-westward  and  7  miles  distant 
from  Wiesbaden,  with  a  remarkable  Gothic  church,  iron- works,  and  2,150  in- 
habitants, is  renowned  for  its  mineral  springs,  and  much  resorted  to  as  a 
watering-place.  Not  less  noted  and  resorted  to  as  a  watering-place  is  the 
neighboring  village  of  Schlangenbad,  with  250  inhabitants.  The  town  of 
Braubach,  on  the  Rhine,  with  1,550  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  strong  castle 
of  Marxburg,  reared  at  an  early  period  of  the  middle  ages.  The  market- 
town  of  Ems,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Coblenz,  with  2,600  inhabitants,  is  re- 
nowned and  very  much  resorted  to  as  a  watering-place.  Caub  or  Kaub,  on  the 
Rhine,  opposite  the  Prussian  town  of  Bacharach,  with  1,500  inhabitants,  did 
formerly  belong  to  the  Electoral  Palatinate  (see  page  342),  and  is  noted  for  a 
little  castle  on  a  rock  in  the  Rhine,  called  die  Pfalz  (literally,  the  Palatinate), 
and  reared  at  an  early  period  of  the  middle  ages.  6.  The  dependent  ancient 
earldom  of  Holzappel  (with  which  in  1641  an  Austrian  general,  named  Peter 
Eppelmann,  was  invested,  and  which  at  present  belongs  to  the  Austrian  arch- 
duke Stephen),  contains  :  Holzappel,  its  capital,  near  the  Lahn,  eastward  and 


GERMANY.  365 


The  Grand-Duchy  of  Luxemburg  and  Limburg. 


14  miles  distant  from  Coblenz,  with  lead  mines,  and  950  inhabitants.  In  its 
neighborhood  are  the  ruins  of  the  above  mentioned  ancient  castle  of  Lauren- 
burg  (see  History  of  Nassau).  The  village  of  Geilnau  (with  300  inhabitants) 
is  noted  for  its  mineral  waters.  6.  The  dependent  dominion  of  Runkel  (53 
square  miles,  and  9,500  inhabitants),  belonging  to  the  princely  house  of  Neu- 
wied,  contains  the  town  of  Runkel,  on  the  Lahn,  with  1,100  inhabitants,  and 
several  more  or  less  noted  villages. 


XII— THE  GRAND-DUCHY  OF  LUXEMBURG,  TOGETHER  WITH 
THE  DUCHY  OF  LLMBURG. 

Area  :  1,395  square  miles. 
Population  :  282,000  inhabitants. 

The  grand-duchy  of  Luxemburg  was  anciently  a  German  earl- 
dom, named  after  the  castle  of  Luzelinburhut  (Lutzelburg,  Lux- 
emburg), of  which  a  neighboring  wealthy  earl,  Siegfried,  became 
possessed  in  the  10th  century.  The  male  line  of  his  descen- 
dants became  extinct  in  1136,  when  the  dukes  of  Limburg 
inherited  the  earldom,  which  in  1354  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  a  duchy  by  Emperor  Henry  VII.,  who  had  sprung  from  this 
house  (see  page  301).  In  1444,  the  duchy  was  purchased 
by  Philip  the  Good,  duke  of  Burgundy,  and  since  that  period  it 
formed  a  constituent  part  both  of  Burgundy  and  the  Catholic 
Netherlands  (see  page  264).  In  1797,  Austria  ceded  it,  together 
with  the  other  Catholic  provinces  of  Netherlands,  to  France  ;  and 
in  1815  the  house  of  Orange  (see  page  267)  was  invested  with  it 
as  an  indemnification  for  domestic  dominions  in  Nassau,  which 
had  been  ceded  partly  to  Prussia,  partly  to  the  reigning  house  of 
Nassau.     At  the  same  time  the  title  of  a  grand-duchy  was  con- 


EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Germany.— Grand-Duchy  of  Luxemburg  and  Limburg. 


ferred  upon  Luxemburg.  Since  the  revolution  of  Belgium  in 
1830,  the  latter  made  claim  to  the  whole  grand- duchy,  which 
however  was  divided  into  two  parts,  the  western  of  which  was  an- 
nexed to  Belgium  (see  page  277) ;  while  the  eastern  part  (1,012 
square  miles,  and  188,000  inhabitants)  remained  with  the  house 
of  Orange-Nassau.  But  as  the  grand-duchy  of  Luxemburg  had 
since  1815  been  an  actual  member  of  the  German  confederation, 
it  was  in  1839  agreed  upon  that  the  greatest  part  of  the  former 
Netherlandish  province  of  Limburg,  should  (with  the  title  of  a 
duchy  of  Limburg)  supply  the  ceded  half  of  Luxemburg,  in  its 
political  relations  to  Germany. 

Thus  the  grand-duchy  of  Luxemburg  has  in  its  present  extent 
only  an  area  of  1,012  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  188,000 
inhabitants,  who  are  Roman  Catholics.  It  forms  the  south-west- 
ern extremity  of  Germany,  on  the  north-east  and  east  bordering 
upon  the  Prussian  Rhenish  province,  and  on  the  west  and  south 
bound  by  Belgium  and  France.  Its  chief  natural  products  are 
timber,  iron,  hemp,  and  flax  ;  the  rearing  of  cattle  is  rather  con- 
siderable ;  the  manufactures  consist  of  linen,  leather,  paper,  &c. 
The  amount  of  the  revenue  and  of  the  expenditure  (in  Luxemburg 
and  Limburg)  for  several  years,  has  been  about  1,800,000  florins. 
The  troops  to  be  furnished  to  the  confederal  army  consist  of 
2,556  men.  In  1841  an  order  of  honor  ("of  the  oak-crown"),  in 
4  classes,  has  been  instituted  by  the  grand  duke.  The  grand- 
duchy  contains : 

Luxemburg  (anciently  in  German  called  Lutzelburg),  capital  of  the  grand- 
duchy,  and  German  confederal  fortress,  on  the  Elz  river,  26  miles  west-south- 
west of  Treves,  is  noted  for  the  strength  of  its  fortifications,  and  has  12,000 
inhabitants  (exclusive  the  garrison).  Vianden,  a  town  on  the  Our,  with  a 
remarkable  ancient  castle,  leather  manufactures,  and  1,550  inhabitants. 
Wilz,  a  town  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  with  manufactures  of  cloth, 
leather,  and  paper,  and  2,100  inhabitants.    Grevemachern,  a  town  on  the 


GERMANY.  367 


The  Grand-Duchy  of  Luxemburg,  and  the  Duchy  of  Limburg. 


Moselle,  has  2,400  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  wines.  Other  more  or  less 
remarkable  towns  are :  Echternach  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Diekirch  (with 
2.200  inhabitants),  Meersch  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Remich  (with  2,250 
inhabitants),  Esch  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  and  Clairvaux  (with  700  inhabi- 
tants). 

The  duchy  of  Limburg,  which,  considered  as  a  Netherlandish 
province,  has  an  area  of  852  square  miles,  with  198,000  inhabi- 
tants (although  only  its  district  of  Roeremonde,  having  an  area  of 
383£  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  94,000  inhabitants,  actually 
belongs  to  the  German  Confederation),  was  primitively  an  earl- 
dom, originated  about  the  middle  of  the  10th  century.  Henry 
I.,  earl  of  Limburg,  who  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  1 1th  centu- 
ry, was  married  to  Judith,  the  only  daughter  and  heiress  of  Fred- 
eric of  Luxemburg,  duke  of  Lower  Lorraine  (as  the  Netherlands 
were  styled  prior  to  their  annexation  to  the  duchy  of  Burgundy) 
and  his  son,  Henry  II.,  being  elected  duke  of  Lower  Lorraine 
the  ducal  title  was  conferred  to  the  earldom  of  Limburg  also 
In  1280* the  male  line  of  the  dukes  of  Limburg  became  extinct 
and  now  the  duchy  was  inherited  by  the  duke,  John  I,  of  Bra 
bant.  Together  with  Brabant,  Limburg  was  annexed  to  the 
duchy  of  Burgundy,  and  came  subsequently  under  the  sway  of 
Spain,  then  under  that  of  Austria.  By  the  terms  of  the  West- 
phalian  treaty  of  peace  in  1648,  one  part  of  the  duchy  was  ceded 
to  the  republic  of  the  united  provinces  of  the  Netherlands ;  it  be- 
longs at  present  to  the  district  of  Roeremonde,  while  the  remain- 
der of  the  latter  consists  of  a  territory  which  continued  to  be 
annexed  to  the  ancient  duchy  of  Limburg.  The  named  district 
(whose  inhabitants  are  for  the  most  part  Roman  Catholics)  con- 
tains :  • 

Roeremonde,  its  capital,  on  the  Meuse  at  its  junction  with  the  Roer,  west- 
ward and  33  miles  distant  from  Dusseldorf,  has  5,700  inhabitants,  and  is  noted 
for  its  cloth  manufactures.     Weerdt,  a  town  situated  amidst  bogs  and  heaths, 


EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Germany.— Electorate  of  Hesse. 


northward  and  34  miles  distant  from  Mastricht,  has  6,500  inhabitants,  and  is 
noted  in  history  as  the  birth-place  of  the  famous  Austrian  general,  in  the 
thirty  years'  war,  who  named  himself  John  of  Weerdt.  Sittard,  a  town  at 
the  frontier  of  the  Prussian  Rhenish  province,  with  4,000  inhabitants.  Other 
more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are :  Gennep  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  Suste- 
ren  (with  1,300  inhabitants),  Stevens-  Waerd  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Wessem 
(with  1,200  inhabitants),  and  Valkenburg  (in  French  Fauquemont,  has  1,650 
inhabitants).  The  village  of  Vaels,  situated  in  the  neighborhood  of  Aix  la 
Chapelle,  has  2,600  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  cloth  and  needle  manu- 
factures. 


XnL— THE  ELECTORATE  OF  HESSE. 

Area:  4,452  square  miles. 
Population  :  750,000  inhabitants. 

This  state,  commonly  called  Electoral  Hesse  (Kurhessen  in 
German),  and  formerly  known  by  the  name  of  Hesse-Cassel,  is 
situated  between  the  Weser  and  Mayne  rivers,  towards  the  centre 
of  Germany,  surrounded  by  Westphalia,  the  kingdom  of  Han- 
over, the  Saxon  duchies,  and  Hesse-Darmstadt. 

The  majority  of  the  population  consists  of  Calvinists,  and  the 
remainder  of  Lutherans  and  about  100,000  Catholics.  The  num- 
ber of  Jews  amounts  to  about  8,500. 

The  surface  is  generally  more  mountainous  (see  pages  7  and  8)  or 
hilly  than  level,  and  the  soil  may  even  be  called  sterile  in  some 
districts.  However,  sufficient  corn  is  raised  for  home  consump- 
tion, and  the  rearing  of  cattle  is  considerable ;  though  the  latter 
is  not  everywhere  of  fine  breed.  The  chief  natural  products  are 
timber,  flax,  iron,  and  freestone. 

The  manufactures  consist  of  linen,  hardware,  woollen  goods, 


GERMANY.  369 


The  Electorate  of  Hesse— its  History. 


etc.  The  inland  trade  is  not  inconsiderable.  With  regard  to  the 
means  of  education,  there  are,  besides  the  university  at  Marburg 
(see  page  287),  which  in  1846  was  frequented  by  264  students,  6 
lycea,  6  gymnasia,  63  Latin  schools  (see  the  note,  page  65),  etc. 

The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy,  the  sovereign  power 
being  vested  in  an  elector  and  one  legislative  chamber.  The 
public  revenue  was  in  the  period  1843-45,  estimated  at  3,892,700, 
and  the  expenditure  at  3,675,420  Prussian  dollars  per  annum. 
The  public  debt  amounted  in  1840  to  1,642,566  Prussian  dollars. 
The  regular  army  consists  of  8,657  men  ;  to  the  confederal  army 
are  to  be  furnished  5,679  men. 

There  are  the  following  orders  of  honor:  1.  The  order  of  the 
Golden  Lion,  in  4  classes,  and  instituted  in  1770.  2.  The  mili- 
tary order  of  Merit,  instituted  in  1769.  3.  The  order  of  the  Iron 
Helmet,  in  3  classes,  and  instituted  in  1814. 

History. — Hesse-Cassel,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and  Hesse-Homburg,  have  one 
common  origin,  and  thus  we  are  already  acquainted  with  the  remoter  part  of 
Hessian  history  (see  page  352).  The  eldest  son  of  Philip  the  Generous, 
William  IV,  obtained  the  largest  share  in  the  partition,  viz.,  the  greatest 
part  of  the  present  province  of  Lower  Hesse  (with  Cassel),  the  ancient  earl- 
dom of  Ziegenhain,  part  of  Schmalkalden,  one  half  of  the  ready  money,  etc. 
During  his  reign  (1567-1592)  he  made  fresh  acquisitions  of  territories,  mostly 
by  inheritance.  His  son  and  successor,  landgrave  Maurice,  inherited  Mar- 
burg, etc.,  and  other  territories  were  annexed  during  the  reign  of  his  grand- 
son, William  VI.  The  latter's  great-grandson,  Frederic  I.  (1*730-1751),  was 
married  to  Ulrica  Eleanor  of  Sweden,  and  thus  ascended  the  Swedish  throne 
in  1720 ;  while  he,  after  his  father's  death  (in  1730 ),  succeeded  also  in  Hesse- 
Cassel,  though  he  continued  to  reside  in  Stockholm.  He  died  in  1751,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  landgrave  William  VIII.,  whose  successor 
(since  1760)  was  Frederic  II,  who  died  in  1785,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
William  IX.,  who  in  1803  was  indemnified  for  the  cession  of  his  dominions 
on  the  Rhine,  by  the  annexation  of  the  towns  of  Fritzlar  and  Amoneburg, 
etc.  (see  page  356),  while  at  the  same  time  he  was  promoted  to  the  dignity 
of  an  elector.    As  such  he  was  now  styled  William  I.     In  the  war  Napoleon 

16* 


370  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Germany. — Electorate  of  Hesse. 

waged  against  Prussia  in  1 806,  the  elector  of  Hesse  endeavored  to  keep  neu- 
trality, but  in  vain ;  for  after  the  battle  of  Jena,  Napoleon  declared  to  him 
that  he  was  thoroughly  acquainted  with  his  secret  hostile  disposition  against 
him,  so  that  if  he  had  lost  the  battle,  the  elector  would  forthwith  have  at- 
tacked the  French  army.  Thus,  the  only  chance  was  left  to  William  I.,  either 
to  leave  the  country  or  to  defend  it  against  the  French.  As  this  latter  would 
have  been  entirely  unsuccessful,  he  retired  to  Austria,  while  in  the  next  year 
his  state  became  a  constituent  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  (see  page 
295).  In  1813  William  I.  returned  to  his  dominions,  acquired  the  territory 
of  the  ancient  independent  bishopric  of  Fulda,  and  retained  the  electoral  title, 
though  it  had  since  1806  lost  its  actual  signification.  He  died  in  1821,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  William  II,  who  in  1830  appointed  his  son  Fred- 
eric William  (born  in  1802,  and  reigning  elector  since  1847)  co-regent,  and 
died  on  the  20th  November,  1847. 

The  electorate  of  Hesse  is  divided  into  4  provinces,  which  are 
subdivided  into  21  circles,  viz.,  the  province  of  Lower  Hesse 
into  10,  that  of  Upper  Hesse  into  4,  that  of  Fulda  into  4,  and 
the  province  of  Hanau  into  3  circles.  The  capitals  of  the  prov- 
inces will  be  found  marked  by  a  cross  (-{-). 

I.  The  province  of  Lower  Hesse  contains :  -+-Cassel,  the  capital  of  the  elec- 
torate, and  residence  of  the  elector,  on  the  Fulda  (see  page  17),  south-west- 
ward and  28  miles  distant  from  Gottingen,  with  numerous  manufactures,  con- 
siderable inland  trade,  and  32,600  inhabitants.  Cassel  is  noted  for  its  fine 
and  solid  public  and  private  edifices,  some  of  which  are  built  of  freestone ; 
as,  for  instance,  the  electoral  palace,  and  the  museum.  At  about  5  miles  dis- 
tance is  situated,  at  the  foot  of  the  Habichtswald  (see  page  8),  the  electoral 
palace  of  Wilhelmshohe  (literally,  William's  Height),  renowned  for  its  gar- 
dens, fountains,  colossal  statue  of  Hercules,  etc.  The  town  of  Gross-Alme- 
rode,  eastward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Cassel,  with  2,250  inhabitants,  is  noted 
for  its  crucibles.  Allendorf,  a  town  on  the  Werra,  with  4,400  inhabitants, 
is  already,  since  the  10th  century,  noted  for  its  salt-springs  and  works. 
Carlshafen,  a  town  on  the  Weser,  northward  and  20  miles  distant  from  Cas- 
sel, with  rather  important  trade,  and  1,700  inhabitants.  The  town  of  Hof- 
geismar,  northward  and   14  miles  distant  from  Cassel,  with  an  electoral 


GERMANY.  371 


The  Electorate  of  Hesse— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


palace  and  3,500  inhabitants,  is  noted  and  much  resorted  to  as  a  watering- 
place.  The  village  of  Geismar  (near  Fritzlar,  with  mineral  waters  and  900  in- 
habitants) was  in  the  days  of  Paganism  noted  for  a  millennial  oak-tree  kept  holy, 
which  in  the  8th  century  was  cut  down  by  Bonifacius.  Hombehg,  surnamed 
in  Hesse,  a  town  on  the  little  Efze  river,  southward  and  22  miles  distant  from 
Cassel  with  3,800  inhabitants,  and  manufactures  of  linen,  leather,  and  wool- 
len goods.  Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are :  Melsungen  (south- 
ward and  14  miles  distant  from  Cassel,  with  4,050  inhabitants),  Lichtenau 
(with  1,500  inhabitants),  Spangenberg  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  Waldkappel 
(with  1,300  inhabitants),  Borken  (with  1,400  inhabitants),  Grebenstein  (with 
2,500  inhabitants),  Immenhausen  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  Zierenberg  (with 
1,600  inhabitants),  Wolfhagen  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  Qudensberg  (with 
2,100  inhabitants),  Felsberg  (with  1,300  inhabitants),  and  Niedenstein  (with 
700  inhabitants).  Rotenbueg,  a  town  on  the  Fulda,  28  miles  south-south-east 
of  Cassel,  with  3,650  inhabitants,  linen  and  other  manufactures,  and  a  rather 
extensive  castle  or  palace,  until  1834  the  residence  of  the  landgraves  of 
He3se-Rotenburg.  These  landgraves  were  descendants  of  Maurice  (see 
above),  who  having  been  married  twice,  bequeathed  to  his  sons  from  the 
second  matrimony,  the  fourth  part  of  his  dominions.  His  eldest  son  and  suc- 
cessor, William  V.,  ceded  for  this  purpose  certain  cities,  towns,  and  estates, 
in  Lower  Hesse,  to  his  step-brothers,  yet  reserving  his  supreme  sovereignty. 
The  last  descendant  of  these  step-brothers  was  Victor  Amadeus,  who  died  in 
1834,  and  with  whom  this  collateral  line  became  extinct.  Thus,  the  reigning 
house  of  Hesse-Cassel  came  again  in  full  posssesion  of  the  Rotenburgian 
Quarter,  as  this  territory  was  styled.  Other  towns  of  it  are  the  following 
Wannfeied  (on  the  "Werra,  with  considerable  trade,  and  2,050  inhabitants), 
Esohwege  (on  the  "Werra,  with  various  manufactures,  and  6,050  inhabitants^ 
Witzenhausen  (on  the  Werra,  eastward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Cassel 
with  some  vine  culture  and  3,250  inhabitants),  and  Sontra  (with  1,800  inhab- 
itants).— The  ancient  earldom  of  Schaumburg  (which  in  1647  was  inherited 
by  the  house  of  Hesse-Cassel  and  Lippe,  its  native  earls  having  become  ex- 
tinct in  1640),  along  the  Weser,  contains:  Rinteln,  a  town  on  the  Weser, 
north-westward  and  72  miles  distant  from  Cassel,  and  south-westward  and 
32  miles  distant  from  Hanover,  has  3,200  inhabitants,  was  since  1621  noted 
for  its  university,  which  was  abolished  by  the  transitory  Westphalian  govern- 
ment in  1809.  Oldendorf  a  town  on  the  Weser,  with  1,400  inhabitants.  Be- 
tween here  and  Rinteln  are,  on  a  steep  hill  on  the  Weser,  the  ruins  of  the 


372  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany. — Electorate  of  Hesse. 

ancient  castle  of  Schaumburg,  where  the  earls  of  the  same  name  resided. 
Obernkirchen,  a  town  with  1,900  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  quarries  and 
coal  mines.  Rodenberg  and  Sachsenhagen,  towns  with  respectively  1,350  and 
800  inhabitants.  The  village  of  Nenndorf  (with  750  inhabitants)  is  noted 
and  much  resorted  to  as  a  watering-place.  To  the  electorate  of  Mentz  (see 
above  and  page  355)  did  belong:  Fritzlar,  a  town  on  the  Eder  river,  18 
miles  south-south-west  of  Cassel,  with  some  manufactures  and  3,050  inhabi- 
tants. In  the  middle  ages,  Fritzlar  was  by  far  more  noted  than  at  present. 
Numburg,  or  Naumburg,  a  town  with  1,800  inhabitants.  The  town  of  Volk 
marsen,  north-westward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Cassel,  with  2,850  inhabi- 
tants, did  formerly  belong  to  the  duchy  of  Westphalia  (see  under  the  head 
of  Prussia). 

II.  The  province  of  Upper  Hesse  contains :  -[-Marburg,  the  capital  of  the 
province,  on  the  Lahn,  half-way  between  Cassel  and  Frankfort,  has  8,000  in- 
habitants, and  is  noted  for  its  university  (see  above  and  page  287)  and  its 
highly  remarkable  Gothic  St.  Elizabeth's  church,  whose  foundation  was  laid 
in  the  13th  century.  Frankenberg,  a  town  on  the  Eder  river,  ^th  some 
leather  and  cloth  manufactures,  and  3,250  inhabitants.  Other  towns  are : 
Wetter  (with  1,550  inhabitants),  Frankenau  (with  1,050  inhabitants),  Rosen- 
thal (with  1,600  inhabitants),  Gemunden  (with  1,450  inhabitants),  Kirchhain 
(with  1,800  inhabitants),  Rauschenberg  (with  1,550  inhabitants),  and  Schweins- 
berg  (with  1,000  inhabitants).  Ziegenhain,  a  formerly  fortified  town,  23 
miles  east-north-east  of  Marburg,  and  southward  and  32  miles  distant  from 
Cassel,  with  1,750  inhabitants  and  an  ancient  castle,  once  the  residence  of  the 
earls  of  Ziegenhain,  who  became  extinct  in  1450,  upon  which  Hesse-Cassel 
inherited  the  earldom.  Treysa,  a  town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ziegenhain, 
with  some  manufactures  and  2,550  inhabitants.  Neukirchen,  a  town  in  the 
vicinity  of  Ziegenhain,  with  various  manufactures  and  2,150  inhabitants. 
Schvjarzenborn,  a  very  ancient  town,  with  1,000  inhabitants.  The  town  of 
Amoneburg  (on  the  Ohm,  eastward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Marburg,  with 
1,200  inhabitants),  and  Neustadt  (between  Amoneburg  and  Ziegenhain,  with 
1,800  inhabitants),  did  formerly  belong,  together  with  Fritzlar,  etc.,  to  the 
electorate  of  Mentz  (see  page  355). 

III.  The  province  of  Fulda,  comprising  chiefly  the  ancient  independent 
bishopric  of  Fulda,  and  the  dominion  of  Schmalkalden.  1.  The  bishopric  of 
Fulda  took  its  origin  from  an  abbey  instituted  in  744  by  the  holy  Bonifacius, 
and  which  in  the  course  of  time  was  endowed  with  various  privileges,  and  in 


GERMANY.  373 


The  Electorate  of  Hesse — its  Geographical  Divisions. 


1752  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  independent  bishopric,  which  in  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century  had  a  territory  to  the  extent  of  788  square  miles,  with 
70,000  inhabitants.  In  1803  it  was  secularized,  and,  by  the  title  of  a  princi- 
pality, ceded  to  the  prince  of  Orange  (subsequently  King  William  I.  of  the 
Netherlands).  But  as  this  prince  was  in  1806  general  in  the  Prussian  ser- 
vice, Napoleon  deprived  him,  after  the  battle  of  Jena,  of  the  principality  of 
Fulda,  and  annexed  it  in  1809  to  the  grand-duchy  of  Frankfort  (see  page  294). 
In  1815  Prussia  became  possessed  of  it,  but  soon  ceded  it  to  Hesse-Cassel, 
with  the  exception  of  some  districts,  which  were  annexed  to  Bavaria.  It 
since  bears  the  title  of  a  grand-duchy,  and  contains :  -[-Fulda,  its  former  capi- 
tal, and  residence  of  the  bishop,  on  the  Fulda  river,  62  miles  south-south-east 
of  Cassel,  with  various  and  numerous  manufactures  and  9,600  inhabitants,  is 
noted  for  its  magnificent  palace  and  its  cathedral  containing  the  sepulchre  of 
the  holy  Bonifacius.  The  neighboring  village  of  Salzschlierf  (with  1,100  in- 
habitants) is  a  watering-place.  Huenfeld,  a  town  on  the  high-road  between 
Fulda  and  Eisenach,  with  noted  linen  manufactures,  and  2,150  inhabitants. 
Burghaun,  a  market-town,  with  1,800  inhabitants.  2.  The  dominion  of 
Sckmalkalden  (144  square  miles,  and  27,300  inhabitants),  which  partly 
was  purchased,  partly  inherited  by  the  house  of  Hesse-Cassel  respectively 
in  1360  and  1583,  contains:  Schmalkalden,  a  town  at  the  Thuringer- 
wald  Mountains,  about  half-way  between  Fulda  and  Weimar,  with  5,500  in- 
habitants, is  renowned  for  its  cutlery,  and  also  noted  in  the  history  of  the 
Reformation,  especially  with  reference  to  the  years  1531  and  1537.  The 
neighboring  market-town  of  Klein- Schmalkalden  (Little  Schmalkalden),  part 
of  which  belongs  to  Saxe-Gotha,  has  1,050  inhabitants,  who  carry  on  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  those  articles  fabricated  at  Schmalkalden.  Beotterode,  a 
market-town,  with  manufactures  of  hardware  and  cutlery,  and  2,400  inhabi- 
tants. The  villages  Oberschonau  (with  960  inhabitants)  and  Seligenthal  (with 
1,150  inhabitants),  are  noted  for  their  iron- works.  3.  The  market-town  of 
Philippsthal  (on  the  Werra,  30  miles  north-north-east  of  Fulda,  with  900 
inhabitants)  is  the  residence  of  a  collateral  line  of  the  house  of  Hesse-CasseL 
Other  market-towns  are  Niederaula  (with  1,350  inhabitants),  and  Heringen 
(with  1,250  inhabitants).  Hersfeld,  a  town  on  the  Fulda  river,  northward 
and  24  miles  distant  from  Fulda,  with  manufactures  of  leather  and  woollen 
goods,  and  7,000  inhabitants.  The  market-town  of  Barchfeld,  with  1,600 
inhabitants,  is  the  residence  of  a  collateral  line  of  the  house  of  Hesse-Cassel. 
Friedewald,  a  market-town,  with  1,550  inhabitants. 


374  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany. — Electorate  of  Hesse. 

IV.  The  province  of  Hanau,  comprises  chiefly  the  ancient  earldom  of 
Hanau-Munzenberg  (which  in  1736  was  inherited  by  the  house  of  Hesse- 
Cassel),  and  containing:  -4-Hanau,  the  capital  of  the  province,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Mayne,  eastward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Frankfort,  with 
numerous  and  various  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and  15,300  inhabi- 
tants. Hanau  is  noted  for  the  battle  on  the  30th  Oct.,  1813,  in  which  the  Ba- 
varian and  Austrian  troops  were  defeated  by  Napoleon,  then  retreating  from 
Leipsic.  Near  Hanau  is  the  electoral  palace  of  Philippsruhe,  and  the  water- 
ing-place of  Wilhelrnsbad.  On  the  left  bank  of  the  Mayne  is  situated  the 
palace  of  Rumpenheim,  until  1837  the  residence  of  the  late  landgrave  Frede- 
ric, father  of  the  duchess  of  Cambridge.  The  market-town  of  Nauheim  (with 
1,450  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  salt-springs.  Bockenheim,  a  town  on  the 
Mayne  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Frankfort,  with  3,500  inhabitants.  In  its 
vicinity  is  situated  the  market-town  of  Praunheim,  with  700  inhabitants. 
The  market-town  of  Bergen,  not  far  from  Frankfort,  with  2,000  inhabitants, 
is  remarkable  for  a  victory  obtained  by  the  French  in  1759.  Gelnhausen, 
anciently  an  imperial  city  and  frequently  the  residence  of  Emperor  Frederic 
I.  (see  page  300),  is  situated  on  the  Kinzig,  and  the  high-road  between  Hanau 
and  Fulda,  and  has  4,050  inhabitants.  Of  the  ancient  imperial  residence  some 
remains  are  still  extant.  Between  here  and  Fulda  is  to  be  noticed  Schluech- 
tern,  a  town  with  2,250  inhabitants.  The  town  of  Steinau,  on  the  Kinzig 
river,  has  2,550  inhabitants.  To  the  former  bishopric  of  Fulda  (see  above) 
once  belonged  the  towns  of  Salmuenster  (with  1,650  inhabitants)  and  Soden 
(with  1,100  inhabitants).  The  market-town  of  Birstein  (with  a  palace  and 
1,100  inhabitants)  belongs  to  the  prince  of  Isenburg-Birstein  (see  page  355). 
To  other  lines  of  the  princely  house  of  Isenburg  do  belong  :  Waechtersbach, 
a  town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Salmunster,  with  1,400  inhabitants,  and  Meer- 
holz,  a  market-town,  noted  for  its  quarries,  has  900  inhabitants. 


GERMANY.  375 


The  Principality  of  Waldeck— its  History. 


XIV.— THE  PRINCIPALITY  OF  WALDECK. 

Area  :  458  square  miles. 
Population  :  62,000  inhabitants. 

This  principality,  situated  between  Hesse-Cassel  and  West- 
phalia, consists  of  two  detached  sections  about  30  miles  from 
each  other.  The  larger  section  (426  square  miles,  and  55,000 
inhabitants)  comprises  Waldeck  proper ;  and  the  by  far  smaller 
section  (32  square  miles,  and  7,000  inhabitants)  consists  of  the 
earldom  or  principality  of  Pyrmont,  and  is  situated  on  the  We- 
ser.  The  inhabitants,  being  Evangelicals  (see  page  291),  depend 
for  subsistence  chiefly  on  agriculture  and  other  branches  of  hus- 
bandry. The  government  is  a  somewhat  limited  monarchy 
The  public  revenue  and  expenditure  amount  to  about  250,000 
Prussian  dollars  annually,  and  the  'public  debt  to  600,000  Prus- 
sian dollars.  To  the  confederal  army  are  to  be  furnished  519 
men. 

History. — "Waldeck  was  primitively  an  earldom,  whose  first  historically 
known  earl  was  Wittekind  (not  to  be  confounded  with  the  famous  Saxon 
duke  of  this  name),  who  lived  in  the  beginning  of  the  11th  century.  His  de- 
scendants formed  several  lines,  most  of  which  became  extinct  in  the  course 
of  time.  In  1625  the  reigning  house  of  Waldeck  inherited  the  earldom  of 
Pyrmont,  and  was  respectively  in  1692  and  1712  promoted  to  the  princely 
rank  and  dignity.  In  1807  Waldeck  became  a  member  of  the  Rhenish,  and 
in  1815  of  the  German  confederation.  The  reigning  sovereign  is  prince 
George,  born  in  1831. 

The  principality  of  Waldeck  is  divided  into  4  bailiwicks,  one 
of  which  comprises  the  earldom  of  Pyrmont.  We  shall  first  de- 
scribe Waldeck  proper,  and  next  to  it  Pyrmont. 


376  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Germany.— Principality  of  Waldeck. 

1.  Waldeck  proper  (see  p.  375)  contains  :  Corbach,  or  Korbach,  the  capital 
of  the  whole  principality  (the  princely  residence  is  in  Arolsen),  on  the  Itter 
river,  30  miles  west-south-west  of  Cassel,  with  a  remarkable  church,  and 
2,500  inhabitants.  Arolsen,  residence  of  the  prince  and  seat  of  the  govern- 
ment, on  the  little  Aar  river,  20  miles  west-north-west  of  Cassel,  with,  2,200 
inhabitants),  various  manufactures,  and  a  remarkable  and  extensive  princely 
palace,  founded  in  1716.  Wildungen  (or  Niederwildungen),  a  town  south- 
eastward and  14  miles  distant  from  Corbach,  with  a  remarkable  church,  and 
1,850  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  mineral  waters.  In  the  neighborhood  of 
Corbach  are  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Schwalenberg,  ancestral  seat  of  the 
reigning  princely  house.  The  neighboring  town  of  Sachsenhausen,  with  1,200 
inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  breweries.  Waldeck,  a  town  9  miles  east-south- 
east of  Corbach,  with  the  ancient  castle  of  the  same  name,  and  800  inhabi- 
tants. Other  towns  are  :  Mengeringhausen  (with  1,750  inhabitants),  Saclisen- 
berg  (with  1,150  inhabitants),  Freienhagen  (with  800  inhabitants),  and  Rhoden 
(with  1,750  inhabitants).  The  market-town  of  Bergheim,  with  600  inhabi- 
tants, is  the  residence  of  the  earl  of  Waldeck,  who  belongs  to  a  collateral 
line  of  the  princely  house.  2.  The  earldom,  or  at  present  principality  of 
Pyrmont  (see  above),  contains :  Pyrmont,  a  town  on  the  Weser,  northward 
and  52  miles  distant  from  Cassel,  has  a  remarkable  princely  palace,  and 
3,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  mineral  waters,  and  annually  visited  by 
many  strangers. 


XV.— THE  KINGDOM  OF  SAXONY. 

Area:  5,793  square  miles. 
Population  :  1,809,000  inhabitants. 

The  former  electorate,  but  since  1806  kingdom  of  Saxony,  is 
situated  towards  the  centre  of  Germany,  between  Bavaria  and 
Silesia,  and  between  Bohemia  and  the  Prussian  province  of 
Saxony. 


GERMANY.  377 


The  Kingdom  of  Saxony— its  Natural  Products  and  Manufactures. 


Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Lutherans,  though  the  royal  family 
is  Catholic  since  the  days  of  Frederic  Augustus  I.  (1694-1733). 
In  1843  the  number  of  Catholics  (chiefly  in  Lusatia)  in  the  coun- 
try was  30,375,  and  that  of  Calvinists  was  2,074,  while  the  num- 
ber of  Jews  (who  are  allowed  only  to  live  in  Dresden  and 
Leipsic)  was  restricted  to  882. 

The  surface  is  mostly  hilly  and  mountainous,  yet  level  in  the 
northern  part  of  the"  country.  The  principal  mountain  range 
here  is  the  Erzgebirge,  or  Ore  Mountains  (see  page  7).  The 
Highland  of  Meissen  is  usually  called  Saxon  Switzerland,  on 
account  of  its  sublime  natural  scenery.  The  principal  river 
is  the  Elbe. 

The  soil  is  in  the  level  and  hilly  parts  of  the  country,  both 
fertile  and  eminently  cultivated ;  nevertheless  corn  is  not  suffi- 
ciently raised  for  home  consumption.  The  vine  is  cultivated  to  a 
rather  great  extent,  but  the  wines  which  are  produced  are  not  fit 
for  being  exported.  Fruits  of  various  kinds  are  produced  in 
abundance.  The  rearing  of  cattle  is  very  considerable,  and  vast 
flocks  of  sheep  are  raised,  the  wool  of  which,  noted  for  its  fine- 
ness, is  largely  exported.  The  greatest  part  of  German  wool 
imported  into  England  in  1828,  amounting  to  more  than  230,000 
quintals,  was  Saxon  wool.  In  1765  Spanish  sheep  were  intro- 
duced for  improving  the  native  breed,  and  in  1829  Saxon  sheep 
were  introduced  in  Spain  to  improve  the  Spanish  breed !  Sax- 
ony is  moreover  rich  in  metals  and  other  minerals.  In  1844  the 
nett  produce  of  the  Saxon  mines  had  a  value  of  2,197,873  Prus- 
sian dollars,  and  consisted  chiefly  of  silver  (74,272  marks),  lead 
(8,940  quintals),  tin  (2,409  quintals),  iron  (at  the  value  of  more 
than  600,000  Prussian  dollars),  etc. 

Saxony  is  noted  for  its  manufactures,  which  consist  chiefly  of 
cotton  and  woollen  goods,  linen,  lace,  straw  hats,  etc.,  musical  in- 
struments and  porcelain.     The  inland  trade  is  very  considerable, 


378  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Geimany. — Kingdom  of  Saxony, 


and  for  several  years  the  exports  have  surpassed  the  imports  by 
about  3  million  Prussian  dollars  in  value. 

With  regard  to  the  means  of  education,  Saxony  ranks  among  the 
first  countries  of  Germany  in  this  point.  Beside  the  university 
at  Leipsic  (see  page  287),  which  in  1846  was  frequented  by  835 
students,  there  are  2  so-called  princely  schools  (arranged  in  a 
similar  manner,  as  for  instance,  the  colleges  at  Eton  and  Win- 
chester in  England),  9  gymnasia,  9  seminaries,  the  renowned 
mining  academy  at  Freiberg,  2,155  common  schools  (beside  nu- 
merous private  schools),  etc. 

The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy  like  that  of  Wirtem- 
berg.  In  the  budget  for  the  period  1846-48,  the  public  revenue 
was  estimated  at  5.798,648  Prussian  dollars,  and  the  expenditure 
at  5,786,059  annually.  The  actual  public  debt  amounted  at  the 
close  of  the  year  1846,  to  13,092,600  Prussian  dollars.  The 
regular  army  consists  of  16,691  men.  The  troops  for  the  con- 
federal army,  12,000  men. 

There  are  the  following  orders  of  honor :  1 .  The  order  of  the 
Rue  Crown,  instituted  in  1807,  in  one  single  class.  2.  The 
military  order  of  St.  Henry,  instituted  in  1736,  and  renewed 
respectively  in  1796,  and  1829,  in  4  classes.  3.  The  civil  order 
of  Merit,  in  3  classes,  instituted  in  1815. 

History. — The  first  historically  known  inhabitants  of  this  country  were  the 
Hermunduri  (a  Germanic  tribe) ;  and  at  a  later  period  and  until  the  end  of 
the  10th  century,  we  find  here  the  Sorbes  and  other  Slavonic  tribes  predom- 
inant. Thus,  while  Slavonic  tribes  occupied  a  country  which  at  present  is 
known  only  by  the  name  of  Saxony,  the  ancient  and  genuine  Germanic  tribe 
of  the  Saxons,  lived  at  a  rather  great  distance  from  it  in  the  north-western 
part  of  Germany,  between  the  Rhine  and  Eider  rivers  (see  page  298).  In 
short,  the  ancient  Saxons  (whose  principal  seat  is  in  common  life  still  fre- 
quently called  Lower  Saxony)  had  nothing  in  common  with  the  fore-mentioned 
country ;  and  the  latter  would,  but  for  the  political  alterations  the  ancient 
duchy  of  Saxony  underwent  towards  the  end  of  the  12th  century,  perhaps 


GERMANY.  379 


The  Kingdom  of  Saxony— its  History. 


have  retained  its  primitive  political  name  of  Meissen  until  the  present  day. 
This  name  was  derived  from  that  of  the  stronghold  of  Meissen,  which  Em- 
peror Henry  I.  erected  in  930  on  the  Elbe,  to  protect  the  eastern  frontier  of 
Germany  against  the  inroads  on  the  part  of  the  neighboring  Slavonic  tribes. 
He  annexed  a  territory  to  that  place,  appointed  a  margrave  to  represent  him 
here,  and  in  this  way  the  margraviate  of  Meissen  came  to  existence.  In 
1046  Emperor  Henry  1IL  invested  with  the  margraviate  the  earl  Dedo  II. 
of  Wettin,  who  is  the  ancestor  of  the  present  reigning  houses  in  the  kingdom, 
as  well  as  in  the  grand- duchy  and  duchies  of  Saxony.  In  the  course  of  time 
the  margraviate  was  gradually  enlarged,  especially  by  the  ancient  landgra- 
viate  of  Thuringen  (see  under  the  head  of  Saxe- Weimar),  which  was  inher- 
ited in  the  13th  century.  Meanwhile  the  powerful  duchy  of  Saxony  (L  e.  the 
present  Hanover,  Westphalia,  etc.,  see  page  299)  had  been  dismembered 
since  the  year  11*79  (when  the  Duke  Henry,  surnamed  the  Lion,  was  out- 
lawed on  account  of  his  felony),  and  with  its  north-eastern  part  and  the  elec- 
toral privileges  (see  page  293),  the  Duke  Bernard  of  Ascania  (see  under  the 
head  of  Anhalt)  been  invested.  In  1422  the  electoral  line  of  the  Ascanian 
house  became  extinct,  and  Emperor  Sigismund  now  conferred  that  named 
part  of  the  ancient  duchy  of  Saxony  and  the  electoral  dignity  upon  the  mar- 
grave Frederic  of  Meissen,  and  since  that  period  the  name  of  a  margraviate 
of  Meissen  became  gradually  obsolete,  and  was  supplanted  by  the  more  illus- 
trious title  of  the  electorate  of  Saxony.  For  the  same  reason  that  circle  of 
the  German  Empire  which  chiefly  embraced  this  electorate,  was  styled  the 
Upper  Saxon  circle  (see  page  293).  The  Margrave  Frederic,  or  Elector 
Frederic  I,  died  in  1428,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Frederic  II,  sur- 
named the  Meek,  who  resided  in  Altenburg,  and  died  in  1464,  leaving  be- 
hind two  sons,  Ernest  and  Albert.  Ernest  succeeded  his  father  as  elector, 
and  the  electoral  residence  was  henceforth  usually  in  Wittenberg.  But  he 
ceded  the  ancient  margraviate  of  Meissen  (comprising  among  others  Dresden 
and  Leipsic)  and  part  of  Thuringia,  to  his  younger  brother  Albert,  who  took 
his  residence  in  Dresden,  and  with  whom,  and  his  descendants,  we  have  only 
to  do  here.  For  Ernest's  grandson,  John  Frederic,  surnamed  the  Generous, 
having  taken  up  arms  against  the  emperor,  and  for  this  reason  been  deposed 
in  1547,  Albert's  grandson,  Maurice,  was  invested  with  the  electorate,  how- 
ever at  the  same  time  obliged  to  cede  to  the  deposed  elector  and  his  descen- 
dants, the  districts  of  Weimar,  Jena,  Eisenach,  Gotha,  etc.,  to  which  in  1554 
was   added  that  of  Altenburg.     In   this  way  the  Saxon  grand-duchy  and 


380  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom  of  Saxony. 

duchies,  ruled  by  descendants  of  Ernest  and  respectively  of  John  Frederic, 
came  into  existence.  Elector  Maurice  died  in  1553,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  Augustus  I,  who  died  in  1586,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Christian  I,  etc.  The  elector  Frederic  Augustus  I.  (1694-1733)  ascended 
the  Polish  throne  as  King  Augustus  II.  He  died  in  1733,  and  was  succeeded 
both  in  Saxony  and  Poland  by  his  son  Frederic  Augustus  II  (Augustus  III.), 
who  died  in  1763.  His  grandson,  Frederic  Augustus  (1763-1827),  became 
in  1806,  member  of  the  Rhenish  confederation  (see  page  294),  as  king  of 
Saxony,  and  in  the  following  year  possessed  of  the  duchy  or  grand-duchy  of 
Warsaw,  created  by  Napoleon.  He  continued  to  be  the  ally  of  Napoleon, 
even  until  the  battle  of  Leipsic  in  1813,  and  for  this  reason  he  was  by  the 
powers  allied  against  the  French  emperor,  treated  as  prisoner,  and  in  1815 
deprived  of  the  larger  half  (7,961  square  miles,  and  in  1815,  with  845,218 
inhabitants)  of  his  kingdom,  in  favor  of  Prussia,  to  which  this  half  was  ceded. 
King  Frederic  Augustus  I.  died  in  1827,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother, 
Anton,  who  died  in  1836,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  the  at  present 
reigning  king,  Frederic  Augustus  II,  born  in  1797. 

Until  1835  the  kingdom  was  divided  into  5  circles  or  provinces, 
which  since  have  been  reduced  to  4  (of  Dresden,  Leipsic,  Zwickau 
and  Bautzen),  styled  districts  of  circle  directions  (Kreisdirektions- 
Bezirke).  Those  of  Dresden,  Leipsic  and  Zwickau  comprise  the 
ancient  margraviate  of  Meissen  and  part  of  Thuringia  ;  while  that 
of  Bautzen  comprises  the  greater  part  of  the  Upper  Lusatia,  an- 
nexed to  Saxony  in  1 635.  For  the  sake  of  brevity,  we  shall  use 
the  term  of  provinces,  whose  capitals  will  be  found  marked  with  a 
cross  (+). 

I.  The  province  of  Dresden  contains :  -{-Dresden,  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom and  royal  residence,  on  both  sides  of  the  Elbe  (crossed  here  by  one  of 
the  finest  bridges,  built  of  freestone,  1,380  feet  long  and  42  feet  broad),  had, 
at  the  close  of  the  year  1846,  3,706  houses  and  85,707  inhabitants,  exclusive 
of  the  military  and  strangers.  Dresden  is  noted  for  a  great  many  magnifi- 
cent or  at  least  remarkable  public  buildings ;  as  for  instance,  the  Catholic 
church  (reared  in  the  period  of  1739-1756),  the  church  of  Our  Lady  (with 
a  fine  cupola),  the  royal  palace  with  a  steeple  of  353  feet  in  height,  the  so- 


GERMANY.  881 


The  Kingdom  of  Saxony— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


called  Japanese  palace  containing  the  royal  library  (see  page  288),  the  new 
building  for  the  highly  renowned  gallery  of  paintings,  the  former  palace  of 
Marcolini  (where  Napoleon  resided  in  1813),  etc.  Near  Dresden  is  the  beauti- 
ful valley  called  Plauenscher  Grund,  after  the  village  of  Plauen,  where  it 
ends,  while  it  begins  at  the  town  of  Tharand,  with  1,800  inhabitants  and  an 
academy  for  forest-concerns.  The  neighboring  village  of  Kenselsdorf  is 
noted  for  a  battle  between  the  Prussians  and  Austro-Saxons  on  the  15th  Dec, 
1745.  Meissen,  once  the  capital  of  the  ancient  margraviate  of  Meissen,  on 
the  Elbe,  13  miles  below  Dresden,  with  8,200  inhabitants,  vine  culture,  and  a 
college  or  so-called  princely  school  (see  above),  instituted  in  1543.  Meissen 
is  at  present  chiefly  noted  for  its  eminent  porcelain-manufactory,  which  in 
1710  was  established  in  the  ancient  and  extensive  castle,  where  the  mar- 
graves had  resided.  Another  remarkable  edifice  is  the  ancient  Gothic  cathe- 
dral; for  Meissen  was  until  1587  the  seat  of  a  Catholic  bishop.  The  neigh- 
boring town  of  Lcmmatzsch  (with  2,800  inhabitants)  is  situated  in  a  district 
of  the  same  name  that  is  highly  renowned  for  the  fertility  of  its  well-cultivated 
soil.  Freiberg,  a  city  near  the  Freiberger  Mulde  river,  south-westward  and 
18  miles  distant  from  Dresden,  is  highly  renowned  both  for  its  numerous 
mines  and  mining  academy,  which  was  founded  in  1765  and  has  ever  since 
been  much  resorted  to,  even  from  foreign  countries.  The  mines  of  Freiberg 
were  for  the  first  time  wrought  in  the  12th  century,  and  have  since  produced 
quantities  of  silver  to  the  value  of  240,000,000  Prussian  dollars.  Hainichen,  a 
town,  north-westward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Freiberg,  with  numerous  manu- 
factures and  5,600  inhabitants,  is  remarkable  as  the  birth-place  of  the  amiable 
German  poet  Gellert.  Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are  :  Wilsdncf 
(with  2,150  inhabitants),  Riesa  (with  2,300  inhabitants),  Brand  (with  2,400 
inhabitants),  Sayda  (with  1,250  inhabitants),  Frauenstein  (with  1,150  inhabi- 
tants), Altenberg  (with  important  tin  mines,  and  2.100  inhabitants),  Glas- 
hiitte  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  Dohna  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Dippoldiswalde 
(with  2,550  inhabitants),  Grossen/iain  (with  6,500  inhabitants),  Radeburg 
(noted  for  its  corn  and  cattle-markets,  has  2,100  inhabitants),  and  Radeberg 
(with  linen  manufactures  and  2,300  inhabitants).  The  town  of  Liebstadt,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Pima,  with  800  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  ancient  moun- 
tain-castle of  Kukukstein.  In  its  vicinity  is  situated  the  village  of  Maxen 
where  on  the  21st  Nov.,  1759,  the  Prussian  general  Fink  capitulated  with 
15,000  men.  Kreischa,  a  market-town,  between  Dresden  and  Pima,  with 
900  inhabitants,  is  noted  as  a  watering-place,  and  situated  in  a  district  that 


382  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Germany.— Kingdom  of  Saxony. 

may  be  considered  as  the  principal  seat  of  the  Saxon  straw-hat  manufactures. 
Moritzburg,  a  palace  northward  and  7  miles  distant  from  Dresden,  and 
reared  in  1542  by  the  elector  Maurice,  contains  more  than  220  rooms  and 
apartments,  and  is  noted  as  a  royal  hunting-seat.  The  palace  of  Pillnitz,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Dresden,  and  noted  for  its  gardens  and  park,  is  the  resi- 
dence of  the  king  in  the  summer  season.  Schandau,  a  town  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Elbe,  and  near  the  frontier  of  Bohemia,  with  1,650  inhabitants,  may 
be  considered  as  the  principal  place  of  the  above-mentioned  Saxon  Switzerland. 
Between  Schandau  and  Dresden  is  situated,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  the 
town  of  Pirn  a,  with  6,000  inhabitants,  noted  for  its  quarries,  and  for  its  ancient 
castle  of  Sonnenstein,  standing  on  a  high  rock  and  at  present  arranged  for  a 
mad  house.  Opposite  Pima,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  is  situated  the 
town  of  Konigstein,  with  2,050  inhabitants,  and  the  renowned  mountain-fort 
of  the  same  name,  which  is  as  impregnable,  for  instance,  as  that  of  Gibraltar. 
The  well  of  this  fort  is  1,172  feet  deep. 

II.  The  province  of  Leipsic,  comprising  part  of  a  district  anciently  well 
known  by  the  name  of  Osterland,  contains :  -["Leipsic  (in  German  Leipzig), 
a  city  on  the  Pleisse,  at  its  junction  with  the  Elster  river,  70  miles  west-north- 
west of  Dresden,  had,  at  the  close  of  the  year  1846,  1,980  houses  and  60,103 
inhabitants.  Leipsic  may  in  some  respects  be  considered  as  the  centre  of  the 
inland  trade  of  Germany,  and  is  noted  not  only  for  its  great  fairs,  held 
thrice  a  year,  but  also  for  its  highly  important  book-trade,  and  its  univer- 
sity (see  page  287).  The  most  remarkable  public  edifices  here  are:  the 
Pleissenburg  (celebrated  as  a  stronghold  in  the  thirty  years'  war,  and  erected 
in  1549),  the  so  called  Paulinum  (with  a  church  inaugurated  by  Luther  on 
the  12th  Aug.,  1545),  St.  Nicholas'  church,  St.  Thomas'  church,  etc.  The  en- 
virons of  Leipsic  were  the  scenes  of  important  battles  in  1631, 1642,  and  es- 
pecially on  the  16th  and  18th  Oct.,  1813.  Grimma,  a  town  on  the  Mulde 
river,  south-eastward  and  17  miles  distant  from  Leipsic,  has  5,200  inhabitants, 
and  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  and  its  princely  school  or  college  (see  above), 
founded  in  1543.  Wurzen,  a  town  on  the  rail-road  between  Leipsic  and  Dres- 
den, is  noted  for  its  ancient  cathedral  (whose  foundation  was  laid  in  1114),  and 
has  4,200  inhabitants.  Mutzschen,  a  town  north-eastward  and  7  miles  dis- 
tant from  Grimma,  with  1,650  inhabitants.  In  its  neighborhood  is  situated 
the  palace  of  Hubertsburg,  formerly  noted  as  a  hunting-seat,  and  for  the 
treaty  of  peace  concluded  here  in  1763.  The  town  of  Colditz  (south-east- 
ward and  25  miles  distant  from  Leipsic,  with  3,000  inhabitants)  is  noted  for 


GERMANY. 


The  Kingdom  of  Saxony— its  Geographical  Divisions. 

its  hospital,  that  of  Rochlitz  (southward  and  32  miles  distant  from  Leipsic, 
with  4,200  inhabitants),  for  its  manufacture  of  woollen  goods,  and  the  town 
of  Waldheim  (between  Leipsic  and  Freiberg,  with  3,500  inhabitants),  for  its 
house  of  correction.  Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are :  Taucha  (with 
2,100  inhabitants),  Markranstiidt  (with  1,050  inhabitants),  Pegau  (with  3,600 
inhabitants),  Zwenkau  (with  2,650  inhabitants),  Borna  (with  4,200  inhabitants), 
Geringswalde  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  and  Leimig  (with  important  manufac- 
tures and  5,200  inhabitants).  Penig,  a  town  on  the  Mulde  river,  between 
Leipsic  and  Chemnitz,  with  4,100  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  cotton  manufac- 
tures, and  belongs  to  a  collateral  line  of  the  dependent  princely  house  of  Schon- 
burg  (see  under  the  head  of  the  following  province),  together  with  the  town 
of  Wechselburg  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  and  the  village  of  Rochsburg  (with 
600  inhabitants,  and  a  remarkable  ancient  castle  or  palace). 

III.  The  province  of  Zwickau,  comprising  among  others  the  ancient  Voigt- 
land  (which  name  is  derived  from  voigt  or  bailiff,  because  the  district  was  in 
the  middle  ages  under  the  sway  of  an  imperial  bailiff  or  governor),  contains : 
-J-Zwickau,  the  capital  of  the  province,  in  a  romantic  valley  on  the  Zwickauer 
Mulde  river,  southward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Leipsic,  has  9,000  inhabi- 
tants and  several  remarkable  churches,  and  is  noted  for  its  coal  mines. 
Zwickau  carried  on  a  very  considerable  trade  in  the  middle  ages,  and  was  an 
imperial  city  until  1308.  The  towns  of  Crimmitzschau  (with  remarkable 
Gothic  church  and  5,800  inhabitants)  and  Werdau  (with  6,300  inhabitants), 
are  noted  for  their  woollen  manufactures.  Schneeberg,  a  noted  mining  town 
in  the  Erzgebirge  or  Ore  Mountains,  southward  and  12  miles  distant  from 
Zwickau,  with  various  manufactures,  especially  of  lace,  and  7,300  inhabitants. 
Its  silver  mines  wrought  for  the  first  time  in  1411,  were  so  productive,  that 
when  in  1477  the  margrave  Frederic  of  Meissen  dined  in  one  of  them,  he  sat 
at  a  table  consisting  of  a  piece  of  ore,  80,000  marks  of  silver  in  value.  An- 
naberg,  a  likewise  noted  mining  town  near  the  frontier  of  Bohemia,  is  more- 
over noted  for  its  ribbon  and  lace  manufactures,  and  has  7,850  inhabitants- 
Other  more  or  less  remarkable  mining  towns  are :  Scheibenberg  (with  1,850 
inhabitants),  Schwarzenberg  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  Aue  (with  1,400  inhabi- 
tants), Johanngeorgenstadt  (John  George's  town,  has  4,000  inhabitants), 
Eibenstock  (with  5,300  inhabitants),  Geyer  (with  3,600  inhabitants),  Johstadt 
(with  2,000  inhabitants),  Elterlein  (with  2,150  inhabitants),  Wolkenstein  (with 
1,950  inhabitants),  and  Marienberg  (with  4,500  inhabitants).  The  most  im- 
portant manufacturing  town  is  Chemnitz,  south-eastward  and  50  miles  distant 


384  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Germany.— Kingdom  of  Saxony. 

from  Leipsic,  with  28,650  inhabitants.  Its  manufactures  consist  chiefly  of 
cotton  goods.  Oederan,  a  town  between  Chemnitz  and  Freiberg,  has  4,650 
inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  cloth,  cassimere,  flannel,  etc. 
Frankenberg,  a  town  on  the  Zschopau  river,  north-eastward  and  8  miles  dis- 
tant from  Chemnitz,  has  6,300  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  cotton  manu- 
factures. Gruenhain,  a  town  between  Schneeberg  and  Annaberg,  is  noted  for 
its  lace,  and  has  1,550  inhabitants.  The  above-mentioned  Voigtland  contains: 
Plauen,  its  ancient  capital,  on  the  Elster,  westward  and  23  miles  distant  from 
Zwickau,  with  important  manufactures  of  muslin,  and  11,050  inhabitants. 
Reichenbach,  a  town  half-way  between  Plauen  and  Zwickau,  has  6,800  inhab- 
itants, and  is  likewise  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  muslin  and  of  cloth,  etc. 
Other  more  or  less  important  manufacturing  towns  are  :  Oelsnitz  (with  4,250 
inhabitants),  Netzschkau  (with  1,900  inhabitants),  Mylau  (with  2,600  inhabi- 
tants), Elsterberg  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Lengenfeld  (with  4,050  inhabi- 
tants), Treuen  (with  4,500  inhabitants),  Muhltroff  (with  1,700  inhabitants), 
and  Pausa  (with  2,450  inhabitants).  The  towns  of  Adorf  (with  2,700  inhab- 
itants) and  Markneukirchen  (with  2,750  inhabitants),  are  noted  for  their  mu- 
sical instruments.  Auerbach,  a  town  on  the  Golzsch  river,  with  considerable 
corn-markets,  manufactures  of  black  lace  and  pins,  and  3,700  inhabitants, 
who  make  much  pitch  and  smoke-black  in  the  neighboring  pine  forests.  Wil- 
denfels,  a  town  between  Zwickau  and  Schneeberg,  with  2,400  inhabitants, 
and  a  palace,  the  residence  of  the  earl  of  Solms-Wildenfels  (belonging  to  the 
house  of  Solms,  mentioned  page  357).  The  dependent  dominions  of  the 
princes  and  earls  of  Schbnburg  (241  square  miles,  and  105,300  inhabitants), 
contain:  Waldenburg,  a  town  romantically  situated  on  the  Zwickauer  Mulde 
river,  southward  and  36  miles  distant  from  Leipsic,  has  2,400  inhabitants,  and 
is  the  residence  of  the  prince  of  Schonburg- Waldenburg,  to  whom  also  do 
belong  the  towns  of  Lichtenstein  (with  3,250  inhabitants),  Callenberg  (with 
2,250  inhabitants),  Hartenstein  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  Lossnitz  (with 
4,900  inhabitants).  The  towns  of  Hohenstein  (with  4,700  inhabitants  and  con- 
siderable manufactures  of  cotton  goods),  and  Meerane  (with  woollen  manu- 
factures and  5,550  inhabitants),  belong  to  the  earl  of  Schonburg- Wechselburg. 
Glauchau,  a  town  westward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Chemnitz,  with  8,250 
inhabitants,  is  the  residence  of  the  earl  of  Schonburg-Hinterglauchau,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  capital  of  the  above-named  dependent  dominions. 

IV.  The  province  of  Bautzen  consists  of  ancient  Upper  Lusatia.    Jjtisatia,  in 
general,  was  a  margraviate,  instituted  in  931,  and  since  the  year  1370,  belong- 


GERMANY.  8g5 

Kingdom  of  Saxony— its  Geographical  Divisions. 

ing  entirely  to  Bohemia.  In  1635,  Emperor  Ferdinand  IL  ceded  (in  his  quality 
as  king  of  Bohemia)  Lusatia  to  the  electorate  of  Saxony,  of  which  it  has  since 
formed  a  constituent  part.  Yet  in  1815  the  king  of  Saxony  was  constrained  to 
cede  that  part  known  by  the  name  of  Lower  Lusatia,  and  also  part  of  Upper 
Lusatia,  to  Prussia.  The  remainder  of  Upper  Lusatia,  or  the  present  province 
of  Bautzen  (969  square  miles,  and  282,600  inhabitants),  contains :  -[-Bautzen 
(officially  styled  Budissin),  the  ancient  capital  of  Upper  Lusatia,  on  the  Spree 
river,  eastward  and  32  miles  distant  from  Dresden,  has  1 1,000  inhabitants  and 
several  remarkable  public  buildings,  and  is  noted  for  its  numerous  manufactures, 
especially  of  linen,  paper,  and  leather.  Napoleon's  victory  on  the  20th  and  21st 
May,  1813.  Zittau,  a  highly  renowned  manufacturing  city  near  the  Neisse 
river  and  the  frontier  of  Bohemia,  south-eastward  and  30  miles  distant  from 
Bautzen,  with  numerous  manufactures,  linen  and  damask,  and  9,350  inhabitants. 
To  the  city  belong  36  villages,  both  industrious  and  populous,  as,  for  instance, 
Seifhennersdorf,  or  Hennersdorf  in  Seifen  (with  5,600  inhabitants,  and  linen 
manufactures),  and  Gross-Schonau,  with  4,800  inhabitants,  fabricating  damask 
of  unparalleled  beauty  and  fineness.  A  damask  table-cloth,  which  was  given 
to  the  duke  of  Wellington  by  King  Frederic  Augustus  I.,  was  made  in  Gross- 
Schonau.  Camenz,  a  city  on  the  Black  Elster,  north-westward  and  12  miles 
distant  from  Bautzen,  has  4,450  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  gingerbread. 
Lobau,  a  city  south-eastward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Bautzen,  with  2,800 
inhabitants,  and  considerable  trade  in  linen  and  cloth.  Konigsbrueck,  a  town 
on  the  Pulsnitz  river,  14  miles  north-north-east  of  Dresden,  with  a  palace 
(residence  of  the  count  of  Hohenthal)  and  1,750  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its 
potteries.  Reibersdorf,  a  market-town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Zittau,  with  a 
magnificent  palace  of  the  count  of  Einsiedeln,  and  1,000  inhabitants.  Schir- 
giswalde,  a  town  on  the  Spree  river,  is  noted  for  its  fustian,  and  has  1,400  in- 
habitants. The  village  of  Hochkirch,  south-eastward  and  5  miles  distant 
from  Bautzen,  is  noted  in  the  history  of  the  seven  years'  war,  by  the  defeat 
of  the  Prussians  in  the  night  of  the  14th  Oct.,  1758.  Herrnhut,  a  town  at 
the  railroad  between  Lobau  and  Zittau,  with  1,000  inhabitants,  is  remarkable 
as  the  original  seat  of  the  Moravian  Brethren  since  1722.  Other  places  in- 
habited exclusively  by  Moravian  Brethren  are,  Grosshennersdorf,  or  Markt- 
hennersdorf  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Berthehdorf  (with  1,850  inhabitants), 
and  Kleinwelka  (with  600  inhabitants).  StoLPEN,  a  town  on  the  Wesenitz, 
eastward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Dresden,  with  a  remarkable  ancient 
mountain  castle,  and  1,300  inhabitants 

17 


386  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Germany.— Grand-Duchy  of  Saxe-Weimar. 


XVI— THE  GRAND-DUCHY  OF  SAXE-WEIMAR. 

Area:  1,427  square  miles. 
Population  :  254,000  inhabitants. 

This  state,  officially  styled  Saxe-Weimar- Eisenach,  is  situated 
in  the  centre  of  Germany,  surrounded  by  other  Saxon  territories. 
The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  consist  of  Lutherans,  and  the  re- 
mainder of  about  10,200  Catholics,  and  1,450  Jews.  The  surface 
of  the  country  is  hilly  ;  timber  and  wood,  iron  and  manganese,  are 
the  chief  natural  products.  The  manufactures  consist,  for  the 
most  part,  of  hardware,  woollen  goods  and  linen.  Besides  the 
university  of  Jena  (see  page  287),  in  1846  frequented  by  419  stu- 
dents, there  are  2  gymnasia,  72  Latin  schools,  445  common 
schools,  etc.  The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy.  According" 
to  the  budget  for  the  period  of  1 845-47,  the  public  revenue  was 
estimated  at  765,282,  and  the  expenditure  at  754,705  Prussian 
dollars  annually.  The  revenues  of  the  grand-ducal  domains 
amount,  upon  an  average,  to  680,000  Prussian  dollars  per  annum. 
The  public  debt  amounts  to  about  3,750.000  Prussian  dollars.  To 
the  confederal  army  are  to  be  furnished  2,010  men.  There  is 
an  order  of  honor,  viz.,  the  Falcon  order,  instituted  in  1732  and 
renewed  in  1815,  in  3  classes. 

History. — That  all  Saxon  territories  and  reigning  houses  have  one  and  the 
same  origin,  has  already  been  told,  page  379.  The  electors  Maurice  and  Au- 
gustus I.  ceded  to  the  deposed  elector,  John  Frederic  the  Generous,  the  dis- 
tricts named  in  the  history  of  Saxony.  John  Frederic  kept  them  together, 
but  soon  after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1554,  his  three  sons  divided  them ; 
which  example  was  frequently  followed  by  their  descendants,  so  that  in  this 
way  the  other  Saxon  duchies,  Gotha,  Altenburg,  etc.,  came  into  existence.  In 
"Weimar  succeeded  duke  John  (grandson  of  the  elector  John  Frederic),  who 


GERMANY.  887 

The  Grand-Duchy  of  Weimar— its  History  and  Geographical  Divisions. 


died  in  1605.  In  1690  Jena  with  its  dependencies,  and  in  1741  the  dominion 
or  principality  of  Eisenach  was  inherited  by  the  reigning  dukes  of  Weimar. 
In  this  way  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Weimar  enlarged  gradually  its  limits  to  the 
extent  of  766  6quare  miles,  and  had  in  1806  a  population  of  109,000  inhabi- 
tants. In  the  last-named  year,  and  after  the  battle  of  Jena,  the  then  reigning 
duke  Charles  Augustus,  joined  the  Rhenish  Confederation,  but  in  1813  the 
allied  powers.  According  to  the  stipulations  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in 
1815,  some  districts  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  of  the  electorate  of  Hesse,  etc., 
(together  661  square  miles,  with  77,000  inhabitants),  were  annexed  to  the 
duchy,  which  at  the  same  time  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  grand-duchy. 
Charles  Augustus  died  in  1828,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  still  reign- 
ing grand-duke  Charles  Frederic,  born  in  1783. 

The  grand-duchy  is  divided  into  two  provinces,  styled  princi- 
palities, viz.,  the  province  or  principality  of  Weimar,  and  the 
province  or  principality  of  Eisenach,  and  is  subdivided  into  25 
bailiwicks. 

I.  The  province  of  Weimar  contains :  Weimar,  capital  of  the  grand-duchy 
and  residence  of  the  grand-duke,  on  the  Ilm  river,  eastward  and  14  miles  dis- 
tant from  Erfurt  and  south-westward  and  60  miles  distant  from  Leipsic,  with 
a  magnificently-furnished  grand-ducal  palace,  an  admirably  arranged  public 
library  of  130,000  volumes,  and  12,000  inhabitants.  Weimar  has  frequently 
been  called  German  Athens  on  account  of  its  having  been  the  seat  of  eminent 
authors  and  poets,  as  Gothe,  Schiller,  Herder,  Wieland  and  Musaus.  Jena, 
a  town  romantically  situated  on  the  Saale,  12  miles  east-south-east  of 
Weimar,  has  6,300  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  university  (see  page 
287),  and  for  the  battle  gained  by  Napoleon  over  the  Prussians  on  the  14th 
Oct,  1806.  Buttstddt,  a  town  north-eastward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Wei- 
mar, has  2,300  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  horse-marts.  The  town  of 
Apolda,  with  4,600  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  hosieries.  Blankenhayn,  a 
town  southward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Weimar,  with  various  manufactures, 
considerable  breweries,  and  1,800  inhabitants.  Stadtsulza,  or  Suiza,  a  town 
near  the  Saale  river,  has  1,250  inhabitants,  and  derived  its  name  from  valu- 
able salt-springs,  which  were  discovered  in  966,  but  are  at  present  the  prop- 
erty of  Saxe-Meiningen.  Berka,  a  town  on  the  Ilm,  with  mineral  waters, 
quarries,  and  1,300  inhabitants.     Remda,  a  town  with  cotton  and  woollen 


388  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

Germany. — Grand-Duchy  of  Saxe-Weimar. 

manufactures,  breweries,  and  1,050  inhabitants.  Allstedt,  a  town  northward 
and  32  miles  distant  from  Weimar,  is  noted  for  its  eminent  grand-ducal  stud, 
and  has  2,250  inhabitants.  Allstedt  is  situated  in  a  district  that  anciently  was 
called  the  Saxon  Palatinate.  The  town  of  Ilmenau,  at  the  foot  of  the  Kick- 
elhahn  (see  page  7),  south-westward  and  32  miles  distant  from  Weimar,  with 
some  manufactures,  breweries,  and  2,850  inhabitants,  is  situated  on  the  terri- 
tory of  the  ancient  earldom  of  Henneberg  (724  square  miles,  and  in  1803 
with  104,000  inhabitants),  whose  native  earls  became  extinct  in  1583,  when  it 
was  inherited  by  the  different  lines  of  the  Saxon  houses,  but  especially  by  the 
descendants  of  the  elector  John  Frederic  the  Generous.  The  eastern  part  of 
this  province,  forming  at  present  the  circle  or  district  of  Neustadt,  was  in 
1815  ceded  by  the  king  of  Saxony  to  Saxe-Weimar,  and  contains :  Neustadt 
an  der  Orla,  a  town  on  the  Orla  river,  south-eastward  and  28  miles  distant 
from  Weimar,  with  cloth  and  other  manufactures,  and  4,450  inhabitants. 
Weida,  a  town  with  4,100  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  potteries.  Other  towns 
are:  Triptis  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Auma  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  and 
Berga  (with  650  inhabitants). 

II.  The  province  of  Eisenach  contains :  Eisenach,  its  capital,  on  the  Nesse 
and  Horsel  rivulets,  about  half-way  between  Weimar  and  Cassel,  with  seve- 
ral remarkable  public  edifices,  various  manufactures,  and  10,000  inhabitants. 
At  a  distance  of  1^  mile  from  here  is  situated,  on  a  high  mountain  of  the 
Forest  of  Thuringia  (see  page  7),  the  highly  renowned  ancient  castle  known 
by  the  name  of  Wartburg,  erected  in  1067,  and  at  present  completely  re- 
stored. Luther  lived  here  incognito  from  the  4th  May,  1521,  to  the  6th 
March,  1622.  As  this  castle  was  the  residence  of  the  landgraves  of  Thuringia 
until  the  beginning  of  the  15th  century,  we  shall  give  an  historical  sketch  of 
Thuringia  in  general  here.  The  Thuringians  themselves  have  already  been 
mentioned  in  the  History  of  Germany  (see  page  298).  They  were  primitively 
ruled  by  native  kings,  the  first  of  whom  was  named  Merwig  and  lived  in  the 
beginning  of  the  5th  century.  The  last  king,  Hermannfried  by  name,  was 
murdered  by  the  Franks  in  530,  and  since  the  kingdom  of  Thuringia  became 
a  prey  of  the  Saxons,  Sorbes  and  Franks.  That  part  the  latter  took  posses- 
sion of,  is  until  the  present  day  known  by  the  name  of  Thuringia,  and  Erfurt 
(already  founded  in  the  5th  century)  was  considered  as  its  capital  The  Car- 
lovingians  in  France  having  been  supplanted  by  the  Capetians  in  987  (see 
page  32),  the  last  descendant  of  the  former,  Louis,  took  his  refuge  to  Empe- 
ror Conrad  II.  (reigning  in  the  period  of  1024-1039),  who  appointed  him 


GERMANY.  889 


The  Grand-Duchy  of  Saxe- Weimar.— The  Duchy  of  Saxe-Melningen. 

earl  of  Thuringia.  Louis  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Louis  surnamed  the 
Jumper,  who  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  landgrave.  The  reigning  land- 
grave since  the  year  1190  was  Hermann,  whose  daughter  was  given  in  mar- 
riage to  the  margrave  Theodoric  of  Meissen,  and  who  died  in  1216,  when  he 
was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son  Louis  IV.,  consort  of  the  holy  Elizabeth,  and 
father  of  the  duchess  Sophia  of  Brabant  (see  Hessian  History,  page  353). 
With  his  brother  Henry  Raspe,  who  died  in  124*7,  the  male  line  of  the  land- 
graves of  Thuringia  became  extinct,  and  the  greatest  part  of  the  landgraviate 
was  now  inherited  by  the  house  of  Saxony  (see  page  379).  Since  the  16th 
century  the  descendants  of  the  elector  Ernest  and  respectively  of  John 
Frederic  the  Generous  (see  page  379)  are  possessed  of  Thuringia  (and  be- 
side them,  since  1815,  Prussia).  That  part  belonging  to  Saxe- Weimar 
contains,  beside  Eisenach,  the  following  places:  Ruhla,  a  village  with 
1,550  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  considerable  manufacture  of  hardware  and 
cutlery.  Ckeuzburg  or  Kreuzburg,  a  town  on  the  Werra,  with  2,250  in- 
habitants, is  noted  for  its  salt-springs.  Wilhelmsthal,  a  graud-ducal  palace 
with  a  beautiful  park.  Berka  and  Gerstungen,  market-towns  with  respectively 
1,250  and  1,400  inhabitants.  To  the  ancient  earldom  of  Henneberg  (see 
above)  belonged  the  towns  of  Ostheim  (southward  and  45  miles  distant 
from  Eisenach,  is  noted  for  its  cherries,  and  has  2,650  inhabitants),  Kalten~ 
nordheim  (with  manufactures  of  cutlery  and  linen,  and  1,650  inhabitants), 
and  Kaltensundheim  (with  900  inhabitants).  Vacha,  a  town  south-westward 
and  16  miles  distant  from  Eisenach,  has  2,250  inhabitants,  and  did  until  1815 
belong  to  Hesse-Cassel.  The  town  of  Qeysa,  with  1,900  inhabitants,  for- 
merly belonged  to  the  bishopric  of  Fulda  (see  page  372). 


XVIL— THE  DUCHY  OF  SAXE-MEININGEN. 

Area  :  980  square  miles. 
Population  :  157,000  inhabitants. 

This  duchy,  since  1826  officially  styled  Saxe-Meiningen-Hild- 
burghausen,  is  situated  at  the  northern  frontier  of  Bavaria,  at  and 


390  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

The  Duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen— its  History. 

on  the  Thuringerwald  (see  page  7).  separating  Coburg  from  Gotha, 
and  bordering  upon  Weimar  and  Altenburg  likewise.  The  in- 
habitants are  Lutherans,  with  the  exception  of  about  1,000  Cath- 
olics, and  1,550  Jews.  On  account  of  the  thoroughly  mountain- 
ous surface  of  the  country,  the  rearing  of  cattle  is  to  be  con- 
sidered as  rather  considerable.  There  are  extensive  forests, 
yielding  valuable  products  for  exportation.  The  manufactures 
of  linen  and  woollen  goods,  of  hardware  and  wooden  toys,  are 
considerable,  as  is  likewise  the  inland  trade.  The  university 
at  Jena  is  considered  as  possessed  in  common  by  Saxe-Weimar 
and  the  Saxon  duchies.  In  Saxe-Meiningen  itself  are  2  gymna- 
sia, 1  seminary,  212  common,  and  20  other  schools.  The  govern- 
ment is  a  limited  monarchy.  In  the  financial  year,  ending  1844, 
the  public  revenue  and  expenditure  amounted  to  1,475,746, 
and  the  public  debt  to  4,587,776  florins.  To  the  confederal 
army  are  to  be  furnished  1,150  men.  The  Saxon  dukes  have  in 
common  the  so-called  House  and  Merit  Order,  in  4  classes,  prim- 
itively instituted  in  1690  by  the  duke  Frederic  of  Gotha,  and 
renewed  in  1838. 

History. — When  Duke  John,  grandson  of  the  elector  John  Frederic  the 
Generous  (see  page  386),  died  in  1605,  he  left  behind  11  sons,  of  whom  John 
Ernest  succeeded  in  Weimar,  while  the  other  dominions  were  divided  among 
the  remaining  10  brothers.  These  died  however  one  after  the  other,  within 
a  rather  short  period,  with  the  exception  of  Ernest,  surnamed  the  Pi*us,  who 
died  in  1675,  leaving  behind  7  sons,  who  divided  again  the  dominions,  which 
their  father  had  gradually  inherited  from  his  deceased  9  brothers.  By  this 
arrangement  duke  Bernard  (third  son  of  Ernest)  became  possessed  of  Mein- 
ingen,  or  that  part  of  the  ancient  earldomo  f  Henneberg  (see  back  under 
the  head  of  Jlmenau  in  Saxe-Weimar),  which  the  ducal  line  of  the  Saxon 
house  had  become  possessed  of  in  1583.  Bernard  entailed  upon  his  descend- 
ants in  direct  line,  the  subsequently  styled  duchy  of  Meiningen.  The  present 
reigning  duke,  like  his  ancestor  named  Bernard,  and  born  in  1800,  became 
in  1826  possessed  of  the  former  duchy  of  Hildburghausen,  the  principality  of 


GERMANY.  891 


The  Duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


Saalfeld,  and  some  other  territories,  in  consequence  of  the  death  of  the  duke 
Frederic  IV.  of  Gotha,  in  1825  ;  for  the  Saxon  line  of  Gotha  having  become 
extinct,  this  duchy  was  inherited  by  the  three  other  ducal  lines,  represented  by 
the  dukes  of  Coburg,  Hildburghausen,  and  Meiniugen.  They  agreed  that  the 
duke  of  Coburg  should  retain  Gotha  proper,  and  the  duke  of  Hildburghau- 
sen the  other  half  of  the  inheritance,  comprising  Altenburg ;  while  the  duke 
of  Meiningen  should  be  indemnified  by  the  annexation  of  Hildburghausen 
and  Saalfeld  to  his  duchy. 

Thus,  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen  comprises,  beside  Mein- 
ingen proper  (which,  as  we  have  seen,  in  reality  but  forms  a 
part  of  the  ancient  earldom  of  Henneberg),  since  1826  the 
former  duchy  of  Hildburghausen  (whose  duke  exchanged  it 
at  that  period  for  Altenburg),  and  the  former  principality  of 
Saalfeld  (which  until  1826  belonged  to  the  duke  of  Coburg). 

Meiningen  (anciently  sometimes  styled  Meinungen),  the  capital  of  the 
duchy,  and  residence  of  the  duke,  on  the  Werra,  southward  and  34  miles  dis- 
tant from  Eisenach,  and  eastward  and  40  miles  distant  from  Fulda,  with  a 
remarkable  ducal  palace  (erected  in  1681),  various  manufactures,  and  6,300 
inhabitants.  Not  far  from  here  are  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Henneberg,  once 
the  ancestral  seat  of  the  ancient  earls  of  this  name.  Wasungen,  a  town  on 
the  Werra,  with  manufactures  of  cutlery,  and  2,600  inhabitants.  Steinbach, 
a  market-town  noted  for  its  iron  mines,  has  1,500  inhabitants.  Romhild,  a 
town  on  the  Milz  river,  is  noted  for  its  leather  manufactures,  and  has  1,750 
inhabitants.  Themab,  a  very  ancient  town  on  the  Werra,  south-eastward  and 
13  miles  distant  from  Meiningen,  with  paper  manufactures  and  1,500  inhabi- 
tants. Salzungen,  a  town  romantically  situated  on  the  Werra,  is  noted  for 
its  salt-springs,  and  has  3,100  inhabitants.  Not  far  from  here,  and  south- 
ward and  10  miles  distant  from  Eisenach,  is  situated  the  village  of  Mohba, 
where  Luther's  father  and  mother  lived  in  a  house  which  still  is  extant. 
Luther,  was,  it  is  true,  born  in  Eisleben ;  but  it  was  only  a  short  time  before 
that  his  father  had  moved  from  Mohra  to  Eisleben.  Schweixa,  a  market- 
town  on  the  rivulet  of  the  same  name,  has  1,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for 
manufactures  of  carded  woollen  articles  in  the  adjacent  Glucksbrunn.  The 
neighboring  village  of  Liebenxtein  is  noted  as  a  watering-place,  and  romanti- 


392  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Germany.— Duchies  of  Saxe-Meiningen  aud  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 

cally  situated  in  a  valley  of  the  Thuringerwald.  Sonnenberg,  or  Sonneberg, 
on  the  southern  declivity  of  the  Thuringerwald,  eastward  and  20  miles  dis- 
tant from  Hildburghausen,  has  3,800  inhabitants,  and  is  renowned  for  its  chil- 
dren's toys,  which  are  also  made  in  the  neighboring  villages  of  Steinach 
(with  2,100  inhabitants),  Judenbach  (with  900  inhabitants),  and  Steinheide 
(with  650  inhabitants).  Heinersdorf,  a  market-town,  with  breweries,  and 
800  inhabitants,  who  carry  on  a  considerable  trade  in  timber.  Hildburg- 
hausen, until  1826  the  capital  of  a  duchy  of  the  same  name  (see  back),  on 
the  Werra,  south-eastward  and  20  miles  distant  from  Meiningen,  with  several 
literary  institutions,  and  4,400  inhabitants.  Eisfeld,  a  town  on  the  Werra,  is 
noted  for  its  fairs,  and  has  3,000  inhabitants.  Heldburg,  a  town  with  1,300 
inhabitants.  Saalfeld,  until  1826  the  capital  of  a  principality  of  the  same 
name  (see  back),  on  the  Saale  river,  southward  and  23  miles  distant  from 
Weimar,  with  a  remarkable  Gothic  church,  various  manufactures,  and  4,500 
inhabitants.  Near  Saalfeld  an  action  between  the  French  and  Prussians  took 
place  on  the  10th  of  October,  1806  (four  days  before  the  battle  of  Jena),  in 
which  the  prince  Louis  of  Prussia  was  killed.  Posneck,  a  town  noted  for 
its  manufactures  of  cloth,  leather,  and  porcelain,  has  3,800  inhabitants. 
Ernstthcti,  a  little  village  noted  for  its  glass  manufactory. 


XVIIL— THE  DUCHY  OF  SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. 

Area  :  788  square  miles. 
Population  :  144,000  inhabitants. 

This  duchy  consists  of  two  detached  sections,  Coburg  and 
Gotha,  separated  from  each  other  by  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Meinin- 
gen. Coburg,  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the  Thuringerwald, 
and  at  the  northern  frontier  of  Bavaria,  is  mountainous  and  rich 
in  valuable  forests,  with  beautiful  valleys  and  well-cultivated 
soil ;  and  Gotha,  situated  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Thuringer- 


GERMANY. 


The  Duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha— its  History. 

wald,  is  a  fertile  hilly  country,  with  likewise  well-cultivated  soil.* 
Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Lutherans,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
population  consists  of  about  2,300  Catholics,  and  1,200  Jews. 
Grain,  flax,  and  timber,  are  chief  staples.  In  the  mountainous 
part  of  Gotha,  great  quantities  of  pitch,  tar,  and  smoke-black,  are 
made.  The  manufactures  consist  chiefly  of  linen,  woollen  goods, 
and  cutlery.  Gotha  carries  on  a  considerable  trade.  Beside 
the  university  at  Jena  (see  Introduction  of  Saxe-Meiningen), 
there  are  3  gymnasia,  2  seminaries,  35  Latin  and  300  common 
schools.  The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy.  The  amount 
of  the  public  revenue  and  of  the  expenditure  for  several  years,  has 
been  about  500,000  Prussian  dollars.  The  public  debt  amounts 
to  nearly  1,750,000  Prussian  dollars.  To  the  confederal  army 
are  to  be  furnished  1,116  men.  For  the  order  of  honor ',  see 
under  the  head  of  Saxe-Meiningen. 

History. — "When  the  seven  sons  of  Ernest  the  Pious  divided  the  inherited 
dominions  (see  History  of  Saxe-Meiningen),  the .  second  son,  Duke  Albert, 
became  possessed  of  Coburg,  and  the  youngest  son,  Duke  John  Ernest,  be- 
came possessed  of  Saalfeld,  to  which  in  1699  (when  the  line  of  Albert  be- 
came extinct),  the  principal  part  of  Coburg  was  annexed.  John  Ernest 
died  in  1729,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Francis  Josias,  who  in  1745 
transferred  his  residence  from  Saalfeld  to  Coburg,  and  assumed  the  title  of 
a  duke  of  Coburg-Saalfeld.  The  duke  Ernest  (1806-1844),  having  been  in 
the  active  military  service  of  Prussia,  was  deprived  of  his  duchy  by  order  of 
Napoleon,  who  however  subsequently  restored  it  to  him  in  1807.  Accord- 
ing to  the  stipulations  of  the  congress  at  Vienna,  the  principality  of  Lich- 
tenberg,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  was  annexed  to  the  duchy,  but  in 
1834  ceded  to  Prussia  (see  the  note  below).  About  his  acquisition  concern- 
ing Gotha,  in  1826,  see  History  of  Saxe-Meiningen.     He  died  in  1844,  and 


*  Since  1815  the  duchy  contained  also  a  small  district  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  styled  principality  of  Lichtenberg  (234  square  miles,  with  30,000 
inhabitants).  But  in  1834,  the  duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  ceded  it  to 
Prussia,  for  an  annuity  of  80.000  florins. 

11* 


394  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Germany. — Duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 


was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  presently  reigning  duke  Ernest  II,  born  in 
1818.     (His  brother  is  Prince  Albert,  consort  of  the  British  queen,  Victoria.) 

The  duchy  is  both  naturally  and  politically  divided  into  the 
above-mentioned  two  sections,  viz.,  the  duchy  or  province  of 
Coburg,  and  the  duchy  or  province  of  Gotha. 

1.  The  duchy  or  province  of  Coburg  (192  square  miles,  and  43,000  inhab- 
itants), contains :  Coburg,  or  Koburg,  its  capital,  and  usual  residence  of  the 
duke  (at  least  in  the  summer  season),  on  the  Itz  river,  44  miles  south-south- 
east of  Gotha,  with  a  stately  ducal  palace,  several  other  remarkable  public 
edifices,  and  10,100  inhabitants.  In  the  vicinity  are  the  ducal  palaces  of 
Rosenau  and  Kallenberg,  noted  for  their  parks  and  gardens.  Rodach,  a 
town  with  a  ducal  stud,  and  1,700  inhabitants.  Neustadt  an  der  Heide,  a 
town  on  the  Rotha  river,  has  2,250  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  toys  and 
hops.  Konigsberg,  surnamed  in  Franken,  a  town  in  a  district  which  is  en- 
tirely surrounded  by  Bavarian  territory,  with  vine  culture,  and  1,100  inhab- 
itants. 

2.  The  duchy  or  province  of  Gotha  (596  square  miles,  and  101,000  inhab- 
itants), contains :  Uotha,  its  capital,  at  present  frequently  the  residence  of 
the  duke  of  Coburg-Gotha,  half-way  between  Eisenach  and  Erfurt,  has 
14,300  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  remarkable  public  edifices  and  liter- 
ary institutions,  and  for  its  various  manufactures.  On  the  neighboring  hill 
of  Seeberg,  stands  a  celebrated  observatory.  The  village  of  Elgersburg 
(with  800  inhabitants)  is  noted  as  a  watering-place,  and  for  its  porcelain  and 
manganese,  the  village  of  Manebach  for  its  coal  mines,  and  the  village  of 
Krawinkel  (with  1,100  inhabitants)  for  its  millstones  and  musical  instru- 
ments. Waltershausen,  a  town  on  the  Horsel  river,  south-westward  and 
*7  miles  distant  from  Gotha,  with  linen  and  woollen  manufactures,  numerous 
breweries,  and  3,300  inhabitants.  In  its  vicinity  is  the  noted  boarding-school 
of  Schnepfenthal,  founded  in  1185.  Rheinhardsbrunn,  anciently  a  Benedic- 
tine monastery,  at  present  a  ducal  palace.  Tambach,  a  market-town  on  the 
Thuringerwald,  has  2,100  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  linen  manufac- 
tures and  iron-works.  Blasien-Zella,  or  Zella,  a  town  at  the  Thuringerwald, 
has  1,900  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  iron- works  and  manufactures  of 
fire-arms.  The  town  of  Ohrdruf,  with  4,400  inhabitants,  belongs  at  present 
to  the  house  of  Hohenlohe  (see  page  336). 


GERMANY.  395 


The  Duchy  of  Saxe-Altenburg— ita  Statistics  and  History. 


XIX.— THE  DUCHY  OF  SAXE-ALTENBURG. 

Area  :  522  square  miles. 
Population  :  12*7,500  inhabitants. 

It  is  situated  between  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  and  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Saxe- Weimar,  and  comprises  that  part  of  the  ancient 
margraviate  of  Meissen,  which  in  early  times,  was  more  usually 
called  the  Osterland  (see  page  382).  The  inhabitants  are  (with 
the  exception  of  rather  few  Catholics)  Lutherans.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile,  and  all  branches  of  husbandry  are  in  a  highly  pros- 
perous state.  Of  manufactures  there  are  in  general  but  few ; 
the  trade  however  is  very  considerable.  Besides  the  university 
at  Jena,  which  is  considered  as  possessed  in  common  by  the 
Saxon  grand-duchy  and  duchies,  there  are  1  lyceum,  1  gymna- 
sium, 1  seminary,  6  Latin  and  numerous  common  schools.  The 
government  is  a  limited  monarchy.  To  the  confederal  army  are 
to  be  furnished  982  men.  According  to  the  budget  for  the 
period  of  1845-48,  the  public  revenue  was  estimated  at  631,940 
Prussian  dollars  annually,  and  the  expenditure  at  about  the  same 
amount.  The  public  debt  was  at  that  period  930,687  Prussian 
dollars.  About  the  order  of  hoTwr,  in  common  with  the  other 
Saxon  duchies,  see  page  390. 

History. — In  the  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  it  has  already  been 
told,  that  to  the  districts  ceded  by  Maurice  to  the  deposed  elector,  was  in 
1554  added  that  of  Altenburg.  Duke  Ernest  the  Pious  (see  History  of 
Saxe-Meiningen)  inherited  it  in  1672,  and  when  his  7  sons  divided  the  do- 
minions, the  eldest,  Duke  Frederic  of  Gotha,  became  possessed  of  Altenburg. 
Since,  or  in  the  whole  period  from  1680  to  1825,  when  the  line  of  Frederic 
became  extinct,  Gotha  and  Altenburg  were  constantly  united.  By  the  ar- 
rangements agreed  upon  in  1826,  on  the  part  of  the  three  reigning  Saxon 


EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Germany.— Duchy  of  Saxe-Altenburg. 


dukes  (see  History  of  Saxe-Meiningen),  the  duke  Frederic  of  Hildburghau- 
sen  ceded  this  duchy  to  Saxe-Meiningen,  and  acquired  instead  of  it  the 
wealthy  duchy  of  Altenburg,  whither  he  now  transferred  his  residence.  He 
died  in  1834,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  still  reigning  duke,  Joseph, 
born  in  1789. 

The  duchy  of  Saxe-Altenburg  consists  of  two  detached  sec- 
tions; the  eastern  one  (with  the  capital)  bordering  upon  the 
kingdom  of  Saxony,  and  the  western  section  (styled  the  Kahla- 
Eisenberg  circle)  bordering  upon  the  grand-duchy  of  Saxe- 
Weimar. 

Altenburg,  the  capital  of  the  duchy  and  residence  of  the  duke,  near  the 
Pleisse  river,  southward  and  28  miles  distant  from  Leipsic,  with  considera- 
ble corn  trade  and  15,300  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  extensive,  and  in  vari- 
ous other  respects,  remarkable  castle  or  ducal  palace,  whence  in  the  night 
of  the  8th  July,  1455,  the  princes  Ernest  and  Albert,  sons  of  Frederic  the 
Meek  (see  History  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony),  were  kidnapped  by  the 
knight  Kunz  of  Kaufungen.  Lucka,  a  town  on  the  Schnauder  river,  north- 
ward and  10  miles  distant  from  Altenburg,  has  1,300  inhabitants,  and  is  his- 
torically noted  for  a  battle  in  1307,  between  the  emperor  Albert  L,  and  the 
margrave  Frederic  of  Meissen.  Ronneburg,  a  town  south-eastward  and  13 
miles  distant  from  Altenburg,  with  considerable  corn  trade,  and  5,400  inhab- 
itants. Eisenberg,  a  town  westward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Altenburg, 
with  4,900  inhabitants,  considerable  timber  trade,  and  a  ducal  castle,  in  the 
period  of  1680-1707,  the  residence  of  Duke  Christian  of  Eisenberg,  fifth 
son  of  Duke  Ernest  the  Pious  (see  History  of  Saxe-Meiningen).  Roda,  a 
town  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  with  2,700  inhabitants.  Kahla,  a  town 
on  the  Saale,  with  a  remarkable  Gothic  church,  and  2,500  inhabitants. 
Orlamunde,  a  town  near  the  Saale,  with  1,200  inhabitants. 


GERMANY.  397 


The  Principalities  of  Reuss.— Statistics,  etc. 


XX.-XXL— THE  PRINCIPALITIES  OF  REUSS. 

Area  :  596  square  miles. 
Population  :  108,800  inhabitants. 

They  are  situated  at  the  north-eastern  frontier  of  Bavaria,  and 
at  the  Frankenwald  (see  page  7),  and  consist  of  two  distinct  sec- 
tions, separated  but  a  short  distance  from  each  other,  and  be- 
longing the  one  to  an  Elder ,  the  other  to  a  Younger  line  of  the 
princely  house  of  Reuss.  The  surface  is  partly  mountainous, 
partly  hilly,  yet  the  soil  is  generally  fertile.  The  chief  natural 
products  are  like  those  of  the  neighboring  countries,  Altenburg 
and  Meiningen.  The  manufactures  consist  in  substance  of  wool- 
len and  cotton  goods.  There  are  1  gymnasium,  3  seminaries,  2 
Latin,  and  numerous  common  schools.  The  inhabitants  are  Lu- 
therans, with  the  exception  of  about  400  Jews.  The  government 
is  in  both  principalities  a  limited  monarchy.  There  are  but  few 
states  where  the  public  finances  are  so  well  arranged  and  settled 
as  in  the  principalities  of  Reuss.  The  taxes  are  at  an  extraordi- 
nary low  standard,  and  in  the  dominion  of  Gera  (belonging  to  the 
younger  line)  even  lower  than  the  above  (see  page  308)  stated 
ratio  indicates  upon  an  average  for  the  whole.  Some  years  ago 
the  public  debt  of  the  principalities  amounted  to  120,000  Prus- 
sian dollars,  but  has  since  been  considerably  reduced  by  paying 
off.  The  public  expenditure  is  for  a  great  part  covered  by  the 
revenues  of  the  princely  domains,  amounting  to  respectively 
133,400  and  140,000  Prussian  dollars  (Younger  line),  and 
100,000  Prussian  dollars  annually  (Elder  line).  To  the  confede- 
ral army  are  to  be  furnished  223  men  by  the  elder,  and  522  by 
the  younger  line. 


398  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany.— Principalities  of  Reuse. 

History. — The  ancestor  of  the  house  of  Reuss  is  Earl  Henry  I.  of  Glitz- 
berg  or  Gleitberg,  descending  from  the  house  of  Luxemburg,  who  had  his 
estates  in  the  present  Hessian  territories,  and  lived  towards  the  end  of  the 
11th  century.  By  his  consort,  a  countess  of  Schwarzenberg,  he  became  pos- 
sessed of  considerable  estates  in  the  above  (under  the  head  of  Saxony,  page 
388)  mentioned  Voigtland,  and  his  descendants  were  appointed  imperial 
governors  of  it.  One  of  them,  Henry,  Earl  of  Plauen  (ancient  capital  of 
the  Voigtland),  was  surnamed  the  Rusen,  or  Ruzzo  (an  obsolete  name),  and 
thus  sprung  up  the  family  name  of  Reuss.  The  domestic  dominions  of  this 
house  were  since  the  16th  century  restricted  to  the  present  territories.  The 
earls,  since  respectively  1778  and  1807  princes  of  Reuss,  have  for  centuries 
borne  the  Christian  name  of  Henry. 

There  are  at  present  only  two  reigning  princes,  viz.,  the  prince 
of  Reuss-Greiz,  representing  the  Elder  line,  and  the  prince  of 
Reuss-Schleiz  representing  the  Younger  line  of  the  house  of 
Reuss.  (Prior  to  1848  the  younger  line  was  represented  by  two 
princes.) 

1.  The  principality  of  Reuss-Greiz  (149  square  miles,  and  33,800  inhabi- 
tants), since  1836  governed  by  Henry  XX.  (born  in  1794),  contains:  Greiz, 
its  capital  and  princely  residence,  on  the  Elster,  and  near  the  frontier  of 
Saxony,  has  3  princely  palaces,  and  7,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its 
cotton  and  woollen  manufactures.  Zeulenroda,  a  town  with  a  remarkable 
church,  and  5,100  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  hosieries. 

2.  The  territories  of  the  Younger  line  (447  square  miles,  and  75,000  in- 
habitants), which  latter  is  represented  by  the  prince  Henry  LXI1.  of  Reuss- 
Schleiz  (born  in  1785),  comprise  the  principality  of  Reuss-Schleiz  proper, 
the  former  sovereign  principality  of  Reuss-Lobenstein-Ebersdorf,  and  the  do- 
minion of  Gera  which  was  until  1848  possessed  in  common  by  both  princes  of 
this  line.  They  contain :  Schleiz,  the  capital  and  residence  of  the  prince  of 
Reuss-Schleiz,  on  the  little  Wiesenthal  river,  south-eastward  and  42  miles 
distant  from  Weimar,  with  considerable  trade,  important  cotton  and  wool- 
len manufactures,  and  5,100  inhabitants.  Ebersdorf,  until  1848  the  capital 
and  princely  residence  of  Reuss-Lobenstein-Ebersdorf  (160  square  miles,  and 
21,600  inhabitants),  south-westward  and  10  miles  distant  from  Schleiz,  with 
a  stately  palace,  various  manufactures,  and  1,250  inhabitants.     Lobenstein, 


GERMANY.  399 


The  Principalities  of  Reuss  and  Schwarzburg. 


town  not  far  from  Ebersdorf,  has  considerable  manufactures,  and  2,500  in- 
.bitants,  and  was  until  1824  the  residence  of  the  princes  of  Reuss-Loben- 
iin,  which  line  then  became  extinct.  The  above-mentioned  dominion  of 
era  (149  square  miles,  and  32,300  inhabitants)  contains:  Geea,  a  town  ro- 
antically  situated  on  the  Elster,  38  miles  south-south-west  of  Leipsic,  is 
le  of  the  most  industrious  towns  in  this  quarter,  and  has  10,000  inhabi- 
jats.  The  town  of  Saalburg,  on  the  Saale,  with  1,200  inhabitants,  is  noted 
»r  its  iron-works.  K6sTRiTZ,a  village  on  the  Elster,  with  1,200  inhabitants, 
the  residence  of  a  collateral  line  of  the  house  of  Reuss. 


XXTX-XXIIL— THE  PRINCIPALITIES  OF  SCHWARZBURG. 

Area:  660  square  miles. 
Population:  128,000  inhabitants. 

Both  of  these  principalities,  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen  and 
Schwarzburg-Rudolsladt,  consist  of  two  detached  sections  about 
25  miles  from  each  other,  and  situated  in  the  centre  of  Germany. 
One  section,  styled  the  Lower  Dominion,  is  encircled  by  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  Prussian  province  of  Saxony  ;  and  the  other  sec- 
tion, styled  the  Upper  Dominion,  is  surrounded  by  the  Saxon 
duchies,  and  situated  at  the  Thuringerwald.  The  former  is  situ- 
ated in  and  near  a  district  noted  for  its  great  fertility,  and  proba- 
bly for  this  reason,  called  the  Giildene  Aue  (golden  plain  or  field). 
Both  principalities  have  a  generally  hilly  but  fertile  soil.  The 
natural  productions  are  chiefly  grain,  flax,  timber,  freestone, 
cattle,  sheep  of  improved  breed,  etc.  In  the  forests  much  pitch 
and  smoke-black  is  made ;  moreover  there  are  iron-works,  and 
some  woollen  manufactures  The  inhabitants  are  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  about  300  Catholics  and  400  Jews)  LutJierans.  The 
government  is  in  both  principalities  a  limited  monarchy.     In  the 


400  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany.— Principalities  of  Schwarzburg. 

principality  of  Sondershausen  the  public  revenue  is  about  1 60,00C 
Prussian  dollars,  and  the  expenditure  upon  an  average  much 
less  than  this  amount.  (The  revenues  of  the  princely  do- 
mains are  estimated  at  230,000  Prussian  dollars.)  The  public 
debt  was  some  years  ago  114,000  Prussian  dollars.  To  the  con- 
federal army  are  to  be  furnished  45 1  men. — In  the  principality 
of  Rudolstadt  the  public  revenue  amounted  to  268,000,  and  the 
expenditure  to  248,541  florins  in  the  year  1844;  the  public  debt 
was  100,540  florins.  (The  revenue  of  the  princely  domains  are 
estimated  at  180,000  Prussian  dollars.)  To  the  confederal  army 
are  to  be  furnished  539  men. 

•  - 
History. — The  former  earls,  at  present  princes  of  Schwarzburg,  are  de- 
scendants of  Sizzo,  earl  of  Schwarzburg  and  Kafernburg.  Sizzo  died  in 
1195,  and  left  behind  two  sons,  Henry  and  Gunther,  by  whom  the  earldom 
was  divided.  But  in  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century  it  was  under  the 
sway  of  one  single  line;  and  to  this  belonged  earl  Gunther,  who  in  134*7 
was  elected  Roman  emperor  (see  History  of  Germany).  Meanwhile  the 
earldom  had  been  aggrandized  both  in  the  Upper  and  Lower  Dominion 
Earl  Gunther  XL.,  who  died  in  1552,  left  behind  two  sons,  John  Gunther 
and  Albert  Anton,  who  divided  the  earldom  again,  and  are  the  ancestors  of 
the  present  reigning  lines  of  Sondershausen  and  Rudolstadt  In  1697  and 
1*710  the  earls  of  Schwarzburg  were  raised  to  the  dignity  of  princes. 


L  SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN. 

This  principality  has  an  extent  of  330  square  miles,  with 
58,000  inhabitants,  and  its  reigning  sovereign  is,  since  1835, 
prince  Gunther  (Frederic  Charles),  born  in  1801.     It  contains: 

1.  In  the  Lower  Dominion:  Sondershausen,  the  capital  of  the  principal- 
ity and  princely  residence,  on  the  Wipper  river,  south-eastward  and  1  miles 
distant  from  Nordhausen,  with  an  extensive  palace  and  5,000  inhabitants. 
Greussen  and  Mhrig,  towns  with  respectively  2,600  and  1,100  inhabitants 


GERMANY.  401 


The  Principalities  of  Schwarzburg. 


Clingen  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  Ebeleben  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Schern- 
berg  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  and  Keula  (with  1,050  inhabitants).  2.  In  the 
Upper  Dominion :  Arnstadt,  a  town  on  the  Gera  river,  south-eastward  and 
15  mil.-  distant  from  Gotha,  with  remarkable  public  edifices,  considerable  corn 
trade,  and  6,000  inhabitants.  Plaue,  a  little  town  with  850  inhabitants,  is 
noted  for  its  porcelain  manufactory.  Gehren,  a  market-town  with  1,800  in- 
habitants, and  the  neighboring  ruins  of  the  princely  ancestral  castle  of 
K'afernburg. 


IL  SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT. 

This  principality  is  exactly  of  the  same  extent  as  the  former, 
but  its  population  amounts  to  70,000  inhabitants.  The  reigning 
sovereign  since  1814,  is  prince  Gunther  (Frederic),  born  in 
1793.     It  contains: 

1.  In  the  Upper  Dominion :  Rudolstadt,  the  capital  of  the  principality 
and  princely  residence,  on  the  Saale,  southward  and  20  miles  distant  from 
"Weimar,  with  a  celebrated  palace,  and  5,500  inhabitants.  The  neighbor- 
ing town  of  Blankenburg,  with  1,300  inhabitants,  is  remarkable  for  the  ruins 
of  an  ancient  castle,  where  Earl  Gunther,  who  was  elected  German  emperor, 
was  born.  Paulinzelle,  once  a  Cistercian  monastery;  its  ruins  are  still 
notable;  as  is  also  the  neighboring  and  well-preserved  ancestral  castle 
of  Schioarzburg.  Konigsee,  a  town  with  2,100  inhabitants.  Stadt  Jim,  an 
industrious  town  on  the  Ilm  river,  north-westward  and  10  miles  distant 
from  Rudolstadt,  with  2,300  inhabitants.  2.  In  the  Lower  Dominion: 
Frankenhausen,  a  town  on  the  Wipper  river,  eastward  and  1  miles  distant 
from  Sondershausen,  with  considerable  trade  in  wool,  and  5,000  inhabitants, 
is  noted  for  its  salt-works.  Near  Frankenhausen,  on  the  15th  May,  1525, 
the  notorious  Thomas  Miinzer,  at  the  head  of  8,000  rebellious  peasants,  was 
defeated  and  taken  prisoner.  Not  far  from  here  are  the  ruins  of  the 
anciently  renowned  castle  of  Kyffhausen,  where  the  emperors  of  the  house 
of  Hohenstaufen,  especially  Frederic  L,  frequently  resided. 


402  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Germany.— The  Duchies  of  Anhalt. 


XXIV.-XXV.— THE  DUCHIES  OF  ANHALT. 

Area:  1,022  square  miles. 
Population:  158,000  inhabitants. 

The  duchies  (until  1806  principalities)  of  Anhalt,  are  situated 
along  the  Elbe,  between  Wittenberg  and  Magdeburg,  and  are 
almost  wholly  surrounded  by  the  territory  of  the  Prussian  prov- 
ince of  Saxony.  The  inhabitants  are  (with  the  exception  of 
about  1,350  Catholics,  and  2,450  Jews)  Protestants,  i.  e.  partly 
Lutherans  (prevailing  in  Anhalt-Bernburg),  and  partly  Calvinists 
(prevailing  in  Anhalt-Dessau  and  Anhalt-Cothen).  The  duchies 
of  Anhalt  rank  among  the  most  fertile  countries  of  Germany, 
and  are  especially  noted  for  their  fine  breed  of  cattle  and  sheep. 
The  dairy  produces  excellent  butter.  Linen  and  woollen  goods 
are  the  staple  manufactures;  near  the  Hartz  are  iron-works. 
The  inland  trade  is  very  considerable.  Beside  numerous  com- 
mon schools,  there  are  4  gymnasia.  The  government  is  since 
1848  a  limited  monarchy.  Until  recently,  Anhalt-Dessau  had  to 
furnish  529,  Bernburg  370,  and  Cothen  325  men,  to  the  federal 
army.  About  the  public  finances,  see  below.  In  1837  the  dukes 
of  Anhalt  instituted  in  common  the  order  of  Albert  the  Bear,  in 
3  classes. 

History. — The  territories  of  the  present  duchies  of  Anhalt  were  formerly 
under  the  sway  of  the  eastern  margraves,  who  so  early  as  in  the  10th  cen- 
tury, had  become  possessed  of  considerable  dominions  along  the  Saale  and 
Elbe  rivers.  JEsico  of  Ascania,  nearly  related  with  these  margraves,  and 
living  at  the  end  of  the  10th  century,  is  to  be  considered  as  the  ancestor  of 
the  house  of  Anhalt ;  which  latter  name  came  into  vogue  towards  the  end 
of  the  12th  century.  Esico's  grandson  Otto,  surnamed  the  Rich,  was  mar- 
ried to  Eilika,  daughter  of  the  duke  Magnus  of  Saxony  (i.  e.  of  primitive 


GERMANY.  403 


The  Duchies  of  Anhalt— their  History. 


Saxony,  subsequently  named  Lower  Saxony,  see  page  378),  while  her  sister 
Wulfhild  was  married  to  the  duke  Henry  of  Bavaria,  grandfather  of  the 
renowned  Duke  Henry,  surnamed  the  Lion.  Thus,  when  the  latter  was 
outlawed  in  1179,  his  cousin,  the  earl  Bernard  of  Anhalt,  was  the  nearest 
heir  to  the  duchy  of  Saxony,  and  was  indeed  invested  with  it  and  the  elec- 
toral dignity  (see  page  379).  However  his  son  and  successor,  Henry  I., 
ceded  both  to  his  younger  brother  Albert  (ancestor  of  the  electors  of  Sax- 
ony from  the  house  of  Ascania,  and  of  the  dukes  of  Lauenburg,  who  became 
extinct  in  1689),  while  he  himself  was  contented  with  his  patrimonial  domin- 
ions, and  assumed  the  title  of  a  prince  of  Anhalt.  After  his  death,  which 
occurred  in  1252,  three  lines  of  his  house  sprung  up,  two  of  which  became 
extinct ;  but  since  the  death  of  the  prince  Joachim  Ernest  of  Anhalt-Zerbst 
(reigning  from  1570  to  1586),  four  new  lines  were  formed  by  his  four  sons, 
viz.,  the  lines  of  Dessau,  Bernburg,  Cothen,  and  Zerbst.  In  1793  the  last- 
named  line  (to  which  belonged  the  empress  Katharine  IL,  of  Russia)  be- 
came extinct,  and  its  principality  was  divided  among  the  three  other  lines, 
that  respectively  in  1806  and  1807,  were  raised  to  the  ducal  dignity.  In 
1847  the  line  of  Anhalt- Cothen  became  extinct,  and  since  that  period,  its 
duchy  devolved  to  the  remaining  two  reigning  lines,  is  previously  adminis- 
tered on  common  account  of  them. 

We  shall  first  describe  the  duchies  of  Anhalt- Bernburg  and 
Anhalt- Dessau,  as  independent  states,  and  lastly  the  former 
duchv  of  Anhalt-Cdthen  in  1847  devolved  to  both  in  common. 


I.  THE  DUCHY  OF  ANHALT-BERNBURGh 

It  has  an  extent  of  341  square  miles,  with  51,000  inhabitants, 
and  consists  of  two  detached  sections,  the  one  of  which,  styled 
the  Lower  Duchy,  is  situated  on  the  Saale  and  Elbe,  and  the 
other,  styled  Upper  Duchy,  at  the  Lower  Hartz  (see  page  8). 
The  public  revenue  (including  the  revenues  of  the  domains) 
amounts  to  450,000  florins,  and  much  exceeds  the  expenditure. 
Some  years  ago  there  was,  however,  a  public  debt  to  the  amount 


404  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Germany. — Duchies  of  Anhalt-Bernburg  and  Anhalt-Dessau. 


of  600,000  florins.  The  nigher  ancestor  of  the  line  of  Bernburg 
is  Christian,  son  of  the  above-mentioned  prince  Joachim  Ernest. 
The  late  prince  Alexius,  reigning  since  1796,  was  still  shortly 
before  the  dissolution  of  the  German  Empire  in  1806  created 
duke  by  the  emperor,  and  joined  as  such  the  Rhenish  Confedera- 
tion. He  died  in  1834,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  pres- 
ent reigning  duke  Alexander  (Charles),  born  in  1805.  The 
duchy  of  Anhalt-Bernburg  contains : 

1.  In  the  Lower  Duchy :  Bernburg,  the  capital  of  the  duchy  and  seat  of 
the  government  (but  not  of  the  duke,  who  usually  resides  in  Ballenstedt), 
on  the  Saale,  southward  and  23  miles  distant  from  Magdeburg,  with  a  ducal 
castle,  3  remarkable  churches,  considerable  trade,  and  6,200  inh.  Plotzkau, 
a  town  noted  for  a  castle  with  a  remarkable  steeple.  Koswick,  a  town  on  the 
Elbe,  with  several  public  edifices,  breweries,  and  2,850  inhabitants.  Miihlin- 
gen,  a  village  with  ancient  ducal  castle,  and  1,050  inhabitants.  2.  In  the  Upper 
Duchy :  Ballenstedt,  a  town  at  the  foot  of  the  Hartz,  westward  and  20 
miles  distant  from  Bernburg,  is  the  usual  residence  of  the  duke  (his  palace 
was  primitively  founded  in  940),  is  noted  for  its  breweries,  and  has  3,850 
inhabitants.  Harzgerode,  a  town  south-westward  and  1  miles  distant  from 
Ballenstedt,  with  2,450  inhabitants.  In  its  neighborhood  are  the  noted 
watering-place  of  Alexisbad,  the  important  iron- works  of  Magdesprung, 
and  a  silver  mine.  Near  this  are  the  ruins  of  the  ancestral  castle  of  Anhalt. 
The  town  of  Gernrode,  with  2,200  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  church  and 
manufactures  of  fire-arms.  The  town  of  Hoym,  on  the  Selke  river,  north- 
ward and  5  miles  distant  from  Ballenstedt,  with  a  ducal  palace,  and  2,300 
inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  flax,  and  was  until  1812  the  seat  of  a  collateral 
line  of  the  house  of  Anhalt.  Gunthersberge  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
towns  in  Germany,  and  has  850  inhabitants. 


II  THE  DUCHY  OF  ANHALT-DESSAU. 

It  has  an  extent  of  362  square  miles,  with  65,000  inhabitants, 
and  is  situated  along  the  Elbe  and  Mulde  (see  page  16)  rivers. 


GERMANY.  405 


Germany. — Duchies  of  Anhalt-Dessau  and  Anhalt-Cfithen. 

The  public  revenue  (including  the  considerable  revenues  from  the 
lucal  domains)  amounts  to  600,000  florins,  and  exceeds  by  far 
,he  expenditure.  Nevertheless  there  was  some  years  ago  a  public 
iebt  of  1,500,000  florins,  contracted  for  various  purposes  in  pub- 
lic concerns.  The  nigher  ancestor  of  the  line  of  Dessau  is  John 
George,  eldest  son  of  the  above-mentioned  prince  Joachim  Er- 
nest. His  great-grandson,  John  George  II.,  who  died  in  1693, 
was  the  father  of  the  well-known  rough  swordsman,  prince  Leo- 
pold, who  was  general  in  the  Prussian  service,  and  died  in  1747. 
His  grandson,  Leopold  Frederic  Francis,  joined  in  1807  the  Rhe- 
nish Confederation  as  duke.  He  died  in  1817,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  grandson,  the  present  reigning  duke  Leopold  Fred- 
eric, born  in  1794.     The  duchy  of  Anhalt-Dessau  contains: 

Dessau,  the  capital  of  the  duchy  and  ducal  residence,  on  the  Mulde  river, 
near  its  junction  with  the  Elbe,  with  several  beautiful  public  edifices  (the 
foundation  of  the  ducal  palace  was  laid  in  1341),  considerable  corn  and 
wool  trade,  and  12,500  inhabitants.  Oranienbaum,  a  town  eastward  and  7 
miles  distant  from  Dessau,  with  ducal  palace,  and  2,100  inhabitants.  Half- 
way between  Dessau  and  Wittenberg,  is  "Worlitz,  with  2,000  inhabitants, 
noted  for  its  ducal  gardens  and  park.  Raguhn  and  Jessnitz,  industrious 
towns  on  the  Mulde,  with  respectively  1,750  and  2,454  inhabitants.  Zerbst, 
until  1793  the  capital  of  a  principality  of  the  same  name  (see  History  of 
Anhalt),  on  the  Nuthe  river,  north-westward  and  13  miles  distant  from  Des- 
sau, with  several  public  edifices,  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and  9,500 
inhabitants. 

III.  The  former  duchy  of  Anhalt- Cothen  (319  square  miles, 
nnd  42,000  inhabitants),  since  1847  administered  on  the  com- 
mon account  of  the  remaining  two  reigning  lines  of  the  house 
of  Anhalt  (see  above),  is  situated  chiefly  between  the  Saale  and 
Mulde  rivers,  and  partly  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe.  (Politi- 
cally annexed  to  Anhalt-Cothen  are  the  dependent  principality 
of  Fless  in  Silesia,  to  the  extent  of  383  square  miles,  with  54.000 


406  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Germany. — Duchies  of  Anhalt. 


inhabitants,  and  the  Ascanianova,  a  tract  of  land  320  square  miles 
in  extent,  in  the  southern  part  of  Russia).  The  nigher  ancestor 
of  the  line  of  Cothen  was  Emanuel,  grandson  of  the  above-men- 
tioned prince  Joachim  Ernest.  The  prince  Augustus  Christian 
Frederic  (1789-1812)  joined  in  1807  the  Rhenish  Confedera- 
tion as  duke.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Louis,  who  died 
in  1818  and  was  succeeded  by  his  cousin  duke  Ferdinand  of  An- 
halt-Pless,  who  in  1825  turned  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  died  in 
1830.  Ferdinand  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Henry,  who  died 
on  the  23d  Nov.,  1847,  and  with  whom  the  line  of  Anhalt-Cothen 
became  extinct.     The  former  duchy  contains : 

Cothen  or  Kothen,  formerly  its  capital  and  ducal  residence,  about  half- 
way between  Bernburg  and  Dessau,  with  various  remarkable  public  edi- 
fices, leather  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and  6,300  inhabitants.  In 
its  neighborhood  is  situated  the  village  of  Baasdorf,  with  only  400  inhabi- 
tants, but  noted  for  the  wealth  of  its  peasantry.  Nienburg,  surnamed  an 
der  Saale,  a  town  on  the  Saale,  with  considerable  trade,  and  2,000  inhabi- 
tants. Rosslau,  an  industrious  town  near  Dessau,  with  1,600  inhabitants.  The 
village  of  Dornburg  is  noted  for  its  extensive  ducal  palace. 


XXVI.— THE  GRAND-DUCHY  OF  MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN. 

Area  :  4,856  square  miles. 
Population:  515,000  inhabitants. 

It  is  situated  on  the  Baltic  Sea,  between  Pomerania  and  Hol- 
stein,  on  the  south  separated  from  Hanover  by  the  Elbe  river. 
The  inhabitants  are  (with  the  exception  of  few  Calvinists  and 
Catholics,  and  of  about  3,350  Jews)  Lutherans. 

The  country  forms   part  of   the    extensive  plain   mentioned 


GERMANY.  40*7 


The  Grand-Duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin — ita  Geography,  etc. 


page  4 ;  thus  its  surface  is  generally  level,  and  only  here  and 
there  intersected  by  ridges  of  low  hills.  A  natural  curiosity, 
somewhat  similar  to  the  Giant's  Causeway  in  Ireland,  is  on  the 
3oast,  the  so-called  Holy  Causeway  (Heiliger  Damra),  rising  from 
12  to  15  feet  above  the  water,  and  of  a  length  of  nearly  2^  miles, 
by  about  1 00  feet  broad. 

The  soil  is  for  the  most  part  fertile  and  well  cultivated,  while 
other  parts  of  the  country  are  covered  with  extensive  and  valu- 
able forests.  All  branches  of  husbandry  are  in  Mecklenburg 
managed  with  a  skill  unsurpassed  in  Germany.  The  country  is 
especially  noted  for  the  fine  breed  of  its  horses  (see  page  285). 
The  manufactures  are  rather  insignificant ;  but  the  more  consid- 
erable is  the  trade  and  commerce,  which  latter  is  carried  on  chiefly 
by  Rostock  and  Wismar.  The  principal  exports  are  grain,  butter, 
cattle,  horses,  timber,  and  wool. 

There  are,  with  regard  to  the  means  of  education,  besides  a 
university  at  Rostock  (see  page  287),  which  in  1844  was  fre- 
quented by  120  students,  5  gymnasiums,  2  seminaries,  43  Latin 
and  1,048  common  schools.  The  government  is  a  limited  mon- 
archy. The  amount  of  the  public  revenue  and  of  the  expenditure 
was,  according  to  the  budget  for  1843-44,  estimated  at  3,162,751 
Prussian  dollars.  The  public  debt  amounted  in  1845  to  6,962,429 
Prussian  dollars.  To  the  confederal  army  are  to  be  furnished 
3,580  men. 

History. — The  grand-ducal  families,  both  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  and 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  are  descended  in  direct  male  line  from  the  last  king 
or  prince  of  the  Obotrites,  Pribislav  II,  who  died  in  1181.  The  capital  of 
the  Obotrites  was  named  Mikelenborg  (at  present  a  village,  and  situated  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Wismar),  hence  the  name  of  Mecklenburg.  The  Obo- 
trites belonged  to  the  great  tribe  of  the  Slavonians  (see  pages  18  and  19), 
and  had  immigrated  here  since  about  the  5  th  century.  They  were  subdued 
by  Charlemagne,  but  became  independent  in  the  days  of  Louis  the  Pious, 


I 


408  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Germany.— Grand-Duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin. 


T 


and  were  since  820  ruled  by  a  native  prince,  Ceodrag  by  name.  In  1161 
the  country  was  conquered  by  Henry,  surnamed  the  Lion,  duke  of  Saxony 
and  Bavaria,  who  however  retained  only  a  part  of  it,  while  he  in  1166 
restored  the  remainder  to  the  native  prince,  the  above-mentioned  Pribislav 
II,  who  embraced  the  Christian  creed,  and  became  in  1170  prince  of  the 
German  empire.  The  German  language  began  since  to  supplant  gradually 
the  Slavonic  idiom  Pribislav  died  in  1181,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Borowin,  whose  four  sons,  by  dividing  the  country,  formed  as  many  reigning 
lines  (of  Mecklenburg,  Rostock,  Parchim,  and  Werle),  which  in  the  course 
of  time  became  extinct,  with  the  exception  of  the  line  of  Mecklenburg,  that 
in  1348  was  raised  to  the  ducal  dignity  by  Emperor  Charles  IV.  Subse- 
quently there  sprung  up  new  lines,  but  towards  the  end  of  the  17th  century 
(in  1695),  they  were  restrieted  to  two,  that  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  and 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  The  duke  Frederic  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  died  in 
1785,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Frederic  Francis,  who  in  1803 
bought  back  at  the  price  of  1,200,000  dollars,  from  Sweden,  the  city  of 
Wismar  (which  Mecklenburg  had  been  obliged  to  cede  to  that  power  in 
1648),  joined  in  1807  the  Rhenish,  and  in  1815  the  German  confederation, 
as  grand  duke.  He  died  in  1837,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Paul 
Frederic,  who  died  so  early  as  in  the  year  1842,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  the  present  reigning  grand  duke,  Frederic  Francis,  born  in  1823. 

The  ancient  constituent  parts  of  the  present  grand-duchy  are: 
the  duchies  of  Schwerin  and  Gustrow,  the  principality  or  former 
bishopric  of  Schwerin,  and  the  dominions  of  Rostock  and  Wis- 
mar. The  country  is  still  divided  into  these  parts,  and  subdi- 
vided into  45  bailiwicks.  In  the  following  topography  the  for- 
mer will  be  found  separated  from  each  other  by  dashes.  The 
first  period  embraces  the  ancient  duchy  and  earldom  of  Schwerin 
(2,598  square  miles,  and  268,000  inhabitants),  containing : 

Schwerin,  the  capital  of  the  whole  country  and  grand-ducal  residence,  on 
the  lake  of  the  same  name,  eastward  and  60  miles  distant  from  Hamburg, 
and  south-eastward  and  34  miles  distant  from  Lubec,  has  several  remarkable 
public  edifices  (among  them  the  cathedral  founded  in  1170),  and  17,500 
inhabitants.     Banzkow  (with  1,250  inhabitant*),  Crivitz  (with  2,300  inhabi- 


GERMANY.  409 


T.'ie  Grand-Duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin — its  Geographical  Divisions. 

tants),  Hagenow  (with  2,700  inhabitants),   Wittenburg  (with  2,200  inhabi- 
tants), and  Lubtheen  (with  2,300  inhabitants),  towns.     The  town  of  Neustadt 
(on  the  Elde,  a  little  tributary  of  the   Elbe),  with  1,900   inhabitants,   is 
remarkable  for  two  palaces,  the  older  of  which  was  the  residence  of  a  col- 
lateral line  of  the  house  of  Mecklenburg  from  1726  to  1735.     Parchim,  a 
privileged  city,  on  the  Elde  (tributary  of  the  Elbe),  south-eastward  and  18 
miles  distant  from  Schwerin,  carries  on  a  rather  considerable  trade,  has 
6,500  inhabitants,  and  was,  until  1840,  the  seat  of  the  supreme  tribunal  of 
Mecklenburg.     Boizenburg,  one  of  the  most  industrious  towns  of  the  coun- 
try, on  the  Elbe,  south-eastward  and  40  miles  distant  from  Hamburg,  with 
considerable  trade  and  3,600  inhabitants.     Grevisrnuhlen,  a  town  situated 
between  two  lakes,  12  miles  west-south-west  of  Wismar,  with  2,550  inhabi- 
tants.    Klutz,  a  market-town  with  2,200  inhabitants,  lies   in  a  district  of 
nearly  the  same  name,  noted  for  its  fertility.     Gadebusch,  a  town  on  the 
Radegast  river,  north-westward  and  12  miles  distant  from  Schwerin,  has 
2,400  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  a  battle  between  the  Swedes  and  Danes, 
on  the  20th  December,  1712.    Rehna,  a  town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Gade- 
busch, with  woollen  manufactures,  and  2,250  inhabitants.     Doberan,  a  mar- 
ket-town near  the  Baltic  Sea  and  Rostock,  has  2,200  inhabitants,  a  grand- 
ducal  palace,  and  a  remarkable  Gothic  church,  and  is  much  resorted  to  for 
sea-bathing.     Sternberg,  a  town  on  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  north-eastward 
and  16  miles  distant  from  Schwerin,  has  2,300  inhabitants.     Here,  alter- 
nately with  Malchin,  the  diets  of  Mecklenburg  are  held.     The  town  of  Gra- 
bow  (on  the  Elde,  tributary  of  the  Elbe,  with  3,350  inhabitants)  is  noted  for 
its  butter-markets.     Ludwigslust,  a  market-town  on  the  Hamburg-Berlin 
railroad,  has  4,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  grand-ducal  palace,  until 
1837  the  residence  of  the  grand  duke.     Domitz,  a  somewhat  fortified  town 
on  the  Elbe,  at  its  junction  with  the  Elde,  with  2,250  inhabitants. — Buetzow, 
anciently  the  capital  of  the  independent  bishopric  of  Schwerin  (instituted  in 
1171,  and  secularized  in  1648),  with  an  extensive  castle  or  palace,  manufac- 
tures, and  4,050  inhabitants.     In  1760  a  university  was  founded  here,  which 
however  in  1789  was  united  with  that  of  Rostock. — Guestrow,  a  privileged 
city  on  the  Nebel  (see  page  17),  southward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Ros- 
tock, with  several  public  edifices,  important  trade,  and  9,100  inhabitants.    Tete- 
row  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Stavenhagen  (with  2,250  inhabitants),  Warm 
(with  5,200  inhabitants),  Penzlin  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  and  Plan  (with 
3,100  inhabitants),  more  or  less  remarkable  towns.     The  town  of  Malchin 

16 


410  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Germany.— Grand-Duchies  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  and  Strelitz. 


(on  the  Peene  and  near  the  frontier  of  Pomerania),  with  linen  and  woollen 
manufactures,  and  4,000  inhabitants.  Here,  alternately  with  Sternberg,  the 
diets  of  Mecklenburg  are  held.  Dobbertin,  anciently  a  Benedictine  nunnery, 
hut  since  the  Reformation  an  establishment  for  ladies  of  rank,  to  which 
belong  31  villages,  is  situated  in  the  neighborhood  of  Goldberg  (a  town  on  a 
lake,  eastward  and  27  miles  distant  from  Schwerin,  with  2,900  inhabitants). 
The  towns  of  Malchow  (on  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  eastward  and  27  miles 
distant  from  Parchim,  with  cloth  manufactures,  and  2,900  inhabitants)  and 
Ribnitz  (on  the  Baltic  Sea,  north-eastward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Ros- 
tock, with  fishery,  and  3,350  inhabitants),  are  likewise  noted  for  ancient 
wealthy  nunneries,  at  present  establishments  for  ladies  of  rank. — Rostock, 
a  commercial  city  on  the  Warnow  (see  page  17),  about  10  miles  from  the 
Baltic  Sea,  north-eastward  and  48  miles  distant  from  Schwerin,  has  20,500 
inhabitants,  several  celebrated  churches  and  other  public  edifices,  and  is 
noted  for  its  university  (see  above  and  page  287),  its  manufactures,  consider- 
able shipping,  and  other  similar  business.  The  seaport  of  Rostock  is  War- 
nemunde,  a  market-town  at  the  mouth  of  the  Warnow,  with  1,700  inhabi- 
tants.— "Wismar,  a  commercial  city  on  the  Baltic  Sea,  south-westward  and 
32  miles  distant  from  Rostock,  and  northward  and  18  miles  distant  from 
Schwerin,  with  considerable  shipping  and  commerce,  and  11,500  inhabitants. 
It  has  already  been  noticed,  that  Wismar  belonged  to  Sweden  in  the  period 
from  1648  to  1803  (see  above).     Neuhloster,  a  village  with  1,400  inhabitants. 


XXVIL— THE  GRAND-DUCHY  OF  MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ. 

Area  :  1,107  square  miles. 
Population  :  96,000  inhabitants 

It  is  situated  between  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  and  the  Prus- 
sian provinces  of  Pomerania  and  Brandenburg,  nowhere  border- 
ing upon  the  sea,  with  the  exception  of  a  section,  styled  the  prin- 
cipality of  Ratzeburg  (144  square  miles,  and  16,000  inhabitants), 


GERMANY.  411 


The  Grand-Duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz-— its  History. 


which  lies  at  the  north-western  frontier  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Lubec.  About  the  surface,  soil,  natural 
productions,  etc.,  almost  the  same  may  be  said  as  has  been  stated 
under  the  head  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin.  The  inhabitants  are 
(with  the  exception  of  a  few  Catholics  and  about  900  Jews)  Lu- 
therans. There  are  3  gymnasiums,  221  common,  and  several 
other  schools.  The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy.  The 
amount  of  the  public  revenue,  and  of  the  expenditure  for  several 
years,  has  been  about  388,500  Prussian  dollars.  The  public  debt 
amounted,  some  years  ago,  to  1,200,000  Prussian  dollars.  To 
the  confederal  army  are  to  be  furnished  718  men. 

History. — That  this  grand-duchy  and  its  reigning  family  have  had  the 
same  origin  as  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  is  already  noticed  in  the  history  of 
the  latter.  When  since  the  death  of  the  duke  John  Albert  I.  of  Gustrow 
(in  1695),  the  lines  of  the  house  of  Mecklenburg  were  restricted  to  two,  of 
Schwerin  and  Strelitz,  the  dukes  Frederic  William  and  Adolphus  Frederic, 
then  representing  these  lines,  made  in  1701  an  arrangement,  according  to 
which  Adolphus  Frederic  became  possessed  of  the  duchy  of  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz  and  the  principality  of  Ratzeburg.  The  successors  of  Adolphus 
Frederic,  who  died  in  1708,  were  :  Adolphus  Frederic  II.  (-|-in  1721),  Adol- 
phus Frederic  IIL  (+1752),  and  Adolphus  Frederic  IV.  (+1794).  The 
last-named  duke  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Charles  (the  father  of  the 
queen  Louisa  of  Prussia,  who  died  in  1810),  who  in  1808  entered  the  Rhe- 
nish, and  subsequently  the  German  Confederation  as  grand  duke.  He  died 
in  1816,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  present  reigning  grand  duke 
George,  born  in  1779. 

The  grand-duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  thus  consists  of  two 
detached  sections,  the  one  or  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  proper,  offi- 
cially styled  the  dominion  of  Stargard,  having  an  area  of  963 
square  miles,  with  80,000  inhabitants,  and  the  other  smaller  one 
(see  back),  styled  the  principality  of  Ratzeburg.  The  former 
contains : 

New-Strelitz  (in  German  Neu-Strelilz),  the  capital  of  the  grand-duchy 


412  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Germany. — Grand-Duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  and  Duchy  J»f  Holstein. 

and  grand-ducal  residence,  on  a  lake,  south-eastward  and  66  miles  distant 
from  Schwerin,  and  northward  and  62  miles  distant  from  Berlin,  is  well-built, 
and  has  7,500  inhabitants.  About  2  miles  from  here  is  Old  Strelitz  (Alt- 
Strelitz),  or  simply  Strelitz,  a  town  noted  for  its  horse-marts,  with  3,800 
inhabitants.  New  Brandenburg  (in  German  Neubrandenburg),  a  privileged 
city  near  a  lake,  16  miles  north-north-east  of  New  Strelitz,  is  very  regularly 
built,  and  noted  for  wool-markets,  cloth  and  linen  manufactures,  hops,  etc., 
and  has  7,000  inhabitants.  John  I,  margrave  of  Brandenburg,  laid  the 
foundation  of  this  city  in  1248,  hence  its  name.  Stargard,  an  anciently 
noted  town,  eastward  and  5  miles  distant  from  Neubrandenburg,  with  1,600 
inhabitants.  Friedland,  a  town,  founded  in  1244  by  the  margraves  John 
and  Otto  III.  of  Brandenburg,  with  cloth  and  linen  manufactures,  and  4,700 
inhabitahts.  Fuerstenberg,  a  town  on  the  Havel,  is  noted  for  its  butter, 
and  has  2,800  inhabitants.  The  so-called  principality  of  Ratzeburg  (which 
has  but  very  little,  or  nearly  nothing  in  common  with  the  town  of  this  name, 
capital  of  the  duchy  of  Lauenburg),  which  primitively  was  an  independent 
bishopric,  instituted  in  1058  and  secularized  in  1648,  contains:  Schonberg,  a 
town  near  the  Baltic  Sea,  12  miles  east-south-east  of  Lubec,  with  a  palace 
(once  the  residence  of  the  bishops  of  Ratzeburg),  linen  manufactures,  and  1,550 
inhabitants.  The  so-called  Domhof  and  Pahnberg  are  to  be  considered  as  a 
suburb  of  the  town  of  Ratzeburg,  with  350  inhabitants,  subjected  to  the 
grand  duke  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 


XXVIIL— THE  DUCHY  OF  HOLSTEIN,  TOGETHER  WITH  THE 
DUCHY  OF  LAUENBURG. 

Area  :  3,738  square  miles. 
Population:  524,000  inhabitants. 

Holstein  is  the  most  northern  state  of  Germany,  on  the  west 
washed  by  the  North  Sea,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Baltic.  On  the 
south-west  and  south  it  is  by  the  Elbe  separated  from  the  kingdom 


GERMANY.  413 


The  Duchy  of  Holstein—  its  Statistics. 


of  Hanover,  and  its  south-eastern  frontier  is  formed  by  the  duchy 
of  Lauenburg.  The  latter  has  an  area  of  404£  square  miles,  and 
a  population  of  47,000  inhabitants  ;  while  Holstein  has  an  area 
of  3,333£  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  477,000  inhabitants. 
The  population  in  both  duchies  consists  of  Lutherans  (with  the 
exception  of  about  650  Calvinists,  850  Catholics,  200  Mennon- 
ites,  and  3,500  Jews). — We  shall  first  describe  Holstein,  and 
after  this  Lauenburg. 

About  the  rivers  and  lakes  in  Holstein  see  pages  11,14  and 
17.  The  surface  and  soil  of  the  country  is  much  the  same  as  in 
the  neighboring  Mecklenburg.  The  various  branches  of  hus- 
bandry form  the  chief  source  for  sustenance  in  Holstein  as  well 
as  in  Mecklenburg;  and  previous  to  the  unreasonable  war  against 
Denmark  so  wantonly  contrived  and  prosecuted  since  1848,  Hol- 
stein was  unrivalled  in  its  wealth  and  prosperity.  There  was 
scarcely  a  beggar  to  be  found  there,  and  even  thefts  very  seldom 
occurred.  Agriculture  was  on  a  high  scale  of  improvement,  as 
the  rearing  of  cattle  and  horses.  The  latter  are  of  the  first  breed, 
and  many  of  them  were  annually  exported  to  France,  for  the 
French  cavalry.  The  butter  of  Holstein  is  renowned  for  its  ex- 
cellency throughout  Germany,  England,  and  other  countries. 
The  fisheries,  the  commerce  and  the  manufactures,  all  formerly 
important,  have  been  seriously  reduced  by  the  recent  war  with 
Denmark.  The  university  at  Kiel  (see  page  288  ;  in  1846  it  was 
frequented  by  207  students),  6  gymnasiums,  (in  Altona,  Kiel, 
Gliickstadt,  Meldorf,  Plon  and  Rendsburg),  1  seminary  for  school- 
teachers, and  1,051  common  schools  were  in  the  best  order.  The 
government  since  1834  is  a  limited  monarchy,  the  sovereign  power 
being  vested  in  the  king  of  Denmark  as  duke  of  Holstein,  and  in 
a  provincial  assembly.  To  the  German  confederal  army  were 
to  be  furnished  3,600  men  (i.  e.  both  from  Holstein  and  Lauen- 
burg). 


414  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT 

Germany.— Duchy  of  Holstein. 

History. — The  present  duchy  of  Holstein  embraces  the  ancient  countries  of 
Holstein  proper  (containing  among  others  the  towns  of  Rendsburg,  Kiel, 
Itzehoe,  Wilster,  etc.),  of  Stormarn  (with  Gluckstadt,  Krempe,  "Wandsbeck, 
etc.),  of  Dithmarschen  (with  Meldorf,  Brunsbuttel,  Lunden),  of  Wagrien 
(with  Plon,  Oldesloe,  Segeberg,  Heiligenhafen,  Aldenburg,  Neustadt),  and 
the  former  dominion  of  Pinneberg  (with  Altona,  Ottensen,  Pinneberg).  In 
the  early  times  of  the  middle  ages  the  whole  was  known  by  the  name  of 
North  Albingia,  or  Saxony  beyond  the  Elbe,  because  it  was  chiefly  inhabited 
by  Saxons  (see  page  298).  Charlemagne  conquered  it,  and  since  the  treaty 
concluded  at  Verdun  in  843  (see  page  31),  it  formed  a  constituent  part  of 
the  ancient  duchy  of  Saxony  (see  page  299).  "With  this  duchy  Emperor 
Henry  V.  invested  in  1106  the  earl  Lothar  of  Supplinburg  (subsequently 
Emperor  Lothar  II.;  see  page  300).  The  latter  now  again  invested  the 
earl  Adolphus  of  Schaumburg  (belonging  to  that  house,  mentioned  page 
371)  with  Holstein  as  a  fief;  according  to  the  general  custom  in  the  middle 
ages  (see  pages  35  and  36).  At  a  later  period  Holstein  became  an  actual 
independent  member  of  the  German  empire,  and  the  earls  of  Schaumburg 
remained  in  possession  of  it  until  1459,  when  the  last  male  descendant,  Earl 
Adolphus  XII.,  died  childless.  His  only  heiress  was  his  sister,  the  countess 
Hedwig  of  Oldenburg,  whose  eldest  son,  Christian,  had  ascended  the  throne 
of  Denmark  in  1448,  and  who  now,  after  the  death  of  Earl  Adolphus  XIL, 
in  1459,  also  inherited  Holstein.  In  this  way  Holstein  (in  1474  raised  to 
the  dignity  of  a  duchy  by  Emperor  Frederic  III.)  came  into  connection  with 
Denmark.  Unfortunately,  the  succeeding  Danish  kings  did  not  continually 
exercise  the  governmental  power  in  Holstein  directly,  but  by  vassals  (see 
page  36),  i.  e.  by  younger  princes  of  the  royal  family,  who  were  invested 
with  the  duchy  as  a  fief.  In  the  course  of  time  the  dukes  of  Holstein  acted 
almost  as  independent  sovereigns,  though  their  feudal  dependency  upon  the 
Danish  crown  remained  unaltered.  Several  collateral  lines  originated,  and 
frequently  divisions  of  the  duchy  took  place,  till  at  length  all  the  parts  were 
reunited  as  a  whole  under  the  duke  Frederic  IV.  of  Holstein-  Gottrop,  who 
died  in  1702.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles  Frederic,  who  in  1725 
entered  into  matrimony  with  the  grand  duchess  Ann,  eldest  daughter  of  Pe- 
ter L  of  Russia.  Their  son,  Duke  Peter,  who  succeeded  his  father  in  1739, 
ascended  the  Russian  throne  in  1762,  and  bequeathed  his  patrimonial  duchy 
of  Holstein  to  his  son  Paul  (subsequently  emperor  of  Russia).  Paul,  as 
heir  of  the  most  powerful  empire  in  Europe,  not  liking  to  be  at  the  same 


GERMANY.  416 


Holstein— its  History. 


time  vassal  of  a  foreign  kingdom,  loosened  the  ties  of  his  vassalage  by  re- 
storing the  duchy  of  Holstein  to  its  feudal  lord,  the  king  of  Denmark,  in 
1773.  Since  that  period  the  duchy  has  been  again  ruled  directly  by  the 
kings  of  Denmark,  without  prejudice  to  its  political  connection  first  with  the 
German  Empire,  and  then  with  the  German  Confederation.  In  short,  Hol- 
stein was  in  the  same  political  condition  as,  for  instance,  Hanover  was  from 
1714  (when  George  L  ascended  the  British  throne ;  see  page  233)  until  1837 
(when  Ernest  Augustus  ascended  the  Hanoverian  throne),  during  which  pe- 
riod this  Electorate  (since  1814  a  kingdom)  formed  part  of  the  German  em- 
pire, although  its  rulers  sat  on  the  British  throne  and  resided  in  London. 
Likewise  the  ruler  of  Holstein  resided,  as  king  of  Denmark,  in  Copenhagen  ; 
but  as  duke  of  Holstein,  he  was  a  member  of  the  German  Empire  and  Con- 
federation. No  alteration  in  the  political  condition  of  Holstein  had  been 
proposed  or  thought  of  previous  to  1830.  Moreover,  the  people  of  this 
duchy  did  not  in  the  least  wish  for  it ;  and  indeed  the  prosperity  of  Holstein 
was  the  most  striking  evidence  of  the  liberal  administration  of  the  Danish 
government.  The  natural  and  intellectual  resources  of  the  country  had 
been  freely  allowed  to  improve,  and  no  attempt  had  ever  been  made  to 
infringe  upon  the  liberties  of  the  people,  or  to  supplant  the  German  lan- 
guage by  the  Danish.  But  there  were  in  Holstein  and  Sleswick  some 
lawyers,  almost  clientless,  who  being  unable  to  subsist  by  their  profession, 
for  this  reason  had  long  desired  to  make  a  living  in  some  other  way.  Af- 
ter the  revolution  of  July,  1830,  in  France,  they  became  intimate  with  the 
revolutionary  party  in  Germany,  who  received  secret  instructions  from  the 
revolutionary  central-union  in  France ;  and  now  it  was  resolved  upon  to 
transform  both  Holstein  and  Sleswick  gradually  into  the  head-quarters  of 
revolutionary  operations  in  the  northern  states  of  Germany.  It  would  lead 
us  too  far,  were  we  to  describe  all  the  intrigues  and  machinations  employed 
by  the  lawyers  and  their  friends  to  instigate  the  quiet  and  happy  people 
in  the  duchies  to  sever  the  ties  connecting  them  with  Denmark.  All  their 
exertions,  however,  would  have  been  frustrated  by  the  sound  sense  of  the 
people,  had  not  the  revolutions  in  Germany  in  1848  come  to  their  assistance. 
Of  course,  they  had  been  in  the  moral  necessity  to  allege  an  ostensible  mo- 
tive of  their  exertions ;  and  for  this  purpose  they  brought  upon  the  tapis 
the  fact,  that  the  presumptive  heir  of  the  Danish  crown,  present  (since  the 
20th  of  January,  1848)  reigning  king,  Frederic  VII.,  has  hitherto  been  with- 
out children,  and  the  possibility  that  he  may  die  without  any.    In  this  case 


416  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany. — Duchy  of  Holstein. 

the  Danish  throne  would  be  inherited  by  a  female  line  ;  and  now  those  in- 
stigators pretend  that  not  a  female,  but  a  male  line  of  succession,  and  there- 
fore especially  the  grand  duke  of  Oldenburg,  is  entitled  to  the  inheritance  of 
Holstein.  (The  claims  of  the  dukes  of  Sonderburg-Augustenburg  and  of 
Glticksburg  have  in  substance  only  reference  to  Sleswick.)  The  futility  of 
this  pretension  is  evinced  first  by  the  fact  that  King  Christian  L,  in  1459,  in- 
herited Holstein  not  by  the  right  of  his  father,  but  by  the  right  of  his 
mother ;  and  secondly  by  the  fact,  that  Holstein  was  from  the  years  14S1 
and  1533  until  1773  not  an  independent  hereditary  duchy,  but  a  fee  of  the 
Banish  crown,  and  escheated  to  it  in  the  last-named  year.  The  losses  which 
both  Holstein  and  Sleswick  have  sustained  since  the  commencement  of  the 
insensate  war  with  Denmark  (in  1848),  are  immense.  That  all  their  public 
resources  have  been  ruined,  their  trade  and  commercial  intercourse  inter- 
rupted, their  ports  blockaded,  the  exportation  of  cattle,  horses  and  other 
productions  reduced  to  nothing,  and  their  agricultural  enterprises  in  general 
paralyzed,  has  already  been  alluded  to  above.  In  the  second  place,  the 
people  in  the  duchies  have  sustained  incalculable  direct  losses,  by  feeding 
the  German  troops  and  a  host  of  adventurers,  by  paying  war -taxes,  and  by 
ravages  and  devastations  of  foreigners.  The  resources  of  the  duchies  have 
until  the  commencement  of  the  war  been  almost  inexhaustible ;  but  if  these 
disasters  continue,  there  will  at  last  remain  nothing  more  to  be  lost  For 
what,  then,  will  all  these  losses  have  been  sustained  ?  Why  has  a  flourish- 
ing country  been  transformed  into  a  wilderness  ?  For  what  has  a  happy, 
industrious,  wealthy  people  been  reduced  to  beggary  ?  For  nothing  but  to 
gratify  the  ambition  of  some  German  lawyers, — to  realize  the  idle  dreams 
of  some  book-learned  fancy-mongers,  and  to  furnish  the  means  of  temporary 
existence  to  sluggards  and  adventurers.  (The  historical  and  other  particu- 
lars about  Sleswick  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  Denmark.) 

The  duchy  of  Holstein  is  in  substance  divided  into  its  ancient 
above-mentioned  constituent  parts,  which  are  subdivided  into 
towns,  bailiwicks,  and  various  other  districts.  The  duchy  of 
Holstein  contains : 

Glueckstadt,  a  commercial  town  on  the  Elbe,  30  miles  below  Hamburg, 
is  the  seat  of  several  provincial  magistrates,  and  may  for  this  reason  be 
considered  as  the  capital  of  Holstein,  though  it  is  officially  not  styled  so ; 


GERMANY.  411 


The  Duchy  of  Holstein— Us  Topography. 


hitherto  it  carried  on  a  considerable  commerce  and  whale-fishery,  and  has 
6,000  inhabitants.  Wandsbeck,  a  market-town  north-eastward  and  2  J  miles 
distant  from  Hamburg,  was,  until  the  commencement  of  the  war  against 
Denmark,  noted  for  its  cotton  and  other  manufactures,  and  has  3,100  inhabi- 
tants. Rendsburg,  a  town  on  the  Eider,  and  exactly  on  the  frontier  of  Ger- 
many and  Denmark,  50  miles  north-north-west  of  Hamburg,  is  noted  for 
its  fortifications,  and  has  10,500  inhabitants.  Kiel,  a  town  on  the  bay  of  the 
same  name,  forming  an  excellent  harbor,  northward  and  60  miles  distant 
from  Hamburg,  is  noted  for  its  university  (see  above  and  page  288)  and 
annual  fairs,  and  has  13,000  inhabitants.  Itzehoe,  a  town  on  the  Stoer, 
north-westward  and  33  miles  distant  from  Hamburg,  with  various  manufac 
tures,  trade  in  cattle,  and  5,800  inhabitants.  Wilster,  a  town  on  a  little 
river  of  the  same  name,  northward  and  12  miles  distant  from  Gluckstadt,  is 
noted  for  its  fine  church,  and  has  3,000  inhabitants.  Kellinghusen,  a  market- 
town  on  the  Stoer,  north-eastward  and  10  miles  distant  from  Itzehoe,  with 
timber  trade,  and  1,100  inhabitants.  Neumunster,  a  market-town  at  the 
Kiel  and  Altona  railroad,  18  miles  south-south-west  of  Kiel,  with  noted 
manufactures,  and  4,200  inhabitants.  Preetz,  a  market-town  on  the  Schwen- 
tine  river,  22  miles  south-south-east  of  Kiel,  with  manufactures,  and  4,700 
inhabitants.  Ploen,  a  town  romantically  situated  on  the  lake  of  the  same 
name,  south-eastward  and  15  miles  distant  from  Kiel,  with  a  stately  palace, 
once  the  residence  of  a  collateral  line  of  the  dukes  of  Holstein,  and  3,000 
inhabitants.  Oldenburg  (not  to  be  confounded  with  the  capital  of  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Oldenburg),  a  town  near  the  Baltic  Sea,  north-eastward  and  22 
miles  distant  from  Ploen,  and  33  miles  north-north-east  of  Lubeck,  with 
2,500  inhabitants.  Heiligenhafen,  a  town  on  the  Baltic  Sea,  opposite  the 
isle  of  Femern,  with  2,000  inhabitants.  Neuntadt,  a  town  on  the  Baltic  Sea 
northward  and  1 2  miles  distant  from  Travemunde  (the  sea-port  of  Lubeck), 
with  considerable  corn-trade,  and  2,700  inhabitants.  Lutjenburg,  a  town 
near  the  Baltic  Sea,  eastward  and  22  miles  distant  from  Kiel,  with  2,106 
inhabitants.  Oldesloe,  a  town  romantically  situated  on  the  Trave,  south- 
westward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Lubeck,  is  noted  for  its  salt-springs,  and 
has  2,800  inhabitants.  Segeberg,  a  town  near  the  Trave,  northward  and  30 
miles  distant  from  Hamburg,  is  noted  for  its  gypsum,  and  has  3,300  inhabi- 
tants. Northward  and  9  miles  distant  from  here,  is  situated  the  village  of 
Bornhbved,  noted  in  history  for  three  battles,  in  the  years  1227,  1319,  and 
1813.    Bramstedt,  a  market-town  near  the  head  of  the  Alster  river,  west- 

18* 


418  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Germany. — Duchies  of  Holstein  and  Lauenburg. 


ward  and  15  miles  distant  from  Segeberg,  with  1,600  inhabitants.  The  pal- 
ace of  Travendahl,  on  the  Trave  river,  was  once  frequently  the  residence  of 
the  dukes  of  Holstein -Ploen,  and  is  noted  for  a  treaty  of  peace  concluded 
here  between  Sweden  and  Denmark,  on  the  17th  August,  1700.  The  coun- 
try or  province  of  Dithmarschen  (514  square  miles,  and  62,000  inhabitants), 
along  and  towards  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  was,  in  the  middle  ages,  an  inde- 
pendent state,  but  in  1559  conquered  by  the  dukes  of  Holstein  and  Sleswick. 
It  contains:  Meldorf,  formerly  the  capital  of  all  Dithmarschen,  26  miles 
north-north-west  of  Gliickstadt,  with  corn  trade,  and  3,150  inhabitants. 
Brunsbuttel,  a  market-town  on  the  Elbe,  opposite  Cuxhafen,  with  1,250  in- 
habitants. Marne,  a  market-town,  with  considerable  trade  in  corn  and  cattle, 
and  1,250  inhabitants.  Heide,  the  capital  of  the  northern  district  of  Dith- 
marschen, northward  and  7  miles  distant  from  Meldorf,  is  noted  for  its  hand- 
some market-place,  and  has  5,500  inhabitants.  Lunden,  a  town  with  1,500 
inhabitants.  The  ancient  dominion  of  Pinneberg  (188  square  miles,  and 
40,000  inhabitants),  of  which  in  1640  the  crown  of  Denmark  became 
possessed,  contains:  Pinneberg,  a  market- town,  north-westward  and  9  miles 
distant  from  Altona,  with  1,100  inhabitants.  Ottensen,  a  village  near  Altona, 
is  the  burial-place  of  the  German  poet,  Klopstock,  and  has  2,400  inhabi- 
tants. Blankenese,  a  village  on  the  Elbe,  is  noted  for  its  considerable  river- 
navigation,  and  has  3,000  inhabitants,  among  whom  are  many  pilots.  Flott- 
beck,  a  village  between  Ottensen  and  Blankenese,  is  noted  for  its  botanic  and 
nursery-gardens.  Wedel  (with  1,900  inhabitants)  and  Uetersen  (with  3,400 
inhabitants),  market-towns.  Altona,  a  very  important  commercial  city,  on 
the  Elbe,  only  1  mile  below  Hamburg,  is  not  only  noted  for  its  commerce, 
but  also  for  its  manufactures,  and  has  32,000  inhabitants.  Altona  was  still, 
in  the  16th  century  a  little  village,  but  since  the  middle  of  the  17th  century, 
it  became  gradually  an  important  city.  The  market-towns  of  Barmstedt 
(with  1,700  inhabitants)  and  Elmshorn  (with  5,400  inhabitants),  belong  to 
the  ancient  earldom  of  Banzau,  of  which  the  Danish  crown  became  pos- 
sessed in  1731. 

The  Duchy  of  Lauenburg  (404£  square  miles,  and  47,000 
inhabitants)  is  on  the  north-west  bordering  upon  Holstein,  on 
the  south  separated  from  the  kingdom  of  Hanover  by  the  Elbe, 
and  for  the  rest  bound  by  Mecklenburg.  Soil,  natural  produc- 
tions, etc.,  are  almost  the  same  as  in  Holstein  and  Mecklenburg. 


GERMANY. 


The  Duchy  of  Lauenburg— its  History. 


The  country  was,  together  with  Mecklenburg  (see  page  408), 
conquered  by  Henry,  surnamed  the  Lion,  and  annexed  to  his 
duchy  of  Saxony.  After  he  had  been  outlawed  in  1 180,  and  the 
earl  Bernard  of  Anhalt  invested  with  the  duchy  (see  page  403), 
Bernard's  second  son  Albert  became  possessed  of  this  Saxon 
dominion,  which  subsequently  was  styled  the  duchy  of  Lauen- 
burg. Duke  Erich,  of  Saxe-Lauenburg,  entered  into  a  heredi- 
tary alliance  with  the  house  of  Brunswick,  in  1369;  and  as  in 
1689  his  line  became  extinct,  the  Brunswick  line,  subsequently 
represented  by  the  electors  and  kings  of  Hanover,  inherited  the 
duchy  of  Lauenburg.  It  continued  to  form  a  constituent  part 
of  Hanover  for  120  years,  when  in  1814  it  was  ceded  to  Prussia. 
Meanwhile  Denmark  had  been  deprived  of  Norway  (with  about 
1,000,000  inhabitants),  and  poorly  indemnified  for  this  loss  by 
Swedish  Pomerania  (with  about  150,000  inhabitants).  But 
Prussia  desired  to  annex  this  latter  country  to  the  remainder  of 
Pomerania,  and,  of  course,  Denmark  was  compelled  to  yield  to 
this  desire,  by  ceding  Swedish  Pomerania,  and  contenting  itself 
with  the  duchy  of  Lauenburg  (whose  population  then  fell  short 
of  40,000  inhabitants),  which  Prussia  ceded  to  it  in  1815,  At 
present  Denmark  is  about  to  be  deprived  of  this  last  poor  indem- 
nification likewise,  though  the  duchy  of  Lauenburg  has  never  had 
anything  at  all  in  common,  either  with  Holstein  or  Sleswick. 
But  the  German  contrivers  of  the  war  with  Denmark,  on  account 
of  Holstein  and  Sleswick,  are  of  the  opinion  that  one  act  of  in- 
justice, more  or  less,  makes  no  difference.  The  duchy  of  Lau- 
enburg contains : 

Ratzeburg,  its  capital,  on  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  northward  and  25 
miles  distant  from  Lauenburg,  with  considerable  inland  trade  and  2,400 
inhabitants.  (About  the  principality  of  Ratzeburg,  see  under  the  head 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz.)  Lauenburg,  once  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Lau- 
enburg, on  the  Elbe,  32  miles  above  Hamburg,  with  considerable  trade,  and 


420  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Germany. — Grand-Duchy  of  Oldenburg. 


3,500  inhabitants.  Molln,  a  town  on  the  Steckenitz,  with  breweries,  and 
1,800  inhabitants.  Buchen,  Schwarzenbek,  and  Aumuhle,  are  more  or  less 
remarkable  villages. 


XXIX.— THE  GRAND-DUCHY  OF  OLDENBURG. 

Area:  2,471  square  miles. 
Population  :  274,050  inhabitants. 

This  grand-duchy  consists  of  three  distinct  territories,  viz. : 
Oldenburg  proper,  styled  the  duchy  of  Oldenburg  (on  the  North 
Sea,  and  surrounded  by  the  kingdom  of  Hanover),  the  principal- 
ity of  Jjubec  (which  has  nothing  in  common  with  the  city  of  Lu- 
bec,  though  it  is  situated  in  its  neighborhood),  and  the  princi- 
pality of  Birkenfeld  (on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Treves).  They  being  at  rather  great  distance 
from  each  other,  they  must  be  described  separately. 

Oldenburg  proper  forms  part  of  the  extensive  plain  mentioned 
page  4 ;  thus  its  surface  is  generally  level,  and  the  coast  as  well 
as  the  bank  along  the  Weser,  is  sheltered  against  inundations  by 
vast  dikes,  having  an  aggregate  length  of  152  miles.  The  Weser 
separates  the  country  on  the  east  from  Hanover,  and  is  joined 
here  by  the  Hunte  (see  page  17).  The  most  remarkable  of  the 
lakes  here  is  the  lake  of  Zwischenahn.  Some  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, especially  along  the  Weser  and  towards  the  North  Sea,  are 
noted  for  their  fertility,  but  in  the  interior  there  is  generally  but 
a  poor  soil.  Yet,  upon  the  whole,  Oldenburg  rears  both  cattle 
and  horses  of  a  very  fine  breed,  and  raises  amply  grain,  rape-seed 
(lamp-oil  made  of  it,  is  commonly  used  both  in  Germany  and 


GERMANY.  421 


The  Grand-Duchy  of  Oldenburg— its  Statistics  and  History. 

other  European  countries,  in  place  of  train-oil),  flax,  and  hemp. 
There  are  many  peat  bogs  which  supply  fuel,  the  more  valuable 
as  wood  and  coal  are  scarce.  In  the  sandy  and  heathy  parts  of 
the  country,  the  rearing  of  bees  affords  a  productive  source  for 
sustenance.  The  inland  trade  is  rather  considerable,  but  there 
are  but  few  manufactures. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  grand-duchy  are  Lutherans, 
yet  in  the  southern  part  of  Oldenburg  proper,  and  in  the  princi- 
pality of  Birkenfeld,  there  are  numerous  Roman  Catholics  (their 
total  number  being  about  74,800) ;  the  remainder  of  the  popula- 
tion consists  of  somewhat  more  than  2,300  Calvinists,  and  of 
about  1,400  Jews.  There  are  beside  numerous  common  schools, 
4  gymnasia,  2  seminaries,  1  military,  and  3  Latin  schools. 

The  government  was  until  the  commotions  in  1 848,  an  unlim- 
ited monarchy.  The  amount  of  the  public  revenue  and  of  the 
expenditure  for  several  years,  has  been  about  900,000  Prussian 
dollars  annually.  There  is  no  public  debt.  The  troops  to  be  fur- 
nished to  the  confederal  army  :  3,030  men,  with  4  pieces  of  ord- 
nance.— In  1838  an  order  of  honor  was  instituted,  by  the  name 
of  "  House  and  Merit  order  of  Duke  Peter,"  etc.,  in  4  classes. 

History. — The  primitive  ancestor  of  the  reigning  house  of  Oldenburg,  was 
the  celebrated  duke  or  king  Wittekind,  who  led  the  valiant  Saxons  in  the 
wars  with  Charlemagne.  One  of  Wittekind's  descendants  was  earl  Egilmar 
II,  of  Rustringen  and  Ammerland,  who  lived  in  the  period  from  1062  to 
1110,  and  whose  dominions  comprised  in  substance  what  at  present  is  called 
Oldenburg  proper.  Egilmar's  son,  Christian  I.,  reared  in  1155  the  castle  of 
Oldenburg,  and  since,  the  earls  of  Rustringen  and  Ammerland  named  them- 
selves earls  of  Oldenburg.  In  1232  they  became  actual  members  of  the 
German  empire.  In  1247  the  dominion  of  Delmenhorst  was  acquired,  and 
finally  annexed  to  Oldenburg  in  1436,  by  the  earl  Theodoric.  surnamed  the 
Fortunate.  It  was  this  sovereign  whose  eldest  son  mounted  in  1448  the 
Danish  throne,  by  the  name  of  Christian  I,  and  inherited  the  earldom  (sub- 
sequently duchy)  of  Holstein  in  1459  (see  above  under  the  head  of  Holstein) ; 


422  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   T  RESENT. 


Germany.— Grand-Duchy  of  Oldenburg. 


while  his  younger  son  Gerard,  propagated  the  reigning  line  of  Oldenburg 
Gerard  acquired  the  districts  of  Varel  and  Neuenburg,  and  his  great-grand- 
son, John  VI.,  the  dominions  ot  Jever  and  Kniphausen.  But  in  1667,  when 
Earl  Anton  Giinther  of  Oldenburg  died,  this  line  became  extinct,  and  now  the 
collateral  line  of  Denmark  succeeded,  and  acquired  the  earldom  of  Olden- 
burg by  way  of  inheritance.  Anton  Giinther's  natural  son  Anton,  earl  of 
Aldenburg,  became  however  possessed  of  the  lordship  of  Kniphausen;  and 
his  nephew,  a  prince  of  Anhalt-Zerbst,  became  possessed  of  the  dominion  of 
Jever.  The  main  body  of  the  earldom  of  Oldenburg  continued  to  be  in  pos- 
session of  Denmark  until  1773,  when  this  crown  ceded  the  earldom  to  the 
Russian  grand  duke  Paul,  in  exchange  for  the  duchy  of  Holstein  (see  His- 
tory of  Holstein).  Yet  the  grand  duke  ceded  it  again,  in  the  same  year,  to 
his  cousin  the  bishop  sovereign  of  Lubec,  Frederic  Augustus,  belonging  to  a 
younger  line  of  the  house  of  Holstein- Gottorp.  At  the  same  time  the 
emperor  Joseph  II.  raised  the  earldom  of  Oldenburg  to  the  dignity  of  a 
duchy.  Duke  Frederic  Augustus  died  in  1785,  and  as  his  only  son  and  legiti- 
mate heir,  Peter  Frederic  William,  was  perturbated  in  mind,  his  brother 
Peter  (Frederic  Louis)  took  the  reins  of  government  with  sovereign  power. 
In  1803  the  former  sovereign  bishopric  of  Lubec  was  transformed  into  a 
principality  and  annexed  to  the  duchy,  which  at  the  same  time  acquired 
several  districts  of  the  former  independent  bishopric  of  Miinster.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1806,  Oldenburg  was  occupied  by  French  troops,  but  in  the  following 
year  restored  to  the  duke,  who  in  1808  joined  the  Rhenish  Confederation, 
Napoleon  had  meanwhile  established  the  continental  system,  and  as  Olden- 
burg appeared  to  him  as  affording  too  many  opportunities  for  smuggling  to 
the  English,  he  incorporated  the  whole  country  with  the  French  empire,  in 
February,  1811.  He  offered  the  dominion  of  Erfurt  as  an  indemnification  to 
the  duke,  who  however  refused  it  and  went  to  Russia,  where  his  second  son, 
George,  was  married  to  the  grand  duchess  Catharine,  in  1809.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  year  1813  he  returned  to  Oldenburg,  and  entered  upon  its  reign 
again.  By  the  stipulations  of  the  Congress  at  Vienna,  he  acquired  a  district 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  by  the  name  of  a  principality  of  Birkenfeld, 
and  the  title  of  a  grand  duke,  of  which  title,  however,  he  himself  made  no 
use.  He  died  in  1829,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  present  reigning 
grand  duke,  Augustus  Paul  Frederic,  born  in  1783. 

For  the  reason  mentioned  above,  we  must  describe  the  three 


GERMANY.  423 


The  Grand-Duchy  of  Oldenburg— its  Geographical  Divisions. 

distinct  territories  of  the  grand-duchy  separately.      We  begin 
with  the  description  of 


L  THE  DUCHY  OF  OLDENBURG. 

It  has  an  area  of  2,1 19-^-  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
223,000  inhabitants  (among  whom  are  69,300  lloman  Catholics 
and  720  Jews),  comprises  the  ancient  earldoms  of  Oldenburg 
and  Delmenhorst,  former  districts  of  the  ancient  bishopric  of 
Munster,  the  dominion  of  Jever,  and  the  lordship  of  Kuiphau- 
sen,  and  contains : 

Oldenburg,  the  capital  of  the  grand-duchy  and  grand-ducal  residence, 
on  the  Hunte,  westward  and  23  miles  distant  from  Bremen,  is  well-built  and 
noted  for  its  handsome  grand-ducal  palace  and  other  remarkable  public  edi- 
fices, and  has  8,100  inhabitants.  Elsjleth,  a  town  on  the  Weser,  at  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Hunte,  with  a  landing-place  for  smaller  vessels,  and  1,600  in- 
habitants. In  the  period  from  1628  to  1820  Oldenburg  was  entitled  to  levy 
a  toll  here,  which  all  ships  trading  to  Bremen  were  obliged  to  pay.  Some- 
times it  amounted  to  50,000  Prussian  dollars  annually.  Neuenburg,  a  mar- 
ket-town anciently  noted  for  its  fortress,  has  at  present  only  600  inhabitants. 
The  village  of  Rastede  is  noted  for  its  grand-ducal  palace  and  gardens. 
Ovelgonne,  a  market-town  near  the  Weser,  with  1,000  inhabitants.  Brake, 
a  market-town  on  the  Weser,  with  a  landing-place  for  sea-ships,  and  1,300 
inhabitants.  Blexen  or  Blexum,  a  village  on  the  Weser,  opposite  Bremer- 
haven,  with  400  inhabitants.  Brake  and  Blexum  are  situated  in  a  district, 
styled  Butjadingerland,  and  noted  for  the  fertility  of  its  soil.  Delmenhorst, 
a  town  on  the  little  Delme  river,  half-way  between  Oldenburg  and  Bremen, 
with  noted  horse-marts,  and  1,900  inhabitants. — Wildeshausen,  a  town  on  the 
Hunte  and  near  the  frontier  of  Hanover  (which  ceded  it  to  Oldenburg  in 
1803),  with  cutlery  manufactures,  and  2,100  inhabitants. — Kloppenburg,  a 
town  the  Soeste  river,  westward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Wildeshausen, 
with  950  inhabitants.  This  town  and  the  towns  of  Friesoyte  (with  1,100  in- 
habitants), of  Vechta  (with  2,300  inhabitants),  of  Dinklage  (with  1,400  in- 
habitants), and  Loningen  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  belonged  until  1803  to  the 


424  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Germany.— The  Grand-Duchy  of  Oldenburg. 


then  secularized  bishopric  of  Munster.  The  dominion  of  Jever  (138  square 
miles,  and  20,300  inhabitants),  forming  the  most  northerly  province  of  the 
grand-duchy  and  situated  on  the  North  Sea,  is  noted  both  for  the  fertility 
of  its  soil,  and  the  excellent  breed  of  its  cattle  and  horses.  In  the  middle 
ages  it  was  ruled  by  native  chieftains  or  Barons,  and  in  1573  inherited  by 
the  reigning  house  of  Oldenburg.  In  the  History  of  Oldenburg  it  has 
already  been  noticed,  that  Earl  Anton  Gunther,  who  died  in  1667,  be- 
queathed the  dominion  of  Jever  to  his  nephew,  Prince  John  of  Anhalt- 
Zerbst,  who  entailed  it  upon  his  descendants.  When,  in  1793,  the  male  line 
of  Anhalt-Zerbst  became  extinct  (see  History  of  Anhalt),  the  Russian  em- 
press Katharine  II,  belonging  to  this  line,  inherited  the  dominion  of  Jever 
and  entailed  it  upon  her  son  and  grand-children.  But  the  emperor  Alexan- 
der ceded  it  in  1818  to  Oldenburg,  which  in  1823  took  formal  possession  of 
it  It  contains  :  Jever,  formerly  its  capital,  near  a  bay  of  the  North  Sea, 
north-westward  and  34  miles  distant  from  the  city  of  Oldenburg,  with  some 
manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and  even  commerce,  and  4,200  inhabi- 
tants. The  seaport  of  Jever  is  at  Hooksiel,  a  village  with  750  inhabitants. 
Near  the  coast  lies  the  isle  of  Wangeroog,  with  400  inhabitants,  and  much 
resorted  to  for  sea-bathing.  The  Lordship  of  Kniphausen,  belonging  to  the 
earl  of  Bentink  under  the  supremacy  of  the  grand  duke  of  Oldenburg,  has 
an  area  of  only  21  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  3,100  inhabitants.  In 
the  history  of  Oldenburg  we  have  seen,  that  Earl  Anton  Gunther,  who  died 
in  1667,  bequeathed  this  lordship  to  his  natural  son,  Anton  earl  of  Alden- 
burg,  together  with  the  dominion  of  Varel,  politically  connected  with  it.  By 
way  of  marriage  the  earl  William  of  Bentink  became  possessed  of  these 
two  dominions  in  1738,  and  entailed  them  upon  his  descendants.  When  in 
1806  the  German  empire  was  solved,  the  earl  of  Bentink  attained  to  politi- 
cal independency,  but  in  1807  he  was  by  Napoleon  subordinated  to  the 
kingdom  of  Holland,  and  in  1810  to  the  French  empire.  In  1814  he  re- 
quired in  vain  to  be  admitted  as  actual  and  independent  member  of  the 
German  Confederation,  and  was  subordinated  to  the  supremacy  of  the  duke 
or  grand  duke  of  Oldenburg,  yet  allowed  to  retain  some  special  privileges. 
The  lordship  contains,  beside  3  villages  (with  noted  horse-marts),  the  castle 
of  Kniphausen,  seat  of  the  dependent  government.  The  above-mentioned 
dominion  of  Varel  (43  square  miles,  and  6,000  inhabitants),  belonging  likewise 
to  the  earl  of  Bentink,  contains  :  Varel,  its  capital  and  residence  of  the  earl, 
northward  and  16  miles  distant  from  Oldenburg,  with  noted  horse-marts, 


GERMANY.  425 


The  Grand-Duchy  of  Oldenburg— its  Geographical  Divisions. 

and  3,500  inhabitants.     Dangast,  a  village  with  250  inhabitants,  is  resorted 
to  for  sea-bathing. 

II.  THE  PRINCIPALITY  OF  LUBEC. 

It  has  an  area  of  170£  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  21,550 
inhabitants,  and  is  situated  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  city  of  Lu- 
bec,  wholly  surrounded  by  territories  of  Holstein,  north-eastward 
and  about  92  miles  distant  from  the  main  body  of  the  grand- 
duchy.  It  consists  of  an  undulated  fertile  plain,  romantically 
intersected  by  woods,  lakes  and  ridges  of  low  hills.  The  inhabi- 
tants subsist  almost  entirely  on  the  various  branches  of  hus- 
bandry The  present  principality  of  Lubec  was  formerly  an  in- 
dependent or  sovereign  bishopric,  primitively  instituted  in  948. 
Its  seat,  at  first  in  the  town  of  Oldenburg  in  Holstein  (see  above 
under  the  head  of  Holstein),  was  in  the  latter  half  of  the  12th 
century  transferred  to  the  city  of  Lubec,  where  a  handsome  cathe- 
dral was  reared,  and  in  1164  consecrated.  However,  the  bishop 
himself  did  not  reside  in  this  city,  but  in  Eutin.  Only  the  name 
of  Lubec  rested  with  the  bishopric,  which  at  the  end  of  the  12th 
century  became  independent,  or  sovereign,  The  Reformation 
brought  about  no  alteration  in  its  political  condition,  yet  in  1535 
the  bishop  and  the  chapter  turned  Protestants.  In  1586  the 
chapter  elected  for  the  first  time  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp  their  bishop,  and  continued  to  do  so  with  other  princes 
of  this  house  until  1756,  when  a  Danish  prince  was  chosen,  who, 
however,  in  1773  resigned,  in  favor  of  the  eldest  son  of  the  reign- 
ing bishop  Frederic  Augustus,  who  in  the  same  year  became  pos- 
sessed of  the  duchy  of  Oldenburg  (see  above).  In  1803  the 
bishopric  was  transformed  into  a  principality,  as  has  already  been 
stated  above.     It  contains : 

"Eutin,  its  capital,  romantically  situated  on  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  30 
miles  north-north-west  of  the  city  of  Lubec,  with  a  handsome  grand-ducal 


426  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Germany.— The  Grand -Duchy  of  Oldenburg. 


palace  and  park,  and  2,850  inhabitants.  Bosau,  a  village  with  one  of  the 
most  ancient  churches  in  the  country,  and  650  inhabitants.  The  village  of 
Sielbeck  is  noted  for  its  romantical  environs  and  grand-ducal  palace.  Schwar- 
tau,  a  market-town  noted  for  its  cattle-marts,  has  1,050  inhabitants.  The  vil- 
lage of  Rathekau  (with  50  inha3bitants)  is  remarkable  for  a  capitulation  con- 
cluded here  on  the  7th  Nov.,  1806,  between  the  Prussian  general,  Blucher, 
and  the  French  general,  Bernadotte. 

IIL  THE  PRINCIPALITY  OF  BIRKENFELD. 

It  has  an  area  of  181  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  29,500 
inhabitants  (5,500  of  whom  are  Roman  Catholics),  and  is  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  in  the  neighborhood  of  Treves, 
southward  and  about  250  miles  distant  from  the  main  body  of 
the  grand-duchy.  Its  surface  is  mountainous,  being  traversed  by 
branches  of  the  Hundsruck  (see  page  8).  The  Nahe  river  (see 
page  16),  has  its  sources  here.  There  are  various  manufactures 
here ;  besides  them  iron  mines  are  wrought,  and  the  vine  is  culti- 
vated. The  present  principality  of  Birkenfeld  comprises  the  an- 
cient lordship  of  Oberstein,  since  1766  belonging  to  the  electorate 
of  Treves  ;  and  the  ancient  earldom  of  Sponheim,  since  the  15th 
century  belonging  to  the  princes  of  Zweibrucken  (see  under  the 
head  of  Bavarian  Palatinate).     It  contains  : 

BntKENFELD,  its  capital,  on  the  Nahe,  south-westward  and  60  miles  dis- 
tant from  Mentz,  was  anciently  the  residence  of  the  Palatines  of  Zwei- 
brucken-Birkenfeld,  and  has  2,100  inhabitants.  Oberstein,  a  market-town  on 
the  Nahe,  is  noted  for  cutting  precious  and  half-precious  stones,  and  has 
2,300  inhabitants,  ldar,  a  village  with  the  same  branch  of  industry  as  in 
Oberstein,  and  1,050  inhabitants. 


GERMANY.  427 


The  Principality  of  Lippe-Detmold— its  Statistics  and  History. 


XXX.— THE  PRINCIPALITY  OF  LIPPE-DETMOLD. 

Area  :  447  square  miles. 
Population  :  108,000  inhabitants. 

This  principality  (whose  sovereign  bears  the  official  title  of 
Prince  zur  Lippe)  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Weser,  and 
almost  entirely  surrounded  by  territories  of  the  Prussian  province 
of  Westphalia.  The  inhabitants  are  (with  the  exception  of  5,100 
Lutherans  and  1,600  Roman  Catholics)  Calvinists.  The  sur- 
face is  partly  hilly  and  woody,  intersected  by  fertile  valleys,  and 
partly  traversed  by  the  Osning  (see  page  8).  The  south-western 
part  of  the  country  consists  of  an  extensive  heath,  called  the 
Senner-Heath (Senner-Haide)  and  noted  for  the  excellent  breed 
of  horses  reared  here.  Flax,  timber,  horses  are  the  chief  staples  ; 
cattle  and  sheep  are  likewise  reared  in  great  numbers,  and  of 
good  breed.  The  manufactures  consist  chiefly  of  linen.  There 
are  2  gymnasiums,  1  Latin  school,  1  seminary,  and  a  great  many 
common  schools.  The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy.  The 
amount  of  public  revenue,  and  of  the  expenditure  for  several  years, 
has  been  about  490,000  florins.  There  is  no  public  debt.  Troops 
to  be  furnished  to  the  confederal  army :  69 1  men. 

History. — The  ancestors  of  the  reigning  house  of  Lippe  were  wealthy  ba- 
rons or  lords  of  the  same  name,  who  long  before  the  12th  century  had  their 
estates  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Osning.  One  of  their  descendants,  Ber- 
nard VIIL,  who  died  in  1563,  bore  the  title  of  an  earl,  and  his  son,  Simon 
VI,  who  united  all  patrimonial  dominions  under  his  sway,  is  to  be  considered 
as  the  nigher  ancestor  of  the  reigning  houses  both  of  Lippe-Detmold  and 
Schaumburg-Lippe.  He  died  in  1613,  and  was  succeeded  in  Lippe-Detmold 
by  his  eldest  son,  earl  Simon  VII.,  whose  earldom  was  in  1720  raised  to  the 
dignity  of  a  principality,  though  not  before  the  year  1789  the  father  of  the 
present  reigning  prince,  made  use  of  the  princely  title.    This  sovereign  died 


428  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Germany. — Principalities  of  Lippe-Detmold  and  Schaumburg-Ljppe. 


in  1802,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  prince  Leopold  (Paul  Alexander), 
born  in  1796,  who  until  1820  has  reigned  under  the  guardianship  of  his 
mother,  and  since  independently. 

The  most  remarkable  cities,  towns,  etc.,  of  the  principality  of 
Lippe-Detmold,  are  the  following : 

Detmold,  the  capital  and  princely  residence,  on  the  little  Werre  river  (not 
to  be  confounded  with  the  Werra  mentioned  page  17),  south-westward  and 
18  miles  distant  from  Pyrmont,  and  48  miles  north-north-west  of  Cassel, 
with  an  extensive  princely  palace,  and  5,000  inhabitants.  Near  Detmold 
Charlemagne  obtained  a  victory  over  the  Saxons  in  783.  Horn,  a  town  with 
linen  manufactures,  and  1,700  inhabitants.  Blomberg,  a  town  with  various 
manufactures,  and  1,900  inhabitants.  Lemgo,  a  city  on  the  Bega  river, 
northward  and  7  miles  distant  from  Detmold,  with  a  noted  gymnasium,  con- 
siderable manufactures,  especially  of  linen,  and  4,100  inhabitants.  In  the 
middle  ages  Lemgo  was  both  an  imperial  city  and  a  member  of  the  Hanse- 
atic  League  (see  page  54).  Zopshorn,  a  princely  palace,  south-westward 
and  5  miles  distant  from  Detmold,  with  a  renowned  stud  containing  more 
than  100  horses  of  the  above-mentioned  breed  from  the  Senner-Haide, 
Lippstadt,  a  city  on  the  Lippe  river,  with  6  churches,  various  branches  of 
industry,  considerable  corn  trade,  and  4,000  inhabitants.  One  half  of  this 
city  belongs  since  the  17th  century  to  the  house  of  Brandenburg  or  Prussia. 


XXXI— THE  PRINCIPALITY  OF  SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE. 

Area  :  170  square  miles. 
Population  :  30,000  inhabitants. 

This  principality  (in  common  life  frequently  called  Lippe- 
BucTceburg)  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Weser.  between 
the  city  of  Hanover  and  the  Prussian  city  of  Minden.  Its  main 
body  formed  anciently  a  constituent   part  of  the   earldom  of 


GERMANY.  429 


The  Principality  of  Schaumburg-Lippe— its  Statistics  and  History. 


Schaumburg  (see  page  371),  and  for  this  reason  this  latter  name 
s  officially  prefixed  to  that  of  Lippe.  The  soil  is  fertile,  partly 
jovered  with  valuable  forests,  and  intersected  with  ridges  of  low 
aills.  The  chief  staples  are  corn,  flax  and  timber.  Cattle  of  va- 
rious kinds  are  raised  amply.  The  manufactures  consist  chiefly 
of  linen.  The  inhabitants  are  (with  the  exception  of  about  3,600 
Calvinists  and  100  Catholics)  Lutherans.  Besides  a  noted  gym- 
nasium at  Buckeburg,  there  are  several  other  and  many  common 
schools.  The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy.  The  revenues 
amount  to  about  215,000  Prussian  dollars,  and  are  principally 
yielded  by  the  princely  domains.  The  expenditure  is  by  far  less  ; 
and  a  public  debt  does  not  exist.  Troops  to  be  furnished  to  the 
confederal  army :  240  men. 

History. — The  reigning  house  of  Schaumburg-Lippe  has  one  common 
ancestor  with  that  of  Lippe-Detmold  (see  History  of  Lippe-Detmold). 
When  Earl  Simon  VL  of  Lippe  died  in  1613,  he  bequeathed  to  his  youngest 
son  Philip  some  bailiwicks  of  the  earldom.  Philip's  sister  Elizabeth  was 
married  to  the  earl  of  Schaumburg,  inherited  this  earldom,  and  bequeathed 
a  considerable  part  of  it  to  her  brother  in  1640.  Philip,  assuming  now  the 
title  of  an  earl  of  Schaumburg-Lippe,  died  in  1681,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  eldest  son,  Frederic  Christian,  whose  male  line  became  extinct  in  1777, 
when  Earl  Philip  of  a  collateral  line  succeeded.  This  latter  died  in  1787, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  present  reigning  (until  1807  under  the 
guardianship  of  his  mother)  prince  George  William,  born  in  1784.  He  as- 
sumed the  princely  title  in  1807,  when  he  joined  the  Rhenish  Confederation. 
In  1815  he  became  a  member  of  the  German  Confederation. 

The  most  remarkable  cities,  towns,  etc.,  of  the  principality  of 
Schaumburg-Lippe  are  the  following  : 

Bueckeburg,  the  capital  and  princely  residence,  24  miles  west-south-west 
of  Hanover,  with  a  stately  palace  and  handsome  park,  and  4,300  inhabi- 
tants. Eilsen,  a  village  noted  for  its  mineral  waters  and  much  resorted  to 
on  account  of  them     Stadthagen,  a  town  north-eastward  and  9  miles  distant 


480  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom  of  Hanover. 

from  Biickeburg,  with  an  ancient  remarkable  castle,  a  well-arranged  orphan 
asylum,  and  1,850  inhabitants.  Steinhude,  a  market-town  on  a  lake  of  the 
same  name,  with  linen  manufactures,  and  700  inhabitants.  On  this  lake  is 
likewise  situated  a  remarkable  little  fortress,  called  Wilhelmstein,  and 
reared  in  1765. 


XXXII.— THE  KINGDOM  OF  HANOVER. 

Area  :  14,803  square  miles. 
Population:  1,790,000  inhabitants. 

This  kingdom,  whose  main  body  is  situated  between  the  Elbe 
and  Weser,  comprises  the  largest  part  of  the  German  North  Sea 
coast,  where  it  encloses  the  main  body  of  the  grand-duchy  of 
Oldenburg,  and  the  territory  of  the  city  of  Bremen.  On  the 
west  it  is  bounded  by  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  on  the 
north-east  it  is  by  the  Elbe  river  separated  from  Holstein  and 
Mecklenburg,  and  on  the  south  (where  it  comprises  the  greatest 
part  of  the  Hartz  mountains,  and  encloses  territories  of  Bruns- 
wick) it  is  chiefly  bound  by  the  Prussian  province  of  Saxony  and 
by  Hesse-Cassel. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Lutherans  ;  yet  beside  them  there 
are  more  than  90,000  Calvinists  (prevailing  in  the  province  of 
East  Frieseland),  about  230,000  Roman  Catholics,  500  Mennon- 
ites  and  Moravian  Brethren,  and  more  than  12,000  Jews. 

The  northern  half  of  the  kingdom,  is  a  part  of  that  extensive 
plain  mentioned  page  4.  Towards  the  south  the  surface  is  hilly, 
and  rises  finally  to  mountains  marked  with  the  name  of  Hartz 
(see  page  7  and  8),  besides  which  the  Sottinger  Wald,  Deister, 
Suntel  (page  8),  are  to  be  noticed. 


GERMANY.  431 


The  Kingdom  of  Hanover— its  Geographical  Features  and  Statistics. 

The  tributaries  of  the  Elbe:  Ilmenan, Luhe  and  Schwingehwe 
their  sources  in  the  kingdom  as  well  as  those  of  the  Weser,  viz., 
the  Alter  with  the  Leine,  the  Wumme,  Lesion,  and  Geeste  (see 
page  17).  In  East  Frieseland  is  the  Ems  river  with  the  Ilaase 
(see  page  17).  The  most  remarkable  lakes  are  the  Dummer  Lake 
and  the  lake  of  Bodenteich.  At  the  western  frontier  the  bay  of 
Dollart  (see  page  9)  is  to  be  noticed. 

The  soil  is  diversified :  along  the  coasts  and  the  banks  of  the 
principal  rivers  highly  fertile,  and  in  other  parts  rather  sterile. 
In  the  northern  section  are  partly  extensive  peat  bogs,  which  sup- 
ply immense  quantities  of  fuel,  but  are  useless  for  other  purposes ; 
partly  extensive  heaths,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  are  the  heath 
of  Luneburg  (which  however  in  recent  times  is  more  and  more 
brought  under  cultivation)  and  the  Hummling  (in  the  province 
of  Osnabruck). 

Nevertheless  corn  is  raised  sufficiently,  not  only  for  home  con- 
sumption, but  even  for  exportation.  Besides  agriculture,  which 
is  the  chief  employment,  the  rearing  of  cattle  of  various  kinds 
is  very  considerable.  The  black  cattle  along  the  banks  of  the  lower 
Weser  and  Elbe,  in  East  Frieseland  and  in  the  Hartz,  is  of  excel- 
lent breed  ;  and  the  horses  in  East  Frieseland  and  some  other  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  rival  in  every  respect  those  of  Mecklenburg  and 
Holstein.  Sheep  of  improved  breed  are  reared,  especially  in  the 
southern  sections  of  the  country,  in  great  numbers.  In  the 
Wcstphalian  districts  the  rearing  of  hogs  is  considerable.  In 
the  above-mentioned  heaths,  numerous  hives  of  bees  are  kept,  and 
the  trade  in  honey  and  wax  yields  a  considerable  profit  annually. 
It  is  still  to  be  remarked  that  the  flax  raised  in  the  province  of 
Luneburg,  is  renowned  throughout  Germany  for  its  fineness. 
The  extensive  forests  in  the  mountainous  districts,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Luneburg,  etc.,  produce  valuable  timber;  and  a  district  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Stade,  is  noted  for  its  fruits,  especially  cher- 


432  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Germany.— Kingdom  of  Hanover. 


ries.  The  mijies  in  the  Hartz  are  important,  extensively  wrought, 
and  produce  on  an  average,  annually,  50,000  marks  of  silver, 
100,000  quintals  of  lead  and  litharge,  80,000  quintals  of  iron,  and 
between  2,000  and  3,000  quintals  of  copper.  The  produce  in 
gold  is  very  insignificant.  In  Luneburg  is  one  of  the  most  pro- 
ductive salt  springs  in  Europe.  Manufactures  are  not  very  flour- 
ishing, yet  linen  is  an  important  fabric,  and  is  (inclusive  flax 
yarn)  exported  annually  at  the  value  of  2,500,000  Prussian  dol- 
lars. The  inland  trade,  and  even  the  commerce,  is  upon  the 
whole  considerable. 

The  means  of  education  are  well  arranged,  and  managed  in 
conformity  with  sound  principles.  Among  them  ranks  first,  the 
university  at  Gottingen  (see  page  288),  liberally  endowed,  and  in 
1846  frequented  by  649  students.  Besides  it,  there  are  at  Grot- 
tingen  a  royal  society  of  sciences,  and  a  philological  seminary. 
Colleges  similar  to  that  of  Eton  in  England,  are  in  Luneburg 
and  Ilefeld.  The  number  of  gymnasiums  amounts  to  15,  and 
that  of  common  schools  to  3,561  ;  beside  which  there  are  rather 
numerous  other  schools,  as  for  instance,  7  seminaries,  13  Latin 
schools,  etc. 

The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy,  the  sovereign  power 
being  vested  in  a  king  and  two  legislative  chambers.  According 
to  the  budget  of  1845-1846,  the  public  revenue  amounted  to 
3,996,606,  and  the  expenditure  to  3,961,058  Prussian  dollars,  thus 
yielding  a  surplus  of  35,548  Prussian  dollars,  beside  which  there 
was  still  a  surplus  of  1,227,725  Prussian  dollars  extant  from 
preceding  years.  On  the  first  October,  1843,  the  public  debt  was 
at  the  amount  of  13,496,489  Prussian  dollars. 

The  regular  army  consists  of  22,176  men,  and  the  troops 
which  hitherto  were  to  be  furnished  to  the  confederal  army, 
amounted  to  13,054  men. 

There  are   two  orders  of  honor:   1.  The  order  of  St.  George,  in 


GERMANY.  433 


The  Kingdom  of  Hanover— its  History. 


1  class,  and  instituted  in  1839.     2.  The  Guelph  order,  instituted 
in  1815,  and  since  1841  in  5  classes. 

History. — The  present  kingdom  of  Hanover  aud  the  duchy  of  Brunswick 
have  one  and  the  same  origin,  because  both  formed  anciently  a  constituent 
part  of  the  once  so  renowned  duchy  of  Saxony  (see  pages  298  and  299).-  A 
duchy  of  Saxony,  in  the  political  meaning  of  this  word,  did  not  yet  exist  in 
the  days  of  Charlemagne ;  as  the  celebrated  Wittekind  was  to  be  considered 
rather  as  the  leader,  than  as  the  actual  duke  or  king  of  the  Saxons.  Yet  his 
great-grandson  Ludolph  was  raised  to  this  dignity.  He  died  about  the  year 
870,  and  was  succeeded  as  duke  of  Saxony  by  his  son  Otto,  the  father  of  the 
great  German  emperor  or  king  Henry  I.  (see  History  of  Germany).  Henry 
retained  his  Saxon  duchy,  yet  his  son,  Emperor  Otto  L  (936-972),  invested 
with  it  a  valiant  Saxon  noble,  Hermann  Billung,  who  moreover  was  already 
possessed  of  wealthy  estates  in  the  southern  and  eastern  parts  of  the  duchy. 
In  respectively  1101  and  1106,  the  male  line  of  his  house  became  extinct, 
and  the  last  Billung,  Duke  Magnus,  who  died  in  1106,  left  behind  two  daugh- 
ters, Wulf  hild  and  Eilike,  as  the  only  heiresses  of  the  family  estates.  Eilike 
was  married  to  the  earl  Otto  of  Ballenstedt  and  Anhalt-,  and  Wulf  hild  was 
married  to  the  duke  Henry  of  Bavaria,  surnamed  the  Black,  descended  from 
the  renowned  house  of  the  Guelphs.  The  latter  had  large  estates  in  Swabia 
and  Franconia,  and  were  again  descendants  of  the  mighty  house  of  Este  in 
Italy  (see  page  118).  Henry  the  Black  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Henry 
surnamed  the  Proud,  who,  by  Emperor  Lothar  II.  (1125-1137),  was  invested 
with  the  duchy  of  Saxony,  and  became  in  this  manner  the  ruler  of  two  pow- 
erful duchies,  Bavaria  and  Saxony.  His  son  and  successor  in  both  duchies, 
was  the  celebrated  duke  Henry,  surnamed  the  Lion,  who,  as  has  already 
been  mentioned  frequently  (see  pages  379  and  403),  was,  on  account  of  his 
felony,  outlawed  in  1180,  and  deprived  of  his  duchies  as  fiefs,  while  he  was 
allowed  to  retain  the  above-mentioned  family  estates  (in  the  present  province 
of  Luneburg,  in  Brunswick,  etc.).  The  duchy  of  Saxony  (as  a  fief  of  the 
empire)  was  divided  and  annexed  to  several  other  states  of  the  German 
empire ;  and  how  the  name  of  Saxony  was  subsequently  transferred  to  the 
margraviate  of  Meissen,  is  explained  in  the  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony 
and  of  Anhalt  (see  pages  379  and  403).  Henry  surnamed  the  Lion,  died  in 
1195,  and  bequeathed  bis  family  estates  to  his  son  William,  who  bequeathed 
them  again  to  his  son  Otto,  surnamed  the  Child,  who  in  1235  surrendered 

19 


434  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom  of  Hanover. 

them  to  Emperor  Frederic  II,  and  received  them  as  a  duchy  of  Brunswick, 
and  as  a  hereditary  fief  of  the  empire.  Otto  acquired  moreover  the  cities  of 
Hanover,  Gottingen,  Munden,  the  earldom  of  Stade,  and  bequeathed  when 
he  died  (in  1252),  his  duchy  considerably  enlarged  to  his  two  sons,  Albert 
and  John,  who  divided  it  in  1267,  and  from  which  act  sprung  up  different 
hues  of  the  reigning  house,  until,  in  1546,  two  principal  lines  were  formed  by 
the  two  sons  of  Ernest,  surnamed  the  Confessor,  who  died  in  the  just-named 
year,  1546.  His  eldest  son,  or  properly  his  grandson,  duke  Augustus, 
became  the  ancestor  of  the  ducal  house  of  Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel  (or 
Brunswick  proper),  and  his  youngest  son  William,  surnamed  the  Younger, 
became  the  ancestor  of  the  reigning  house  of  Brunswick-Liineburg,  i.  e.  of 
Hanover.  William  the  Younger  died  in  1589,  and  left  behind  8  daughters 
and  7  sons.  The  latter  succeeded  him  one  after  the  other.  Meanwhile  sev- 
eral collateral  lines  had  sprung  up,  but  they  became  gradually  extinct,  and  all 
their  dominions  were  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  reunited  by  the 
principal  line  of  Brunswick-Liineburg,  or  Hanover.  Here  reigned  in  the 
period  from  1679  to  1698,  the  duke  Ernest  Augustus,  who  married  the  prin- 
cess Sophia  (daughter  of  the  unfortunate  elector  Frederic  V.  of  the  Palati- 
ate,  who  was  the  son-in-law  of  King  James  I.,  of  Great  Britain),  and  was  in 
1692  raised  to  the  dignity  of  an  elector.  He  died  in  1698,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  George  William,  who  io  1714  mounted  the  British  throne  as 
George  I.  (see  page  233).  The  remaining  part  of  the  history  of  Hanover,  is 
in  substance  connected  with  that  of  the  reigning  British  royal  family;  and  it 
may  only  be  added  here,  that  George  I.  and  his  successors  continued  ever  to 
be  the  actual  electors  or  (since  1814)  kings  of  Hanover,  though  this  country 
was  ruled  in  their  name,  by  a  special  government  established  in  the  city  of 
Hanover.  How  it  was  aggrandized  in  the  period  from  1715  to  1813,  shall 
be  noticed  below  in  the  topography.  When  in  1837,  King  William  IV.  died, 
his  niece  Victoria,  who  succeeded  him  in  Great  Britain,  could  not  also  suc- 
ceed him  in  Hanover,  because  the  so-called  Salic  law  prevails  here,  which 
excludes  all  females  from  the  throne.  Thus  his  brother,  the  duke  of  Cumber- 
land, Ernest  Atigustus,  born  in  1771,  succeeded  him  as  king  of  Hanover. 

The  kingdom  is  since  1823  divided  into  6  provinces,  styled 
Landdrosteien  (or  properly  Landdrostei-Bezirke,  because  Land- 
drostei  means  a  provincial  government),  which  are  subdivided  into 


GERMANY.  435 


The  Kingdom  of  Hanover— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


bailiwicks  with  different  special  names.  As  a  seventh  province 
may  be  considered  the  mining  district  (Berghauptmannschaft)  of 
Clausthal,  with  a  special  government,  superintending  the  mines, 
etc.,  of  the  Hartz.  The  term  of  Landdrostei  being  rather  unu- 
sual, especially  to  an  English  reader,  we  shall  substitute  for  it 
the  term  of  province;  but  as  the  historically  settled  condition  of 
the  different  constituent  parts  of  the  kingdom  is  in  substance 
left  untouched,  and  moreover  as  their  names  still  frequently 
occur  both  in  writings  and  common  life,  we  shall  follow  here  a 
similar  plan,  as  for  instance  in  France,  and  combine  the  ancient 
names  with  the  modern  provincial  names. 


1.  THE  PROVINCE  OF  HANOVER. 

It  comprises  the  ancient  principality  of  'Calenberg  and  the 
ancient  earldoms  of  Hoya  and  Diepholz. 

1.  The  ancient  principality  of  Calenberg  contains :  Hanover,  the  capital 
of  the  kingdom,  and  royal  residence,  on  the  Leine,  south-eastward  and  60 
miles  distant  from  Bremen,  with  various  manufactures,  considerable  inland 
trade,  and  40,500  inhabitants  (exclusive  of  the  garrison).  Hanover  is  noted 
for  its  royal  stables,  containing  among  other  horses  of  the  finest  breed,  sev- 
eral teams  of  white-born  (without  the  least  gray  or  black  spot)  and  Isabella- 
colored  horses.  The  royal  palace  is  a  handsome  building.  The  neighboring 
village  of  Limmer  (with  600  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  mineral  waters,  as  is 
likewise  the  town  of  Rehburg  (23  miles  west-north-west  of  Hanover,  with 
1,600  inhabitants).  The  village  of  Loccum  (with  1,500  inhabitants)  is  remark- 
able for  its  ancient  Cistercian  monastery,  in  1593  secularized,  and  at  present 
transformed  into  a  seminary  for  ministers.  Hatneln,  a  city  on  the  Weser,  26 
miles  south-south-west  of  Hanover,  has  6,500  inhabitants,  and  was  until  1806 
noted  for  its  fortress.  Not  far  from  here  is  the  village  of  HastenbecJc,  noted 
for  a  battle  between  the  French  and  the  Hanoverians,  on  the  26th  July,  1757. 
Wunstorf,  a  town  near  the  Leine,  north-westward  and  12  miles  distant  from 
Hanover,  has  2,100  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  establishment  for  ladies 


436  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom  of  Hanover. 


of  rank.  Salzhemmendorf,  a  market-town,  noted  for  its  salt-works,  has  2,050 
inhabitants.  Other  more  or  less  remarkable  market-towns  are:  Lauenau 
(with  900  inhabitants),  Grohnde  (with  850  inhabitants),  Polle  (with  1,200 
inhabitants),  Coppenbrugge  (with  1,400  inhabitants),  Aerzen  (with  1,500 
inhabitants),  and  Lauenstein  (with  1,100  inhabitants).  More  or  less  remark- 
able towns  are:  Springe  (with  1,950  inhabitants), Munder  (with  2,000  inhabi- 
tants), Pattensen  (with  1,700  inhabitants),  Bodenwerder  (with  1,600  inhabi- 
tants), Eldagsen  (with  2,300  inhabitants),  and  Neustadt  am  Rubenberge  (with 
1,600  inhabitants). 

2.  The  ancient  earldom  of  Hoya,  which  in  1543  was  inherited  by  Bruns- 
wick-Luneburg  or  Hanover,  contains :  Nienburg,  a  city  on  the  "Weser,  about 
half-way  between  Hanover  and  Bremen,  has  some  manufactures,  and  4,100 
inhabitants,  and  was  formerly  noted  for  its  fortress.  Hoya,  a  market-town  on 
the  Weser,  14  miles  below  Nienburg,  with  linen  manufactures,  and  2,200 
inhabitants.  The  neighboring  village  of  Mem  sen  is  noted  for  its  royal  stud. 
Vilsen,  a  market-town  on  the  Weser,  at  5  miles  distance  from  Hoya,  is  noted 
for  its  considerable  trade,  and  has  1 ,050  inhabitants.  Other  more  or  less 
remarkable  towns  are :  Liebenau  (with  2,900  inhabitants),  Alt-Bruchhausen 
(with  1,100  inhabitants),  Stolzenau  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  Diepenau  (with 
550  inhabitants),  Suhlingen  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Syke  (with  950  inhabi- 
tants), Uchte  (with  1,250  inhabitants),  and  Eassum  (with  1,700  inhabitants). 

3.  The  ancient  earldom  of  Diepholz,  which  in  1585  was  inherited,  contains : 
Diepholz,  a  market-town  on  the  Hunte  river,  about  half-way  between  Osna- 
briick  and  Bremen,  with  linen  and  woollen  manufactures,  and  2,600  inhabi- 
tants. Lemforde,  a  market-town  with  several  branches  of  industry,  and  950 
inhabitants. 


2.  THE  PROVINCE  OF  LUNEBURG. 

It  comprises  in  substance  only  the  ancient  principality  of  the 
same  name,  and  besides  it  two  bailiwicks  of  the  duchy  of  Lauen- 
burg  (see  page  418). 

1.  The  ancient  principality  of  Luneburg  (which  formed  part  of  the  family 
estates  of  the  above-mentioned  house  of  Billung)  contains :  Lueneburg,  its 
ancient  capital,  and  at  present  the  seat  of  the  provincial  government,  on  the 


GERMANY.  437 


The  Kingdom  of  Hanover-its  Geographical  Divisions. 


Ilmenau  river,  south-eastward  and  28  miles  distant  from  Hamburg,  has 
12,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  highly  valuable  salt-spring  and  salt- 
works (producing  annually  about  800,000  quintals  of  salt),  its  lime-stone  quar- 
ries, its  college  (see  back),  and  gymnasium.  Bardewik,  a  market-town  on 
the  Ilmenau  river,  below  Luneburg,  is  noted  for  its  greens  and  stately  Gothic 
church,  and  has  1,400  inhabitants.  In  the  middle  ages,  Bardewik  was  an 
emporium  and  considerable  city,  but  was  in  1189  barbarously  devastated  by 
Duke  Henry,  surnamed  the  Lion.  Harburg,  a  town  on  the  Elbe,  opposite 
Hamburg,  with  an  ancient  castle,  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and  5,200 
inhabitants.  Winsen  an  der  Luhe,  a  town  on  the  Luhe  river,  with  consider- 
able trade,  and  2,200  inhabitants.  Soltau,  an  industrious  town  in  the  above- 
mentioned  heath  of  Luneburg,  south-westward  and  28  miles  distant  from  the 
city  of  Luneburg,  with  1,200  inhabitants.  Walsrode,  a  town  on  the  Bohme 
river,  with  an  establishment  for  ladies  of  rank  (anciently  a  nunnery  instituted 
in  986),  and  2,100  inhabitants.  Ahlden,  a  market-town  on  the  Aller,  with 
800  inhabitants,  linen  manufactures,  and  an  ancient  castle,  where  in  the  years 
1694-1726,  Sophia  Dorothea,  the  divorced  consort  of  King  George  L,  of 
Great  Britain,  resided.  Celle  or  Zelle,  a  city  on  the  Aller,  with  various  manu- 
factures, a  remarkable  royal  stud,  and  12,200  inhabitants,  is  noted  as  the  seat 
of  the  supreme  tribunal  of  the  kingdom,  and  for  its  royal  palace,  reared  in 
1485,  and  until  1*705  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Luneburg.  Uelzen,  a  town 
on  the  Ilmenau,  22  miles  north  of  Luneburg,  is  noted  for  its  flax,  and  has 
3,100  inhabitants.  Other  towns  are:  Burgdorf  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  Gif- 
horn  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Dannenberg  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Hitzacker 
(with  1,050  inhabitants),  Luchow  (with  2,100  inhabitants),  and  Wustrow  (with 
considerable  linen  manufactures,  and  800  inhabitants). 

2.  The  bailiwicks  of  Artlenburg  and  Neuhaus,  formerly  (until  1814)  be- 
longing to  the  duchy  of  Lauenburg,  contain  the  villages  of  Artlenburg  (on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  with  600  inhabitants),  and  Neuhaus  (on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Elbe,  with  an  ancient  castle,  and  450  inhabitants). 


3.  THE  PROVINCE  OF  STADE. 

It  comprises  the  ancient  duchies  of  Bremen  and  Verden,  and 
the  territory  of  Hadeln. 


438  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany.— Kingdom  of  Hanover. 

1.  The  ancient  duchy  of  Bremen,  which  has  at  present  nothing  in  common 
with  the  city  of  this  name,  but  was  once  chief  part  of  the  sovereign  arch- 
bishopric of  Bremen,  which  was  instituted  as  a  bishopric  by  Charlemagne  in 
788.  The  renowned  converter  of  pagans,  Ansgarius,  was  the  first  arch- 
bishop of  Bremen.  He  died  in  865,  and  among  his  successors,  who  resided 
in  this  city,  were  several  of  great  political  authority.  Since  the  Reforma- 
tion, the  city  of  Bremen  and  even  the  archbishop  embraced  the  doctrines  of 
Protestantism,  the  former  became  independent,  and  the  territory  of  the  arch- 
bishopric was  secularized,  and  in  1648  with  the  title  of  a  duchy  ceded  to 
Sweden.  In  the  northern  war  (1700-1702)  the  duchy  was  conquered  by  the 
Danes,  and,  together  with  the  duchy  of  Verden,  sold  to  the  electorate  of 
Hanover.  In  the  peace  concluded  at  Stockholm  in  1720,  this  arrangement 
was  ratified.  The  duchy  of  Bremen  contains:  Stade,  the  capital  of  the 
province,  on  the  Schwinge,  near  its  junction  with  the  Elbe,  about  20  miles 
below  Hamburg,  with  some  inland  trade,  and  5,900  inhabitants.  At  the 
mouth  of  the  Schwinge  is  situated  the  village  of  Brunshausen,  where  Hano- 
ver is  entitled  to  levy  a  toll  from  the  vessels  passing  here  on  their  way  up 
to  Hamburg.  It  is  commonly  called  the  toll  of  Stade,  and  yields  a  revenue 
of  about  40,000  Prussian  dollars  annually.  Buxtehude,  a  town  on  the  Este, 
between  Stade  and  Harburg,  with  some  manufactures  and  trade,  and  2,300 
inhabitants.  Harsefeld  (with  950  inhabitants),  Horncburg  (with  1,300  inhabi- 
tants), Dorum  (with  750  inhabitants),  Bederkesa  (with  1,100  inhabitants), 
Bremerlehe  (with  1,650  inhabitants),  Osterholz  (with  850  inhabitants), 
Scharmbeck  (with  1,750  inhabitants),  Ottersberg  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  and 
Zeven  (with  900  inhabitants),  all  market-towns. 

2.  The  ancient  principality  or  duchy  of  Verden,  which  originated  from  a 
bishopric  of  the  same  name,  instituted  in  786  by  Charlemagne,  and  since  1648 
underwent  the  same  political  vicissitudes  as  the  duchy  of  Bremen,  contains : 
Veeden,  a  town  on  the  Aller,  south-eastward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Bre- 
men, is  noted  for  its  ancient  Gothic  cathedral,  and  has  5,000  inhabitants. 
Rotenburg,  a  market-town  on  the  Wumme  river,  at  the  high-road  between 
Bremen  and  Hamburg,  with  1,600  inhabitants. 

3.  The  territory  of  Hadeln,  which  until  1689  formed  a  constituent  part  of 
the  duchy  of  Lauenburg  (see  page  418),  contains :  Otterndorf,  a  town  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  with  several  branches  of  industry,  and  1,800  inhabi- 
tants. Altenbruch  and  Liidingworth,  market-towns,  with  respectively  2,500 
and  2,000  inhabitants. 


GERMANY.  439 


The  Kingdom  of  Hanover— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


4.  THE  PROVINCE  OF  HILDESHEIM. 

It  comprises  the  ancient  independent  or  sovereign  bishopric  of 
Hildesheim,  the  ancient  principalities  of  Gottingen  and  Grubenha- 
gen,  the  so-called  Lower  Eichsfeld,  etc. 

1.  The  former  sovereign  bishopric  (at  present  styled  principality)  of 
Hildesheim  was  in  812  instituted  by  Charlemagne,  and  in  822  transferred 
from  its  primitive  seat  Elze  to  the  neighboring  town  of  Hildesheim  by  Em- 
peror Louis  the  Pious.  The  bishops  acquired  in  the  course  of  time  a  con- 
siderable territory,  which  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  had  an 
extent  of  682  square  miles.  The  two  last  bishops  were  at  the  same  time 
possessed  of  the  sovereign  bishopric  of  Paderborn.  Both  were  secularized 
in  1803  and  ceded  to  Prussia.  In  1807  they  were  incorporated  with  the 
kingdom  of  Westphalia  (see  page  294),  but  restored  in  1813  to  Prussia, 
which  retained  only  Paderborn,  while  it  ceded  Hildesheim  to  Hanover.  It 
contains :  Hildesheim,  its  former  capital,  at  present  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince, on  the  Innerste  river,  23  miles  west-south-west  of  Brunswick,  and 
south-eastward  and  15  miles  distant  from  Hanover,  with  various  manufac- 
tures, a  cathedral,  and  other  Gothic  churches,  and  15,500  inhabitants.  Elze, 
a  town  near  the  Leine  river,  westward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Hildesheim, 
with  2,050  inhabitants.  The  first  Christian  church  in  Saxony  (i.  e.  in  ancient 
Saxony)  was  built  here;  in  786  Charlemagne  resided  here  for  a  while. 
Peina,  an  industrious  town  on  the  Fuse  river,  north-eastward  and  70  miles 
distant  from  Hildesheim,  with  considerable  inland  trade,  and  4,000  inhabi- 
tants. Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are:  Gronau  (with  1,900  in- 
habitants), Sarstedt  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Alfeld  (with  2,700  inhabitants), 
and  Bockenem  (with  2,200  inhabitants).  The  market-town  of  Salzdetfurt 
(with  1,100  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  salt-springs  and  works.  Though  it 
did  not  belong  to  the  former  bishopric  of  Hildesheim,  we  shall  here  mention 
also  the  ancient  imperial  city  of  Goslae,  in  the  Hartz,  south-eastward  and 
24  miles  distant  from  Hildesheim,  with  noted  breweries,  numerous  manu- 
factures, and  7,500  inhabitants.  Goslar  was  founded  by  Emperor  Henry  I.  in 
922,  and  in  the  middle  ages  frequently  the  residence  of  the  German  em- 
perors.    In   1803   it  lost  its  independence  and  came  under  the  sway  of 


440  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany.— Kingdom  of  Hanover. 

Hanover;  in  1807  it  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  (see  page 
294),  and  in  1813  restored  to  Hanover. 

2.  The  ancient  principality  of  Gottingen  contains :  Gottingen,  its  ancient 
capital,  on  a  branch  of  the  Leine  river,  southward  and  66  miles  distant  from 
Hanover,  has  11,500  inhabitants,  various  and  partly  important  manufactures, 
and  is  noted  for  its  university  (see  above  and  page  288),  its  celebrated  pub- 
lic library  (see  page  288),  observatory,  botanic  gardens,  etc.  Bovendeii,  a 
market-town,  with  linen  manufactures,  and  1,900  inhabitants.  Nordheim,  a 
town  on  the  Ruhme  river,  northward  and  12  miles  distant  from  Gottingen, 
has  4,600  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  the  vast  amount  of  boots  and  shoes 
made  in  it.  Munden,  a  town  romantically  situated  at  the  head  of  the  We- 
ser,  on  the  junction  of  the  Fulda  and  Werra  (see  page  17),  about  half-way 
between  Gottingen  and  Cassel,  carries  on  a  considerable  trade,  is  largely  en- 
gaged in  manufactures,  and  has  6,000  inhabitants.  Other  towns  are :  Uslar 
(with  considerable  linen  manufactures,  and  2,150  inhabitants),  Hedemunden 
(likewise  noted  for  its  linen,  has  850  inhabitants),  and  Moringen  (with  1,700 
inhabitants). 

3.  The  ancient  principality  of  Grubenhagen,  contains:  Eimbeck,  its  ancient 
capital,  near  the  river  Leine,  22  miles  north-east  of  Gottingen,  and  43  miles 
south  of  Hanover,  with  various  manufactures,  especially  of  linen,  and  5,700 
inhabitants.  Salzderhelden,a.  market-town  noted  for  its  salt-works,  has  1,250 
inhabitants.  Osterode,  a  noted  manufacturing  town,  at  the  foot  of  the  Hartz, 
22  miles  east-south-east  of  Gottingen,  with  5,000  inhabitants.  Elbingerode, 
a  town  on  the  Hartz,  with  important  iron  mines,  considerable  trade  in  tim- 
ber, and  3,200  inhabitants.  Herzberg,  a  market-town  on  the  Hartz,  has  3,500 
inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  fire-arms. 

4.  The  so-called  Hbwer  fflchsfeld,  which  since  the  year  1334  belonged  to 
the  former  electorate  of  Mentz  (see  page  356),  and  of  which  Prussia  became 
possessed  in  1803,  ceding  it  however  to  Hanover  in  1813.  It  contains:  Du- 
derstadt,  its  ancient  capital,  on  the  little  Hahle  river,  eastward  and  12  miles 
distant  from  Gottingen,  with  various  manufactures,  noted  horse-marts,  and 
4,700  inhabitants.  Gieboldehausen  (with  2,200  inhabitants)  and  Lindau 
(noted  for  its  linen  manufactures,  has  1,100  inhabitants),  market-towns. 

5.  The  ancient  earldom  of  Hohnstein,  whose  sovereigns  became  extinct 
towards  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  when  the  house  of  Bruns- 
wick became  possessed  of  it.  It  contains :  Ilfeld,  a  borough  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Nordhausen,  is  noted  for  its  college  (see  back),  and  has  700  inhab- 


GERMANY.  441 


The  Kingdom  of  Hanover— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


itants.     Nemtadty  surnamed  unterm  Hohnstein,  a  town  belonging  to  the  earl 
of  Stolberg-Stolberg,  with  a  stately  palace,  and  700  inhabitants. 


5.  THE  PROVINCE  OF  OSNABRUECK. 

It  is  situated  within  the  limits  of  that  extensive  tract  of  land, 
since  the  middle  ages  comprised  by  the  general  name  of  West- 
phalia, and  embraces  politically  and  historically  the  former  bish- 
opric of  Osnabruck,  the  dependent  dominions  of  Aremberg-Meppen 
and  Betctheim,  together  with  some  other  districts  acquired  by 
Hanover  in  the  present  century. 

1.  The  former  sovereign  bishopric  (now  styled  principality)  of  Omabruck, 
was  founded  by  Charlemagne  in  772.  In  1648  it  retained  its  political  inde- 
pendence, but  the  strange  arrangement  was  made,  that  the  chapter  should 
elect  alternately  a  Catholic  and  a  Protestant  bishop,  and  the  latter  only  from 
among  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Bnuiswick-Luneburg  (or  Hanover).  The 
last  Protestant  bishop  was  the  duke  Frederic  of  York,  who  died  in  1827.  In 
1803  the  electorate  of  Hanover,  which  until  then  had  only  occasionally  by 
one  of  its  princes  been  in  connection  with  the  bishopric,  became  completely 
possessed  of  it.  It  contains :  Osnabrueck,  its  former  capital,  and  at  present 
the  capital  of  the  province,  on  the  Hase  river,  62  miles  south-south-west  of 
Bremen,  and  28  miles  north-east  of  Miinster,  with  various  manufactures,  con- 
siderable trade,  and  12,200  inhabitants.  The  most  remarkable  of  its  public 
edifices  are  the  former  palace  of  the  bishop,  the  cathedral,  and  the  city -hall, 
where  the  Westphalian  treaty  of  peace  (see  page  303)  was  signed  on  the 
24  Oct.,  1648.  The  neighboring  village  of  Borgloh  is  noted  for  its  coal-mines. 
Dissert,  a  market-town  with  a  salt-spring,  and  2,000  inhabitants.  Fiirstenau, 
a  town  with  linen  manufactures,  and  1,300  inhabitants.  Melle,  a  market- 
town  with  linen  and  woollen  manufactures,  and  1,500  inhabitants.  Quacken- 
bruck,  a  town  near  the  frontier  of  Oldenburg,  with  linen  and  other  manufac- 
tures, rather  considerable  trade,  and  2,300  inhabitants.  Ankum  (with  1,200 
inhabitants),  Vorden  (with  850  inhabitants),  and  Bramsche  (with  1,600  inhab- 
itants), market-towns. 

2.  The  so-called  lower  earldom  of  Lingen,  which  since  1702  belonged  to 

19* 


442  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany.— Kingdom  of  Hanover. 

Prussia,  and  was  in  1815  ceded  to  Hanover,  contains:  Lingen,  its  former 
capital,  north-westward  and  36  miles  distant  from  Osnabruck,  with  linen, 
woollen,  and  other  manufactures,  and  2,800  inhabitants.  Lengerich,  a  hand- 
some village,  with  600  inhabitants.  Schapen,  a  market-town,  with  1,300 
inhabitants. 

3.  The  dependent  duchy  of  Aremberg-Meppen,  belonging  to  the  duke  of 
Aremberg  (whose  ancestors  lived  in  Belgium,  and  who  has  an  annual  revenue 
of  750,000  florins),  contains :  Meppen,  its  capital,  on  the  Ems,  48  miles  south- 
west of  Oldenburg,  with  linen  manufactures,  and  2,350  inhabitants.  Clemens- 
toerth,  a  handsome  palace  of  the  duke.  Haselunne,  a  town  with  hardware 
manufactures,  and  1,800  inhabitants.  Papenburg,  a  township  near  the  Ems 
river,  amidst  extensive  peat-bogs,  has  5,200  inhabitants,  who  are  noted  for 
industry,  and  even  send  out  vessels  to  Brazil,  etc.,  in  commercial  pursuits. 

4.  The  dependent  earldom  of  Bentheim,  which  has  an  annual  revenue  of 
about  150,000  florins,  and  since  1823  is  subject  to  Hanover,  contains :  Ben- 
theim, its  capital,  south-westward  and  16  miles  distant  from  Lingen,  with  a 
stately  and  highly  remarkable  princely  palace,  and  2,000  inhabitants.  Sehut- 
torf  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Neuenhaus  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  and  Nord- 
horn  (with  1,450  inhabitants). 


6.  THE  PROVINCE  OF  AURICH. 

It  is  situated  on  the  North  Sea,  between  Oldenburg  and  the 
Netherlands,  and  comprises  the  ancient  principality  of  East 
Frisdand  (1,129  square  miles,  and  in  1845  with  174,284  inhabi- 
tants), surnamed  "  East,"  in  opposition  to  West  Friseland,  be- 
longing to  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  (see  page  272).  Both 
have  derived  their  principal  name  from  the  ancient  Friselanders 
(see  page  298),  who  had  their  seat  and  home  here.  In  the  middle 
ages,  East  Friseland  was  ruled  by  a  great  many  chieftains,  who 
in  1430  were  subjected  to  the  sovereignty  of  Edzard,  lord  of 
Greetsiel.  Edzard's  brother  and  successor,  was  in  1454  by  Em- 
peror Frederic  IV.,  raised  to  the  dignity  of  an  earl,  and  Earl 
Enno  IV.,  in  1654,  to  the  princely  dignity.    With  prince  Charles 


GERMANY.  443 


The  Kingdom  of  Hanover— its  Geographical  Divisions. 


Edzard,  who  died  in  1744,  the  line  of  the  native  princes  became 
extinct,  and  the  principality  was  inherited  by  Frederic  II.,  king 
of  Prussia.  In  1806  East  Friseland  was  annexed  to  the  king- 
dom of  Holland,  and  in  1810  to  the  French  empire.  In  1813  it 
was  restored  to  Prussia,  which  however  ceded  it  to  Hanover.  It 
contains : 

Aurich,  its  ancient  capital,  and  at  present  the  capital  of  the  province, 
north-westward  and  38  miles  distant  from  Oldenburg,  has  4,500  inhabitants, 
and  is  noted  for  its  extensive  ancient  princely  palace,  its  horse-marts,  and  corn 
trade.  Emden,  an  important  commercial  city  on  the  Dollart  (see  page  9), 
south-westward  and  12  miles  distant  from  Aurich,  with  a  fine  roadstead, 
various  manufactures,  and  12,400  inhabitants.  Norden,  the  oldest  city  in 
East  Friseland,  near  the  North  Sea,  is  noted  for  its  handsome  market-place, 
breweries,  and  horse-marts,  and  has  5,700  inhabitants.  The  neighboring 
mansion  of  the  count  of  In-  and  Kniphausen,  named  Lutetsburg,  is  noted  for 
its  beautiful  park.  Greetaiel,  a  market-town  near  the  North  Sea,  is  remarka- 
ble as  the  ancestral  seat  of  the  princely  house  that  became  extinct  in  1744, 
but  has  only  700  inhabitants.  Leer,  a  town  near  the  Ems  river,  is  noted  for 
its  commerce  and  horse-marts,  and  has  6,800  inhabitants.  Esens,  a  town  near 
the  North  Sea,  with  a  remarkable  ancient  church,  linen  manufactures,  and 
2,200  inhabitants.  Wittmund,  a  town  noted  for  its  horse-marts,  has  1,700 
inhabitants.  The  isle  of  Norderney  (with  700  inhabitants),  near  the  coast,  is 
much  resorted  to  for  sea-bathing. 


7.  THE  MINING  DISTRICT  OF  CLAUSTHAL. 

It  comprises  the  Upper  Hartz  (see  pages  7  and  8),  has  213 
square  miles  in  extent,  and  had  in  1845  a  population  of  35,055 
inhabitants,  who  are  chiefly  engaged  in  mining  business,  yet  also 
in  the  rearing  of  cattle,  and  some  branches  of  common  industry. 
In  this  district  are  to  be  found  the  most  valuable  mines  Hanover 
is  possessed  of,  and  one  of  them  has  in  the  period  from  1701  to 
1808,  yielded  a  produce  of  838,000  marks  of  silver,   768,000 


444  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom  of  Hanover  and  Duchy  of  Brunswick. 

quintals  of  lead,  and  2,380  quintals  of  copper,  at  the  aggregate 
value  of  14,737,(M)0  Prussian  dollars.     The  district  contains: 

Clausthal,  a  well-built  mining  town,  the  seat  of  the  mining  superinten- 
dency,  in  the  Upper  Hartz,  with  a  mining  academy,  some  manufactures,  and 
9,100  inhabitants.  Close  by  is  the  mining-town  of  Zellerfeld,  with  4,200 
inhabitants.  Other  mining  towns  are:  Altenau  (with  1,700  inhabitants), 
Andreasberg  (with  4,300  inhabitants),  Grund  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Lau- 
teivthal  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  and  Wildemann  (with  1,200  inhabitants). 
One  of  the  most  important  iron-works  in  the  Hartz,  is  named  Konigshulte, 
where  annually  more  than  20,000  quintals  of  iron  are  wrought 


XXXIIL— THE  DUCHY  OF  BRUNSWICK 

Area:  1,533  square  miles. 
Population  :  270,100  inhabitants. 

Its  main  body  is  situated  about  half-way  between  the  cities  of 
Hanover  and  Magdeburg,  while  another  section  is  enclosed  by 
southern  territories  of  the  kingdom  of  Hanover. 

The  inhabitants  are  (with  the  exception  of  2,700  Catholics, 
of  about  1,600  Jews,  and  of  rather  few  Calvinists  and  Moravian 
Brethren)  Lutherans. 

Upon  the  whole  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  for  the  rest  the  natural 
character  of  the  country  bears  the  same  stamp  as  the  surrounding 
territories  of  Hanover.  Chief  staples  are  corn,  fiaz.  hops,  and 
timber;  black  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  game ;  silver,  copper,  iron, 
lead,  peat,  and  sandstone. 

Except  in  the  capital,  there  are  but  few  manufactures ;  but  the 
inland  trade  is  considerable.     For  education,  there  are  2  semina- 


GERMANY.  445 


The  Duchy  of  Brunswick— its  Statistics  and  History. 


ries,  5  gymnasiums,  and  2  others,  which  are  arranged  in  similar 
manner  as  the  English  colleges;  21  Latin,  and  369  common 
schools.  The  former  university  at  Helmstedt,  was  in  1809  abol- 
ished by  the  Westphalian  government  (see  page  294). 

The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy.  According  to  the 
budget  for  the  period  1843-45,  the  public  revenue  and  expenditure 
was  estimated  at  1,250,710  Prussian  dollars.  The  public  debt,  the 
interest  of  which  amounts  to  672,700  Prussian  dollars  annually, 
has  since  the  year  1832,  been  increased  by  a  loan  of  2£  millions, 
required  for  the  rearing  of  a  new  ducal  palace,  as  the  former 
palace  was  burnt  down  in  1830,  by  incendiaries.  The  military 
consists  of  3,181  men,  2,096  of  whom,  are  or  were  to  be  furnished 
to  the  confederal  army. 

In  1834,  the  order  of  Henry  the  Lion  w&s  instituted,  as  an 
order  of  honor  for  civil  and  military  officers,  in  4  classes. 

History. — It  has  already  been  mentioned  in  the  history  of  Hanover,  that 
both  this  kingdom  and  the  duchy  of  Brunswick  have  the  same  origin  ;  and 
that  the  nigher  ancestor  of  the  reigning  royal  and  ducal  houses,  is  duke 
Ernest,  surnamed  the  Confessor,  who  died  in  1546,  and  whose  grandson 
Aitgustus  became  the  special  ancestor  of  the  reigning  house  of  Brunswick. 
Until  the  year  1754,  the  ducal  residence  was  in  Wolfenbuttel,  but  duke 
Charles  transferred  it  in  the  just-named  year,  to  the  city  of  Brunswick.  He 
died  in  1780,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Charles  William  Ferdinand, 
while  his  younger  son,  Frederic  Augustus,  became  by  marriage  possessed  of 
the  dependent  principality  of  Oels  in  Silesia,  and  assumed  the  name  of  Bruns- 
wick-Oels.  Duke  Charles  William  Ferdinand,  of  Brunswick  proper,  com- 
manded the  Prussian  troops  in  the  battle  of  Auerstadt  (which  was  fought  on 
the  same  day  as  the  battle  of  Jena),  in  1806,  where  he  was  severely  wounded, 
and  soon  after  died,  while  the  French  took  possession  of  his  duchy,  which  in 
the  period  from  1807  to  1813,  formed  a  constituent  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Westphalia.  His  grand-nephew,  Frederic  William  of  Brunswick-Oels,  now 
succeeded  him  as  duke  of  Brunswick,  but  was  on  the  16th  June,  1815,  killed 
in  the  action  of  Quatrebras.  He  left  behind  two  sons,  minors,  the  eldest  of 
whom,  Charles,  succeeded  him,  but  was,  until  1823,  under  the  guardianship 


446  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany. — Duchy  of  Brunswick. 

of  King  George  IV.,  of  Great  Britain  and  Hanover.  In  1830,  after  the 
French  revolution  of  July,  in  Brunswick  as  well  as  elsewhere,  it  was  for  a 
while  the  fashion  to  imitate  that  revolution ;  Herzberg,  the  commander  of 
the  ducal  troops,  made  common  cause  with  the  rebels,  the  ducal  palace  was 
set  on  fire,  and,  to  be  short,  Peter  was  exchanged  for  Paul,  and  the  duke's 
brother,  William  (born  in  1806),  is  since  the  25th  April,  1831,  reigning  duke. 
Both  he  and  his  brother  are  yet  unmarried,  and  should  they  die  so,  the  duchy 
will  be  annexed  to  Hanover,  as  its  king  and  descendants  are  the  next  legiti- 
mate heirs  to  Brunswick. 

The  duchy  is  divided  into  6  districts,  and  subdivided  into 
bailiwicks.  The  districts  of  Brunswick,  "Wolfenbuttel,  Helm- 
stedt,  Gandersheim,  and  Holzm'inden,  comprise  the  ancient  patri- 
monial state,  styled  principality  of  Wolfenbiittel,  while  the  sixth 
district  consists  of  the  principality  of  Blankenburg,  which  in 
1599  was  inherited  by  the  ducal  house  of  Brunswick.  The  most 
remarkable  cities,  towns,  etc.,  of  the  duchy,  are  the  following : 

Beunswick  (in  German  Braunschweig),  the  capital  of  the  duchy,  and  ducal 
residence,  on  the  Ocker  river,  46  miles  west- north-west  of  Magdeburg,  and 
south-eastward  and  40  miles  distant  from  Hanover,  with  40,000  inhabitants, 
a  new  and  magnificent  ducal  palace,  many  literary  institutions,  numerous  and 
important  manufactures,  and  considerable  inland  trade ;  while  its  annual 
fairs,  formerly  noted,  have,  since  the  construction  of  railroads  throughout 
Germany,  lost  their  importance.  Brunswick  is  noted  for  its  architectural 
monuments,  among  which  are  the  St.  Blasii  church  (with  the  sepulchre  of 
Duke  Henry,  surnamed  the  Lion,  who  founded  this  church  in  11*72),  and  sev- 
eral other  churches.  In  the  middle  ages,  Brunswick  ranked  among  the  first 
cities  of  the  Hanseatic  League  (see  page  54).  Wolfenbuttel,  a  city  next  in 
rank  to  Brunswick,  and  until  1754  the  ducal  residence,  on  the  Ocker  river, 
southward  and  1  miles  distant  from  Brunswick,  is  noted  for  its  highly  valua- 
ble ducal  library  (containing  200,000  vols.,  10,000  manuscripts,  a  large  collection 
of  bibles,  etc.),  for  its  manufactures,  greens,  etc.,  and  has  9,000  inhabitants.  The 
neighboring  village  of  Salsdahlum  (with  700  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  salt- 
springs.  Schbppenstedt,  a  town  on  the  Altenau  river,  south-eastward  and  14 
miles  distant  from  Brunswick,  with  linen  and  leather  manufactures,  and 


GERMANY.  447 


The  Duchy  of  Brunswick— its  Geographical  Divisions. 

2,400  inhabitants.  Near  the  Hanoverian  mining  district  of  Clausthal,  is  the 
renowned  ducal  stud  of  Harzburg,  where  also  the  ruins  are  to  be  found,  of 
the  very  ancient  mountain  castle  of  the  same  name,  in  the  middle  ages  fre- 
quently the  residence  of  the  German  emperors.  Helmstadt,  a  town  on  the 
common  high-road  between  Magdeburg  and  Brunswick,  has  6,500  inhabitants, 
and  was  formerly  noted  for  its  university,  founded  in  1576,  but  in  1809  abol- 
ished by  the  "Westphalian  government.  K'dnigslutter,  a  town  between  Helm- 
stadt and  Brunswick,  is  noted  for  its  breweries,  and  has  3,200  inhabitants. 
The  neighboring  village  of  Suppling enburg  was  the  ancestral  seat  of  the 
German  emperor,  Lothar  II.  (1125-1137).  Schbningen,  a  town  between 
Helmstadt  and  Schoppenstedt,  is  noted  for  its  salt-works  and  peat,  and  has 
3,200  inhabitants.  Vomfelde  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  and  Calvorde  (with 
1,900  inhabitants),  market- towns  noted  for  hops.  Gandersheim,  a  town 
between  Hildesheim  and  Gottingen,  has  2,500  inhabitants.  Seesen,  a  town 
on  the  little  Schildau  river,  is  noted  for  a  Jewish  college,  and  has  2,300 
inhabitants.  Between  here  and  Brunswick  is  situated  the  village  of  L>Mer 
am  Barenberge  (with  1,300  inhabitants),  noted  in  history  for  the  victory  the 
imperial  general  Tilly  obtained  here  over  the  Danes,  on  the  27th  Aug.,  1626- 
Holzminden,  a  town  on  the  Weser,  westward  and  18  miles  distant  from 
Eimbeck,  with  manufactures  of  hardware,  cutlery,  pins,  etc. ;  iron-works, 
considerable  linen  trade,  and  3,500  inhabitants.  In  its  neighborhood  is  situ- 
ated the  ancient  mountain  castle  of  Furstenberg,  since  1753  with  a  porcelain 
manufactory.  Eschersleben,  a  market-town  noted  for  its  flax  and  linen,  has 
1,300  inhabitants.  Severn,  a  market-town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Holzmin- 
den, with  1,500  inhabitants,  linen  manufactures,  and  an  ancient  ducal  castle, 
in  the  period  from  1704  to  1735,  the  residence  of  a  collateral  line  of  the 
ducal  house.  Stadt  Oldendorf,  a  town  north-eastward  and  12  miles  distant 
from  Holzminden,  with  linen  manufactures,  quarries,  and  1,800  inhabitants. 
TJiedinglumsen,  a  market-town  on  the  Weser,  south-eastward  and  12  miles 
distant  from  Bremen,  with  linen  manufactures,  and  1,500  inhabitants,  is  the 
chief  place  of  the  bailiwick  of  Thedinghausen  situated  entirely  apart 
Blankenburg,  the  capital  of  the  above-mentioned  principality  of  the  same 
name  (which  has  I70i  square  miles  in  extent,  and  a  population  of  22,000 
inhabitants),  at  the  lower  Hartz,  south-eastward  and  37  miles  distant  from 
Brunswick,  has  3,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  ducal  palace.  In  the 
neighborhood  are  two  remarkable  caves  (similar  to  Wyer's  Cave,  in  Vir- 
ginia), known  by  the  names  of  Baumannshbhle  and  Biehteinhofde.     The 


448  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

Germany.— Free  City  of  Hamburg. 

villages  of  Zorge  (with  1,300  inhabitants),  Wieda  (with  1,100  inhabitants), 
and  Hohegeiss  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  are  noted  for  their  iron-works. 
Hasselfelde,  a  town  with  1,700  inhabitants. 


XXXIV.— THE  FREE  CITY  OF  HAMBURG. 

Area  :  149  square  miles. 
Population  :  168,000  inhabitants. 

The  city  of  Hamburg  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river  Elbe,  about  84  miles  from  the  sea,  and  its  territory  partly  in 
the  immediate  vicinity,  partly  at  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe.  In  the 
above-stated  area  and  population,  are  included  42^  square  miles, 
and  13,000  inhabitants,  as  the  area  and  population  of  the  baili- 
wick of  Bergedorf  (above  Hamburg  on  the  Elbe),  of  which  Ham- 
burg and  Lubec  are  possessed  in  common. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Lutherans ;  but  besides  them,  there 
are  about  4,100  Calvinists,  3,100  Roman  Catholics,  600  Mennou- 
ites,  and  8,000  Jews. 

The  government  is  a  republic,  the  sovereign  power  being  vested 
in  a  senate  and  the  citizenship.  The  public  revenue  amounted  in 
1845,  to  5,827,000  bank-marks  (3  are  equal  to  1  dollar),  and  the 
expenditure  to  5,996,000  marks.  The  public  debt  amounts  to  about 
70  million  bank-marks,  and  this  rather  high  amount  is  chiefly 
owing  to  a  loan  which  became  necessary,  in  consequence  of  a 
dreadful  fire  in  1842,  which  destroyed  a  considerable  part  of  the 
city.  The  troops  to  be  furnished  to  the  confederal  army,  are 
1,298  men.  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Lubec  are,  as  ancient  mem- 
bers of  the  Hanseatic  League  (see  page  54),  still  sometimes  styled 


GERMANY.  449 


The  Free  City  of  Hamburg. 


Ilanseatic  cities,  both  in  common  life  and  officially. — It  is  proba- 
ble that  Hamburg  already  existed  before  the  days  of  Charle- 
magne, as  a  city  of  the  North  Albingians  (see  page  298)  In 
808  this  emperor  reared  here  an  imperial  castle,  anct  in  834 
Hamburg  became  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric,  which,  however,  a 
few  years  later,  was  transferred  to  Bremen.  At  a  later  period, 
Hamburg  came  under  the  sway  of  the  earls  of  Holstein,  who 
favored  it  with  substantial  privileges.  In  the  12th  century  it 
was  already  a  commercial  city  of  importance,  and  in  1215  it  was 
raised  to  a  sovereign  imperial  city  by  Emperor  Otto  IV.  In 
1241  it  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Lubec,  laying  thus  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  in  the  years  1258  and 
1269,  it  acquired  a  considerable  territory.  Its  flourishing  state 
continued  even  in  the  period  of  the  thirty  years'  war,  which  left 
Hamburg  unharmed ;  as  was  likewise  the  case  in  the  seven  years' 
war,  and  in  the  period  of  the  first  French  revolution.  But  since 
1803,  Hamburg  has  suffered  many  calamities.  First  the  Elbe 
river  was  shut  up  by  the  French,  and  blockaded  by  the  English ; 
secondly,  Hamburg  was  in  1806  occupied  by  French  troops,  and 
had  since  to  pay  enormous  war-taxes  ;  thirdly,  it  was  incorporated 
in  1810  with  the  French  empire  ;  and  lastly  it  was  in  1813  occu- 
pied by  a  numerous  body  of  French  troops  commanded  by 
Davoust,  who  condemned  Hamburg  to  a  fine  of  48  million  francs, 
took  considerable  sums  of  private  property  from  the  bank,  and 
transformed  the  city  into  a  strong  fortress,  which  did  not  surren- 
der before  the  peace  was  concluded  at  Paris,  on  the  31st  May, 
1814.  The  losses  in  ready  money  Hamburg  has  suffered  in  the 
period  from  1806  to  1814,  are  estimated  at  140  million  bank- 
marks.  In  1815  Hamburg  was  restored  to  its  political  indepen- 
dence, and  joined  the  German  Confederation  as  a  free  city.  The 
above-mentioned  great  fire  in  1842,  lasted  from  the  4th  to  the 
8th  of  May,  and  destroyed  1,992  houses,  which  had  been  the 


450  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany. — Free  City  of  Hamburg. 

dwellings  of  about  30,000  inhabitants.     We  shall  now  enter  into 
some  particulars  of  topographical  description. 

Hamburg  lies,  as  has  already  been  stated,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  at 
its  junction  with  the  Alster,  north-eastward  and  60  miles  distant  from  Bre- 
men, and  south-westward  and  40  miles  distant  from  Lubec,  is  universally 
known  as  the  chief  commercial  city  in  Germany,  and  has  137,000  inhabitants. 
Before  the  great  fire  in  1842,  Hamburg  was  noted  for  its  5  fine  and  high 
steeples  of  churches,  two  of  which  burnt  down  on  that  occasion,  and  are 
about  to  be  replaced  by  new  churches  with  similar  high  steeples.  Of  the 
three  others  that  remained  unhurt,  St.  Michael's  church  steeple  is  458  feet  in 
height,  thus  one  of  the  highest  in  the  world  The  Merchant's  Exchange  is  a 
magnificent,  well-arranged,  and  extensive  edifice,  in  whose  vaults  the  silver 
ingots  of  the  bank  of  Hamburg  are  deposited.  The  new  post-office  is  like- 
wise a  stately  edifice.  In  the  suburb  of  St.  George  is  the  city  hospital,  an 
immense  building  with  a  front  of  700  feet,  while  each  of  its  two  wings  has 
on  the  inner  side  a  length  of  375  feet.  Hamburg  has  more  than  200  own 
vessels  engaged  in  its  commerce ;  and  is  moreover  noted  both  for  its  various 
manufactures,  and  its  numerous  literary  institutions.  The  city  library  con- 
tains about  200,000  vols.  There  are  besides,  an  eminently-arranged  gymna- 
sium, and  numerous  other  schools.  In  the  territory  belonging  to  Hamburg 
exclusively,  are  to  be  noticed  the  handsome  neighboring  villages  of  Eppendorf, 
Barmbeck,  Hamm,  and  Horn,  much  resorted  to  for  amusement ;  and  the  isles 
of  Ochsenwerder  (with  1,900  inhabitants),  Billwerder  (with  4,200  inhabitants), 
Moorwerder  (with  300  inhabitants),  and  Grasbrook  (with  700  inhabitants), 
between  Hamburg  and  Harburg.  At  the  mouth  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Elbe  are  situated  the  boroughs  of  Ritzebuttel  (the  seat  of  a  bailiwick  of  the 
same  name,  has  1,700  inhabitants)  and  Cuxhafen  (with  a  harbor,  roadstead, 
sea-bathing,  and  800  inhabitants). 

In  common  with  Lubec,  Hamburg  is  possessed  of  the  bailiwick  of  Bcrgedorf 
(42i  square  miles,  and  13,000  inhabitants),  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Elbe,  between  Hamburg  and  Lauenburg.  It  formerly  belonged  to  the 
duchy  of  Lauenburg,  but  was  in  the  15th  century  conquered  by  Hamburg 
and  Lubec  jointly,  and  since  the  year  1420  both  cities  have  possessed  it.  It 
contains,  besides  the  town  of  Bergedorf  (at  the  Berlin  and  Hamburg  rail- 
road, with  2,400  inhabitants),  and  the  village  of  Gcesthacht  (with  1,000  inhab- 


GERMANY.  451 


The  Free  City  of  Lubec. 


itnnts),  a  district  known  by  the  name  of  Vierlande,  noted  for  the  great  fer- 
tility of  its  soil,  for  its  greens,  and  for  its  excellent  fruits  of  various  kinds, 
especially  cherries. 


XXXV.— THE  FREE  CITY  OF  LUBEC. 

Akka:  160  square  miles. 
Population  :  53,500  inhabitants. 

The  area  and  population  here  stated  include  42£  square  miles, 
and  13,000  inhabitants,  as  the  population  of  the  bailiwick  of 
Bergedorf  (see  above).  Thus,  there  remains  H7-£  square  miles 
and  40,500  inhabitants  to  Lubec  and  its  territory  alone.  Lubec 
is  situated  on  the  river  Trave,  9  miles  from  the  Baltic  Sea.  Most 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Lutherans.  The  republican  government  is 
similar  to  that  of  Hamburg.  According  to  the  budget  of  1845, 
the  public  revenue  amounted  to  834,191,  and  the  expenditure  to 
797,733  current  marks  (3-f-  =  $1).  The  public  debt,  which  in 
1814  amounted  to  11  millions,  was  in  1844  reduced  to  5,881,041 
current  marks.  There  are  1  gymnasium,  1  seminary,  1  nautical 
school,  etc.,  and  numerous  private  and  public  common  schools. 
Troops  to  be  furnished  to  the  confederal  army  :  407  men. — With 
regard  to  history,  the  present  city  of  Lubec  was  founded  in  1143 
by  Earl  Adolphus  II.  of  Holstein  and  Schaumburg  (see  History 
of  Holstein),  who  in  1158  ceded  it  to  the  frequently-mentioned 
duke  Henry  of  Saxony,  surnamed  the  Lion ;  and  since  then  Lu- 
bec was  for  a  while  both  the  seat  of  the  above  (under  the  head 
of  Oldenburg)  mentioned  bishopric  of  this  name,  and  under  the 
sway  of  the  duke  of  Saxony.  However  it  soon  became  inde- 
pendent, being  in  1226  raised  to  an  imperial  city  by  Emperor 


452  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany.— Free  City  of  Lubec. 

Frederic  II.  At  that  period  it  had  by  its  widely-extended  com- 
merce already  grown  wealthy  and  become  an  emporium  on  the 
Baltic.  But  it  attained  to  the  highest  pitch  of  commercial  and 
political  authority  and  power  since  the  establishment  of  the  Han- 
seatic  League  (see  page  54),  whose  head  it  became.  Lubec  was 
still  in  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  possessed  of  a  powerful 
navy,  and  had  about  100,000  inhabitants.  But  since  it  went 
gradually  to  decay  together  with  that  League,  whose  formal  solu- 
tion took  place  in  1632.  After  the  battle  of  Jena  in  1806,  the 
Prussian  general  Blucher  took  with  a  detached  body  of  troops  a 
strong  position  in  Lubec,  which  then  was  stormed  by  the  French 
and  pillaged  during  three  days.  In  1810  the  city  was  annexed 
to  the  French  empire,  and  formed  part  of  the  department  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Elbe,  the  capital  of  which  was  Hamburg  In  1813 
Lubec  was  restored  to  its  political  independence,  and  joined  sub- 
sequently the  German  Confederation  as  a  free  city. 

Lubec  (in  German  LubecTc)  is,  as  has  already  been  remarked,  situated  on 
the  Trave,  9  miles  from  the  Baltic  Sea,  north-eastward  and  40  miles  distant 
from  Hamburg,  is  the  seat  of  the  Supreme  Tribunal  for  the  4  Free  Cities  (see 
page  297),  and  had  on  the  1st  September,  1845,  a  population  of  25,360  in- 
habitants, among  whom  were  about  400  Calvinists,  300  Roman  Catholics,  and 
500  Jews.  The  commerce  of  Lubec  is  at  present  not  very  considerable,  yet 
a  regular  line  of  steam-sliips  (at  least  in  the  summer  season)  connects  it  with 
St.  Petersburg,  Copenhagen,  and  other  seaports  of  the  Baltic.  About  the 
schools  see  above.  Lubec  is  noted  for  several  remarkable  ancient  edifices, 
among  which  rank  first  St.  Mary's  church  (reared  in  the  period  of  1163-1170, 
containing  among  others  an  admirable  picture  and  clock,  both  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  15th  century,  and  whose  two  steeples  are  each  422  feet  high), 
and  the  enormously  extensive  city-hall,  remarkable  as  the  former  meeting- 
place  of  the  representatives  of  the  Hanseatic  League.  To  the  territory  of 
the  city  belongs  the  town  of  Travemunde,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Trave,  with  a 
seaport,  sea-bathing,  and  1,100  inhabitants.  Lubec  acquired  it  in  1320. 
The  bailiwick  of  Bergedorf,  possessed  in  common  by  Lubec  and  Hamburg} 
is  already  described  above. 


GERMANY.  453 


The  Free  City  of  Bremen. 


XXXVL— THE  FREE  CITY  OF  BREMEN. 

Area  :  106£  square  miles. 
Population:  76,000  inhabitants. 

Bremen  is  situated  on  the  Weser,  about  46  miles  from  the 
North  Sea.  The  inhabitants  are  (with  the  exception  of  about 
2,000  Roman  Catholics)  partly  Calvinists,  partly  Lutherans. 
Jews  are  not  allowed  to  live  in  the  city.  The  government  is  a 
republic,  like  that  of  Hamburg.  According  to  the  budget  of 
1845,  the  public  revenue,  amounted  to  602,572  rix  dollars  in  louis 
d'or  (1  rix  dollar  is  equal  to  about  75  cents),  and  the  expenditure 
to  691.640  rix  dollars.  The  deficit  of  89,068  was  chiefly  owing 
to  the  expenses  occasioned  by  the  structure  of  the  Bremen  and 
Hanover  railroad,  and  is  long  since  refunded.  The  public  debt 
amounted  to  2f  million  rix  dollars,  though  upon  the  whole  the 
public  finances  of  Bremen  are  in  the  best  order.  The  troops 
to  the  confederal  army :  485  men. — The  more  ancient  history 
of  the  city  is  closely  connected  with  that  of  the  archbishopric  of 
Bremen  (see  above  under  the  head  of  Hanover,  page  438),  where 
we  have  seen  that  since  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation  the 
city  of  Bremen  embraced  Protestantism  (at  first,  i.  e.  in  1522 
Lutheranism,  and  in  1562  Calvinism,  which  since  prevailed 
until  recent  times)  and  became  independent.  Its  commerce 
had  long  before  that  period  been  flourishing,  especially  since 
the  city,  in  1283,  had  joined  the  Hanseatic  League.  In  1640 
Bremen  was  endowed  with  the  privileges  of  an  imperial  city, 
though  it  actually  was  not  allowed  to  make  use  of  them  be- 
fore the  year  1731.  In  1810  the  city  was  annexed  to  the  French 
empire  as  capital  of  the  Weser  mouth  department,  but  in  1813 
restored  to  its  independency,  and  became  subsequently  an  actual 


454  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Germany.— Free  Cities  of  Bremen  and  Frankfort. 

member  of  the  German  Confederation.     In  1829  it  acquired  from 
Hanover  a  small  tract  of  land  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Weser, 
where  it  since   established   the  seaport  of   Bremerhaven. — We 
add  the  following  topographical  and  statistical  particulars, 
m 

Bremen,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Weser,  though  chiefly  on  its  right 
bank,  about  46  miles  from  the  sea,  south-westward  and  60  miles  distant 
from  Hanover,  is  next  to  Hamburg  the  chief  commercial  city  in  Germany, 
and  has  53,000  inhabitants.  Steam-ships  connect  Bremen  with  New  York, 
and  merchant-vessels  (more  than  230  of  which  belong  to  the  city  itself)  are 
trading  not  only  to  New  York  and  other  ports  of  the  United  States,  but  also 
to  South  America,  the  West  Indies,  Brazil,  the  chief  maritime  towns  of  the 
Baltic,  and  even  to  Australia,  etc.  The  inland  trade  is  likewise  very  impor- 
tant, and  Bremen  is  noted  for  its  tobacco,  canvass,  and  other  manufactures. 
Besides  a  gymnasium,  there  are  several  other,  and  numerous  common  schools. 
The  city-hall  is  a  magnificent  Gothic  edifice.  The  ancient  cathedral,  or,  since 
the  Reformation,  Lutheran  church,  is  likewise  a  remarkable  edifice,  and  was 
reared  in  the  years  1043-10*72,  though  some  parts  of  it  were  founded  in  the 
10th  century.  The  steeple  of  St.  Ansgarii  is  324  feet  high.  In  the  territory 
of  the  city  are  chiefly  to  be  noticed :  Vegesack,  a  borough  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Weser,  at  its  junction  with  the  Lesum  or  Wumme,  with  1,500  inhabi- 
tants, who  are  amply  engaged  in  ship-building,  and  the  above-mentioned 
town  of  Bremerhaven,  likewise  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Weser,  at  its  junction 
with  the  Geeste,  with  harbor,  and  2,700  inhabitants. 


XXXVIL— THE  FREE  CITY  OF  FRANKFORT. 

Area  :  42£  square  miles. 
Population  :  68,000  inhabitants. 

It  is  situated  towards  the  centre  of  Germany,  on  the  river 
Mayne,  about   18  miles  from  its  junction  with  the  Rhine,  sur- 


GERMANY.  465 


The  Free  City  of  Frankfort— its  Statistics,  History,  etc. 


rounded  by  Hessian  territories  and  bordering  upon  the  ducby  of 
Nassau.  The  majority  of  the  population  consist  of  Lutherans  ; 
there  are,  however,  6,500  Roman  Catholics,  and  besides  them 
about  2,000  Calvinists.  and  6,500  Jews.  The  government  is  a  re- 
public, the  sovereign  power  being  vested  in  a  senate  and  a  legis- 
lative body.  The  amount  of  the  public  revenue,  and  of  the 
expenditure  for  several  years,  has  been  about  900,000  florins. 
The  'public  debt  is  8  million  florins.  The  troops  to  be  furnished 
to  the  confederal  army :  693  men. — Frankfort  was  probably 
founded  as  early  as  the  5th  century  by  the  Franks.  The  Fran- 
conian  dukes  had  in  Frankfort  a  palace,  which  at  a  later  period 
was  frequently  the  residence  of  Charlemagne.  His  son  Louis  the 
Pious  and  his  grandson  Louis  the  German  had  for  several  years 
their  residence  in  this  city,  which  in  the  9th  century  became  an 
emporium  of  Austrasia  (see  page  26),  and  in  1254  an  imperial 
city.  Since  the  year  1356  the  German  emperors  were  elected, 
and  since  1562  also  crowned  in  Fraukfort,  which  meanwhile  had 
grown  rich  by  its  extensive  inland  trade  and  annual  fairs.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  year  1806  French  troops  occupied  the  city, 
and  in  1810  it  became  the  capital  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Frank- 
fort (see  page  294).  In  1813  Frankfort  was  restored  to  its  for- 
mer independency,  and  was  in  the  period  from  1816  to  1848  the 
seat  of  the  Diet  of  the  German  Confederation. — We  add  the  fol- 
lowing statistical  particulars. 

Frankfort  is  in  German  called  Frankfurt,  and  surnamed  am  Main  (L  e. 
on  the  Mayne),  to  distinguish  it  from  another  German  city  of  the  same  name, 
situated  on  the  Oder  river.  The  city  itself  has  a  population  of  58,000  inhabi- 
tants, carries  on  a  considerable  trade,  and  is  much  engaged  in  banking  busi- 
ness, though  its  annual  fairs  have,  like  those  of  Brunswick,  lost  their  former 
importance  since  the  construction  of  railroads  throughout  Germany.  Its 
book-trade  and  manufactures  may  be  considered  as  considerable.  Frankfort 
is  noted  for  its  numerous  literary  institutions,  among  them  two  public  libra- 


456  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Germany.— Free  City  of  Frankfort. 

ries  (one  of  which  contains  80,000  volumes),  a  cabinet  of  natural  curiosities, 
a  fine  collection  of  paintings,  etc.  Schools  are  various.  The  most  remark- 
able of  the  public  edifices  are  the  city-hall,  styled  R'dmer  (where  the  empe- 
rors were  elected,  and  which  in  substance  was  already  extant  in  964),  and 
the  ancient  Gothic  St.  Bartholomew's  church  (where  the  emperors  were 
crowned).  Frankfort  is  renowned  for  its  extensive  and  comfortable  hotels. 
The  territory  of  the  city  contains  the  market-town  of  Bonames  (with  600  in- 
habitants), and  the  villages  of  Bornheim  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Niederrad 
(with  1,500  inhabitants),  Oberrad  (with  1,400  inhabitants),  and  Hansen  (with 
600  inhabitants). 


THE    KINGDOM   OF   PRUSSIA. 

Area:  108,214  square  miles. 
Population:  16,100,000  inhabitants. 

The  kingdom  of  Prussia  (in  German  Preussen)  consists  of  two 
distinct  territories,  situated  about  40  miles  apart,  and  separated 
from  each  other  by  Hanover  and  Hesse-Cassel. 

The  eastern  and  larger  section  extends  from  the  Russian  fron- 
tier and  the  Baltic,  towards  the  centre  of  Germany ;  while  the 
western  territory  extends  from  the  banks  of  the  Weser  across  the 
Rhine,  towards  the  French  frontier. 

About  two  thirds  of  the  population  are  Evangelicals  (see  page 
291),  and  somewhat  more  than  one  third  Roman  Catholics.  At 
the  end  of  the  year  1843,  the  population  of  the  kingdom  was 
exactly  (i.  e.  according  to  the  census)  15,471,765  inhabitants. 
Of  these  were  9,428,911  Evangelicals  (inclusive  200,000  Mora- 
vian Brethren),  and  5,820,123  were  Catholics.  The  remainder 
consisted  of  1,879  followers  of  the  Greek  Church,  14,313  Men- 
nonites,  206.529  Jews,  and  10  Mohammedans.  The  Catholics  are 
under  the  spiritual  superintendence  of  2  archbishops  (of  Cologne 
and  Gnesen)  and  6  bishops  (of  Treves,  Munster,  Paderborn,  Culm, 
Breslau,  and  Ermeland). 

With  regard  to  the  surface  of  the  country,  that  of  the  eastern 
territory  is  (with  the  exception  of  Upper  Silesia)  generally  level, 
and  that  of  the  western  territory  for  the  most  part  mountainous. 

The  chief  mountain  range  is  the  Riesengebirge  (see  page  6), 
besides  which  parts  of  the  Hartz  with  the  Brocken  (see  pages  7 

20 


458  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Prussia.— Rivers,  Soil,  Natural  Products,  etc. 


and  8),  and  of  the  Thuringerwald  (see  page  7),  are  to  be  noticed 
in  the  eastern  territory ;  while  the  chief  mountain  ranges  in  the 
western  territory,  are  the  Westerwald,  Hunsrucken,  Eifel,  and 
Seven  Hills  (see  page  8). 

Bays  of  the  Baltic  Sea  are  here,  the  Curische,  Fresh,  Great, 
and  Little  Haff  (see  page  9).  Of  inland  lakes  is  the  Madue 
Lake  (see  page  11) ;  and  of  rivers,  the  Oder,  the  Elbe  (with  the 
Black  Lister,  Saale,  and  Havel),  the  Rhine  (with  the  Nahe,  Lahn, 
Sieg,  Wupper,  Lippe,  Ruhr,  and  Moselle),  the  lower  Vistula,  the 
Pregel,  etc.  (see  the  particulars,  pages  13,  16,  etc.),  to  be  noticed. 
Of  canals  may  be  mentioned  the  Netze,  Finow,  and  MiXllrose 
canals,  connecting  the  Vistula,  Oder,  and  Elbe,  with  each  other. 

The  natural  character  of  the  soil  is  greatly  diversified.  The 
most  fertile  province  is  in  general  the  province  of  Saxony,  where 
at  the  same  time  the  soil  is  exceedingly  well-cultivated,  especially 
in  the  so-called  Guldene  Aue  (see  page  399)  and  the  district  of 
Magdeburg.  Yet  in  all  other  provinces  are  highly  fertile  dis- 
tricts likewise,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  province  of  Prussia,  those 
of  Tilsit,  Marienburg,  Marienwerder,  Dantzick;  in  the  province  of 
Posen,  the  districts  along  the  Netze  river;  in  Pomerania,  the 
island  of  Rugen,  the  district  of  Stralsund  in  general,  and  along 
the  banks  of  the  Oder ;  in  Silesia,  especially  Lower  Silesia ;  in 
Brandenburg,  the  districts  known  by  the  names  of  Lenzerwische 
(meadow  of  Lenzen),  Oderbruch,  and  Spreewald;  in  Westphalia, 
the  districts  of  Soest  and  Warburg;  in  the  Rhenish  province, 
the  valleys  along  the  Moselle,  Saar,  and  Nahe,  and  the  districts 
watered  by  the  Sieg  and  Wupper  rivers,  and  of  Juliers. 

Thus,  upon  the  whole,  corn  is  raised  sufficiently,  not  only  for 
home  consumption,  but  even  for  exportation.  Besides  grain,  is 
especially  cultivated  vine,  in  the  Rhenish  province,  principally  on 
the  banks  of  the  Moselle,  Nahe,  and  Ahr  rivers.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  provinces  of  Saxony  and  Westphalia,  there  are 


PRUSSIA.  459 


Natural  Products,  Manufactures,  Trade  and  Commerce. 


extensive  forests  yielding  both  fuel  and  timber,  the  latter  in  suffi- 
cient quantities  for  exportation.  The  most  remarkable  forests 
are  in  the  province  of  Prussia,  covering  there  a  space  of  5 ,700,000 
Prussian  acres. — The  aggregate  number  of  horses  was  1 ,564,554 
in  the  year  1843;  and  the  breed  reared  in  the  royal  stud  of 
Trakehnen  (in  East  Prussia)  surpasses  in  beauty  and  nicety  of 
external  appearance,  even  the  English  breed.  Yet,  upon  the 
whole,  the  kingdom  of  Prussia  is  not  so  generally  noted  for  its 
horses,  as  for  instance  Mecklenburg  ;  and  the  same  may  be  said 
of  the  black  cattle,  of  which  5,042,010  heads  were  numbered  in 
the  year  1843.  The  number  of  sheep  (about  4,200,000  of 
which  were  of  the  finest,  and  nearly  8  million  of  half -improved 
breed)  amounted  to  16,235,885,  and  that  of  hogs  (especially  in 
Westphalia,  Pomerania,  and  the  province  of  Saxony)  to  2,1 15,212. 
The  principal  productions  from  the  mineral  kingdom  are  iron  (in 
1843  produced  at  the  primitive  value  of  17,487,481  Prussian  dol- 
lars), and  coal  (in  1843  produced  at  the  primitive  value  of 
5,307,661  Prussian  dollars) ;  besides  which  may  be  mentioned  lead, 
copper,  zinc,  silver  (of  which  latter,  30,152  marks  were  produced 
in  1843),  salt  (at  the  value  of  1,348,794  Prussian  dollars,  made 
in  that  year),  and  yellow  amber  (only  at  the  Baltic  coast  in  the 
province  of  Prussia). 

The  manvfactures  are  both  numerous  and  important,  especially 
those  of  cloth  and  other  woollens,  of  cotton  goods  (Elberfeld  is  at  the 
same  time  noted  for  its  spun  cotton,  dyed  in  Turkey  red),  linens 
(especially  in  Silesia  and  Westphalia),  silks  and  velvets,  and  articles 
of  iron  and  steel.     (See  the  remarks  and  statements,  page  286.) 

The  inland  trade  is  considerable,  and  though  the  foreign  com- 
merce does  not  rival  that  of  several  other  European  countries, 
yet  the  exportation  (consisting  principally  in  grain,  timber,  salt, 
wool,  linen,  cloth,  hardware,  etc.)  surpass  by  far  the  imports,  both 
in  quantity  and  value.     The  chief  seaports  are  Stettin,  Dant- 


460  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Prussia — its  Means  of  Education. 

zick,  K6nigsberg,  Memel,  and  Stralsund;  and  in  the  inland 
trade  are  principally  engaged :  Cologne,  Elberfeld,  Magdeburg, 
Berlin,  Breslau,  and  Frankfort  on  the  Oder.  It  has  been  com- 
puted that  the  Prussian  nation,  in  the  period  prior  to  the  year 
1806,  had  by  means  of  the  various  branches  of  industry,  hus- 
bandry, trading  business,  etc.,  upon  an  average,  an  annual  income 
of  about  147  million  Prussian  dollars,  which  in  1831  had  raised 
to  the  amount  of  321  million,  and  in  1843  to  that  of  nearly  461 
million  Prussian  dollars. 

What  has  been  stated,  page  287,  etc.,  about  the  means  of  education 
in  Germany,  may  in  substance  be  applied  to  Prussia.  The  acad- 
emies of  sciences  and  fine  arts  in  Berlin,  were  founded  respect- 
ively in  1701  and  1699.  About  the  universities  mt  Berlin  (in 
1846  with  1,608  students),  Halle  (with  777  students),  Breslau 
(with  749  students),  Bonn  (with  667  students),  and  Greifswald 
(with  212  students),  see  page  287.  The  university  at  Konigsberg 
was  founded  in  1543,  and  in  1846  frequented  by  317  students. 
Formerly  there  were  also  universities  at  Cologne  (founded  in 
1388),  Erfurt,  (1392),  Treves  (1472),  Wittenberg  (1502),  Frank- 
fort on  the  Oder  (1506),  Paderborn  (1615),  and  Duisburg 
(founded  in  1655),  which  however,  in  the  present  century,  have 
been  abolished  or  united  with  other  universities.  In  Munster 
and  Braunsberg,  are  Roman  Catholic  theological  faculties,  and  in 
other  places,  5  seminaries.  The  number  of  Protestant  theologi- 
cal seminaries  is  9,  and  that  of  seminaries  for  school  teachers 
amounts  to  41.  Besides  117  common  gymnasia,  there  are  6 
paedagogia,  or  gymnasia  arranged  in  a  similar  manner,  as  for 
instance  the  college  of  Eton  in  England,  and  3  others,  styled 
Ritteracademien.  Still  there  are  to  be  noticed  32  progymnasia, 
100  higher  secondary  schools  (in  1843  with  14,795  pupils),  658 
common  secondary  schools  (with  79,101  pupils),  and  23,646  pri- 


PRUSSIA.  4ci 


Government,  Public  Finances,  Army,  Orders  of  Honor. 

raary  schools,  which  in  1843  were  frequented  by  2,328,146  chil- 
dren. 

The  government  was  until  1847  an  absolute  monarchy,  as  the 
provincial  states  or  deputies,  introduced  in  1823  and  24,  had  only 
a  deliberative  vote.  By  decree  issued  on  the  3d  February,  1847, 
a  decisive  vote  was  conferred  upon  them,  though  only  in  matters 
concerning  taxes  and  public  debts.  Finally  the  revolution  in 
Berlin,  on  the  18th  March,  1848,  was  followed  by  a  constitution 
framed  on  modern  political  principles. 

According  to  the  budget  of  1844,  the  public  revenue  amounted 
to  57,677,194  Prussian  dollars,  and  the  expenditure  was  of  about 
the  same  amount.  The  public  debt  was  on  the  1st  January,  1843, 
to  the  amount  of  138,861,087  Prussian  dollars. 

The  regular  army  (guards  and  troops  of  the  line)  consists  on 
the  peace  footing  of  122,897  men.  But  this  army  can  in  time 
of  war  be  increased  to  about  553,000  men,  by  250,000  of  the 
reserve  and  landwehr  (militia)  of  the  first  summons,  and  by 
180,000  of  the  landwehr  of  the  second  summons.  The  troops 
which  Prussia  had  to  furnish  to  the  confederal  army,  amounted 
to  79.434  men.  The  number  of  fortresses  in  Prussia  amounts  to 
26.  The  sloop  of  war  which  Prussia  has,  is  more  a  plaything 
than  the  embryo  of  a  navy. 

There  are  the  following  orders  of  honor :  1.  The  order  of  the 
Black  Eagle,  instituted  on  the  18th  January,  1701,  in  one  class. 
2.  The  order  of  the  Red  Eagle,  instituted  in  1744,  renewed  in 
1792,  and  since  1830  in  4  classes.  3.  The  order  pour  le  Merite, 
instituted   in    1740,   and   since    1842,   in   two   distinct  classes. 

4.  The   order  of  St.   John,   instituted   in    1812,   in   one   class. 

5.  The  order  of  the  Iron  Cross,  instituted  in  1813,  in  2,  or  prop- 
erly 3  classes,  but  since  the  wars  in  1813-1815,  not  more  con- 
ferred. 6.  The  order  of  Louisa,  instituted  in  1814,  only  for 
ladies. 


462  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Prussia— its  History. 

History. — The  present  kingdom  of  Prussia  consists  of  more  than  50  ancient 
territories  of  the  German  empire,  united  in  the  last  four  centuries  by  way  of 
purchase,  conquering,  inheritance,  etc.  Brandenburg  is  the  basis  of  the  king- 
dom, and  was  conquered  by  Charlemagne,  who  subjected  it  to  the  authority 
of  margraves.  Since  it  was  styled  the  margraviate  of  Brandenburg,  which 
latter  name  was  derived  from  the  city  of  Brandenburg,  founded  by  Slavonian 
tribes  about  the  7th  century.  In  1142  Albert  surnamed  the  Bear,  son  of 
Earl  Otto  of  Ascania  (mentioned  in  the  History  of  Anhalt,  page  402),  be- 
came possessed  of  the  margraviate  of  Brandenburg,  and  bequeathed  it  to 
his  descendants,  who  became  extinct  in  1320,  when  the  margraviate  escheated 
as  a  fief  of  the  German  empire  to  the  emperor,  who  successively  invested 
several  German  princes  with  it,  until  at  last  the  burgrave  of  Nuremberg, 
Frederic  VI.  of  Hohenzollern,  became  possessed  both  of  the  margraviate  and 
the  electoral  dignity  in  1417.  (See  the  particulars,  pages  302  and  318.) 
Frederic,  as  elector  and  margrave  of  Brandenburg  Frederic  I,  died  in  1440, 
and  was  succeeded  by  the  following  descendants :  Frederic  II.  (+1471),  Al- 
bert, surnamed  Achilles  (+1486),  John,  surnamed  Cicero  (-{-1499),  Joachim  I, 
surnamed  Nestor  (+1535),  Joachim  II,  surnamed  Hector  (+1571),  John 
George  (+1598),  Joachim  Frederic  (+1608),  John  Sigismund  (+1619), 
George  William  (1640),  Frederic  William  (+1688)  and  Frederic  III,  who 
reigned  since  1688.  Meanwhile  the  territory  on  the  eastern  shores  of  the 
Baltic,  since  the  13th  and  14th  centuries  conquered  and  possessed  by  the 
Teutonic  Order  (see  pages  46  and  336),  and  known  by  the  name  of  Prussia, 
had  since  the  year  1525  been  transformed  into  a  duchy,  whose  second  duke 
Albert  IL  had  as  only  heirs  two  daughters,  who  were  married  the  one  to  the 
elector  Joachim  Frederic,  and  the  other  to  his  grandson,  the  elector  John 
Sigismund  of  Brandenburg,  who  in  this  way  inherited  the  duchy  of  Prussia 
in  1618,  and  bequeathed  it,  beside  the  margraviate  and  electorate,  to  his  de- 
scendants. His  grandson  Frederic  William,  acquired  moreover  considerable 
territories  in  Germany ;  and  Frederic  III.  (his  son)  having  added  new  acqui- 
sitions by  inheritance,  began  to  harbor  the  desire  of  adding  also  an  inde- 
pendent dignity  to  that  dependent  one  of  which  he  was  already  possessed  as 
prince  of  the  German  empire.  For  this  purpose  he  transformed  his  duchy 
of  Prussia  (which  had  politically  nothing  in  common  with -the  German  em- 
pire) into  a  kingdom,  and  let  himself  be  crowned  at  Konigsberg  as  King  of 
Prussia  on  the  18th  January,  1701.  He  died  as  King  Frederic  I.  in  1713, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Frederic  William  I,  who  in  some  respect  did 


PRUSSIA.  463 


History  of  Prussia. 


provide  for  the  true  welfare  of  his  people  in  a  more  proper  manner  than  his 
son  and  successor  Frederic  IL  When  he  ascended  the  throne,  he  found  the 
state  deeply  involved  in  debts  and  in  great  disorder ;  the  people  were  more 
or  less  impoverished,  extensive  tracts  of  arable  land  lay  waste,  and  most 
branches  of  industry  were  in  a  languishing  condition.  Frederic  William  was 
indeed  neither  a  learned  man,  nor  a  man  of  the  latest  French  fashion,  but  he 
was  endowed  with  common  sense,  and  thus  within  rather  few  years  all  pub- 
lic debts  were  paid,  the  waste  tracts  of  land  cultivated,  all  branches  of  hus- 
bandry and  industry  in  a  flourishing  state,  and  while  in  a  later  period  the 
public  revenue  had  increased  to  7£  million  Prussian  dollars  annually  (a  very 
considerable  amount  at  that  period),  the  taxes  had  at  the  same  time  been 
lowered  considerably.  When  Frederic  William  died  (on  the  31st  May,  1740), 
he  left  behind  9  millions  of  ready  money  in  the  public  treasury,  and  a  well- 
disciplined  army  of  70,000  men  to  his  eldest  son  and  successor  Frederic  II, 
whose  character  is  too  well  known  than  that  we  should  need  to  enter  in  any 
particulars  about  it.  Moreover  its  essential  point  is  already  alluded  to  in 
the  History  of  Europe,  pages  59  and  60.  But  for  the  circumstance  that 
Charles  VL  died  in  the  very  year  of  his  accession  and  left  behind  no  male 
descendants,  Frederic  would  never  have  dared  to  raise  his,  by  no  means  well- 
founded,  claims  upon  Silesia ;  and  but  for  the  constant  disunion  among  his 
enemies  in  the  field,  he  would  not  have  been  allowed  to  be  finally  success- 
ful in  the  seven  years'  war.  During  this  whole  period  he  had  continually 
some  poison  in  his  pocket,  for  the  purpose  of  suicide  in  case  of  total  failure. 
He  may  be  considered  as  the  author  of  the  atheistical  principles  that  since 
his  reign  began  to  become  fashionable  and  even  prevailing  in  Germany ;  and 
he  was  by  his  contemporaries  surnamed  the  Great,  more  on  account  of  that  he 
harbored  and  propagated  those  principles,  than  on  account  of  his  victories  on 
the  battle-field.  At  least  indirectly,  he  suggested  the  plan  for  dividing  Po- 
land ;  and  by  annexing  one  part  of  it  (in  1772),  beside  Silesia,  to  his  king- 
dom, he  indeed  had  finally  enlarged  the  latter  to  an  extent  of  74,827  square 
miles,  with  more  than  6  million  inhabitants.  But  he  considered  and  treated 
the  people  like  a  machinery,  and  put  all  his  trust  in  his  well-drilled  army  of 
200,000  men.  By  this  predilection  for  soldiery  he  has  done  great  mischief 
to  Germany  in  general,  whose  other  princes  were  induced  to  follow  his  ex- 
ample, thus  rearing  an  artificial  political  edifice  which  subsequently  was 
easily  overturned  by  Napoleon.  Frederic  II.  died  in  1786,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  nephew,  Frederic  William  II,  who  died  in  1797,  and  was  sue- 


464  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Prussia— its  Geographical  Divisions. 

ceeded  by  his  son,  Frederic  William  III.,  who  had  to  undergo  many  hard- 
ships and  troubles  since  his  total  defeat  on  the  14th  October,  1806,  at  Jena 
and  Anerstadt,  but  was  amply  indemnified  in  1814  and  15.  He  died  on  the 
7th  June,  1840,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  the  present  reigning 
Frederic  William  IV.,  born  on  the  15th  October,  1795. 


The  kingdom  of  Prussia  is  divided  in  8  provinces.  Each  prov- 
ince is  subdivided  into  governmental  districts,  and  each  of  the  lat- 
ter subdivided  into  circles,  as  they  are  styled.  Six  of  those  prov- 
inces (together  at  an  extent  of  71,696  square  miles,  with 
12,230.000  inhabitants)  formed  constituent  parts  of  the  Ger- 
man Confederation,  and  for  this  reason  we  shall  describe  them 
first,  and  finally  the  two  other  provinces.  (See  page  310.)  As 
the  governmental  districts  are  named  after  their  capitals,  we 
shall  mark  the  latter  with  a  cross  (+). 


I— THE  PROVINCE  OF  BRANDENBURG. 

Area:  15,634  square  miles. 
Population  :  2,020,000  inhabitants. 

This  province,  subdivided  into  the  governmental  districts  of 
Potsdam  and  Frankfort,  and  being  the  basis  of  the  whole  king- 
dom (see  above,  page  462),  comprises  in  substance  its  ancient  his- 
torical constituent  parts,  in  common  life  still  known  by  the  names 
of  Mittelmark  (central  margraviate),  Uckermark,  Priegnitz,  and 
Neumark  (new  margraviate). 

The  Mittelmark  contains:  Berlin,  the  metropolis  of  the  kingdom  and 
royal  residence  (at  least  in  the  winter  season),  on  the  Spree,  9  miles  above 


PRUSSIA.  465 


Province  of  Brandenburg. 


its  junction  with  the  Havel  (see  page  17),  south-eastward  and  186  miles  dis- 
tant from  Hamburg,  is  very  regularly  built,  and  one  of  the  finest  cities  in 
Europe,  and  had,  in  the  beginning  of  1846,  8,384  houses,  and  shortly  before 
the  revolution  of  March,  1848,  a  population  of  420,000  inhabitants,  that 
however  since  has  decreased  by  more  than  100,000  inhabitants,  who  have 
thence  emigrated.  Simultaneously  the  chief  sources  of  prosperity  are  dried 
up  in  this  city,  naturally  poor — much  more  so  than  most  of  the  other  Euro- 
pean capitals.  Many  of  its  factories  have,  since  that  event,  been  closed  for 
want  of  business,  while  others  have  been  spoiled  by  the  plundering  mob, 
and  even  by  operatives ;  and  the  effect  of  the  disturbances  on  the  general 
prosperity  of  the  city  has  been  disastrous.  The  most  remarkable  public 
edifices  of  Berlin  are :  the  royal  castle  or  palace  (reared  in  the  period  from 
1451  to  1716 ;  it  is  101  £  feet  high,  has  460  feet  in  front,  and  contains  more 
than  500  apartments),  the  arsenal  (a  quadrangle,  280  feet  long  and  broad), 
the  university  building  (reared  in  1154-1764  as  palace  of  King  Frederic  IL's 
brother  Henry),  the  opera-house  (265  feet  long  by  104  feet  broad),  the  royal 
museums,  eta  In  short,  it  would  take  up  too  much  room,  even  simply  to 
enumerate  all  the  magnificent  edifices  and  other  curiosities  of  Berlin.  Char- 
lottenburg,  a  town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Berlin,  has  7,800  inhabitants,  and 
is  noted  for  its  royal  palace  (reared  in  1705-10)  and  park.  Other  neighbor- 
ing and  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are:  Teltovo  (with  1,500  inhabitants), 
Oranienburg  (with  3,500  inhabitants),  Bernau  (with  3,800  inhabitants),  Lie- 
benwalde  (with  2,600  inhabitants),  Alt-Landsberg  (with  1,600  inhabitants), 
Kopenick  (with  2,750  inhabitants),  and  Mittenwalde  (with  2,100  inhabitants). 
-|-Potsdam,  a  city  on  the  Havel,  is  considered  as  royal  residence  second  in 
rank,  has  40,000  inhabitants,  and  a  manufactory  of  fire-arms,  and  is  noted  for 
its  military  orphan  asylum,  its  so-called  garrison  church  (with  the  sepulchres 
of  Frederic  William  L  and  Frederic  II),  its  city-hall,  and  royal  palace. 
Close  by  are  several  other  royal  palaces,  among  them  that  of  Sanssouci, 
reared  in  1745-47,  and  once  the  favorite  residence  of  Frederic  II.  Spandau, 
a  town  on  the  Havel,  at  its  junction  with  the  Spree  river,  is  noted  for  its  for- 
tress, and  has  9,300  inhabitants.  The  first  three  or  four  electors  of  Branden- 
burg from  the  house  of  Hohenzollern,  resided  in  Spandau.  Fehrbellin,  a 
town  at  the  former  high-road  between  Berlin  and  Hamburg,  has  1,700  inhab- 
itants, and  is  noted  in  history  for  a  battle  in  1675.  Brandenburg,  ancient 
capital  of  the  margraviate  of  Brandenburg,  on  the  Havel,  westward  and 
23  miles  distant  from  Potsdam,  has  16,400  inhabitants,  carries  on  a  rather 

20* 


466  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Province  of  Brandenburg. 


considerable  trade,  and  is  noted  for  several  ancient  edifices.  Rathenow,  or 
Rathenau,  a  town  on  the  Havel,  with  several  manufactures,  and  5,800  inhab- 
itants. Werder,  a  town  near  Potsdam,  has  2,250  inhabitants,  and  is  noted 
for  its  fruits.  Freienwalde,  a  town  near  the  Oder,  has  4,100  inhabitants, 
and  is  noted  for  its  mineral  waters.  Neustadt-Eberswalde,  a  town  at  the  Ber- 
lin and  Stettin  railroad,  has  5,400  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  mineral 
waters  and  manufactures  of  hardware.  Neustadt  an  der  Dosse,  a  town  on 
the  Dosse  river,  north-westward  and  60  miles  distant  from  Berlin,  has  only 
1,200  inhabitants,  but  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  looking-glasses.  Other 
more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are:  Friesack  (with  2,450  inhabitants), 
Treuenbrietzen  (with  4,900  inhabitants).  Written  (with  6,050  inhabitants), 
Wusterhausen  an  der  Dosse  (with  2,850  inhabitants),  Rheinsberg  (with  2,250 
inhabitants),  and  Ruppin  (with  cloth  and  woollen  manufactures,  and  10,000 
inhabitants). — The  Uckermark  contains:  Prenzlau  (officially  Prenzlow),  its 
ancient  capital,  72  miles  north-north-east  of  Berlin,  with  a  remarkable 
Gothic  church,  and  12,700  inhabitants.  Boitzenburg,  a  market-town,  has  800 
inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  the  magnificent  mansion  of  the  count  of  Arnun, 
in  recent  times  frequently  mentioned  as  Prussian  minister,  member  of  the 
legislative  chamber,  etc.  Templin,  a  town  on  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  with 
notable  town-hall,  manufactures,  and  3,500  inhabitants.  Angermunde,  a 
town  on  a  lake,  about  lialf-way  between  Berlin  and  Stettin,  with  cloth  man- 
ufactures, hosieries,  and  4,400  inhabitants.  Schwedt,  a  town  on  the  Oder,  28 
miles  south  of  Stettin,  with  7,150  inhabitants,  several  manufactures,  and  an 
ancient  castle,  formerly  the  seat  of  a  collateral  line  of  the  reigning  house  of 
Brandenburg.  Lychen  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Zehdenik  (with  3,000  inhab- 
itants), Vierraden  (with  1,700  inhabitants),  and  Joachimsthal  (with  1,750 
inhabitants). — The  Priegnitz  (also  called  Vormark)  contains:  Peeleberg, 
its  ancient  capital,  near  the  Berlin  and  Hamburg  railroad,  90  miles  north- 
west of  Berlin,  is  noted  for  its  flax  and  breweries,  and  has  6,000  inhabitants. 
Lenzen  (with  3,100  inhabitants),  Havelberg  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  Wilsnack 
(with  2,000  inhabitants),  Pnttlitz  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  Kyritz  (with  3,600 
inhabitants),  Pritzwalk  (with  4,600  inhabitants),  and  Mayenburg  (with  1,650 
inhabitants),  towns.  Wittstock,  a  town  on  the  Dosse,  with  cloth  and  linen 
manufactures,  and  6,450  inhabitants,  is  noted  in  history  for  a  battle  in  1636. 
Beeskow,  Storkow,  and  Buchholz,  towns  with  respectively  4,250,  1,800,  and 
950  inhabitants.  Luckenwalde,  a  town  30  miles  south  of  Berlin,  has  6,400 
inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  cloth  manufactures.    Zinna,  a  town  with 


PRUSSIA.  4C7 


Province  of  Brandenburg. 


manufactures,  and  1,850  inhabitants.  Juterbock,  a  town  at  the  Berlin  and 
Cothen  railroad,  has  5,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  in  history  for  two  battles 
in  1644  and  1813.  Baruth,  a  town  with  1,650  inhabitants,  and  a  palace  of 
the  count  of  Solms- Baruth. 

The  Mittelmark  (see  above)  contains :  -j-Frankfort,  surnamed  an  der  Oder, 
a  city  on  the  Oder  river,  55  miles  east-south-east  of  Berlin,  has  30,000  inhabi- 
tants, several  noted  ancient  public  edifices,  considerable  trade  and  manufac- 
tures, and  was  hitherto  noted  especially  for  its  annual  fairs,  which  are  at 
present  less  important  than  formerly.  The  above-mentioned  university, 
founded  here  in  1506,  was  in  1811  united  with  that  of  Breslau.  Fursten- 
walde,  a  town  on  the  Spree  river,  westward  and  20  miles  distant  from  Frank- 
fort, with  remarkable  church,  woollen  manufactures,  and  5,200  inhabitants. 
Other  more  or  less  notable  towns  are:  Zebus  (with  1,850  inhabitants), 
Muncheberg  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  Seelow  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  Mull- 
rose  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  Buckow  (noted  for  its  hops,  has,  1,500  in- 
habitants). The  village  of  Kunnersdorf,  5  miles  east  of  Frankfort,  is  noted 
for  the  battle  on  the  22d  August,  1*759,  in  which  Frederic  IL  was  totally  de- 
feated.— The  Neumark  (see  above)  contains :  Kuestrin,  its  ancient  capital, 
on  the  Oder,  at  its  junction  with  the  "Warthe,  northward  and  18  miles  dis- 
tant from  Frankfort,  is  noted  for  its  fortress,  and  has  8,500  inhabitants.  Kb- 
nigsberg,  surnamed  in  der  Neumark,  a  town  near  the  frontier  of  Pomerania, 
with  remarkable  ancient  town-hall,  2  notable  churches,  some  manufactures, 
and  5,200  inhabitants.  The  towns  of  Zullichau  (with  5,400  inhabitants), 
Krossen  (with  7,250  inhabitants),  Cottbus  (with  8,500  inhabitants),  and  Neu- 
damm  (with  3,250  inhabitants),  are  noted  for  their  cloth  manufactures.  Lands- 
berg,  surnamed  an  der  Warthe,  a  city  on  the  Warthe  river,  north-eastward 
and  30  miles  distant  from  Kustrin,  with  important  corn  and  wool  trade,  and 
12,000  inhabitants.  Barwalde,  a  town  southward  and  14  miles  distant  from 
Konigsberg  in  der  Neumark,  has  3,300  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  in  history  for 
a  convention  concluded  here  on  the  13th  June,  1631,  between  Sweden  and 
France.  Other  towns  are :  Soldin  (with  5,900  inhabitants),  Berlinchen  (with 
3,800  inhabitants),  Lippehne  (with  2,850  inhabitants),  Bernstein  (with  1.950 
inhabitants),  Friedeberg  (with  4,800  inhabitants),  Driesen  (with  3,900  inhabi- 
tants), Woldenberg  (with  3,500  inhabitants),  Arnswalde  (with  5,200  inhabi- 
tants), and  Konigswalde  (with  1,450  inhabitants).  Schwiebus,  a  town  in  a 
fertile  district,  eastward  and  40  miles  distant  from  Frankfort,  with  consid- 
erable cloth  manufactures,  and  4,900  inhabitants. — Lower  Lusatia  (see  page 


468  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Prussia.— Provinces  of  Brandenburg  and  Pomerania. 

385),  which  in  1815  was  annexed  to  Prussia,  contains:  Luckau,  ancient  capi- 
tal of  Lower  Lusatia,  48  miles  south-south-east  of  Berlin,  with  remarkable 
Gothic  church,  cloth  manufactures,  and  4,500  inhabitants.  Sorau,  a  town 
near  the  frontier  of  Silesia,  is  noted  for  its  wax  candles,  and  has  7,500  inhab- 
itants. Kalau,  a  town  on  the  Dober  river,  has  2,300  inhabitants,  and  is  noted 
for  the  vast  amount  of  boots  and  shoes  made  in  it.  Lubben,  a  town  on  the 
Spree  river,  with  several  remarkable  churches,  cloth  and  linen  manufactures, 
and  4,800  inhabitants.  Lubbenau,  a  town  on  the  Spree  river,  with  3,300  in- 
habitants, and  a  palace  of  the  count  of  Lynar.  Guben,  a  town  on  the  Neisse 
river,  has  11,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  cloth  manufactures.  Other 
more  or  less  notable  towns  are:  Dobriluck  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Sprem- 
berg  (with  4,650  inhabitants),  Forste  (with  3,650  inhabitants),  and  Lieberose 
(with  1,600  inhabitants).  Senftenberg,  Finsterwalde,  and  Sonnenwalde,  towns 
with  respectively  1,450,  4,800,  and  1,150  inhabitants. 


IL— THE  PROVINCE  OF  POMERANIA. 

•i 
Akea:  12,233  square  miles. 
Population  :  1,166,000  inhabitants. 

Pomerania,  extending  along  the  Baltic  Sea,  which  here  re- 
ceives the  Oder,  was  primitively  inhabited  by  Germanic,  and 
since  the  6th  century  by  Slavonic  tribes.  However,  since  the 
propagation  of  Christianity  in  this  quarter,  or  since  the  12th 
century,  many  Germans  settled  here,  and  became  at  last  predom- 
inant. Pomerania  was  at  first  under  the  sway  of  Slavonic  chiefs, 
and  subsequently  ruled  by  one  common  prince.  The  first  his- 
torically known  or  remarkable  prince  of  Pomerania  was  Svanti- 
bor  Z,  who  died  in  1 107,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  two  sons,  who 
divided  the  country,  the  elder  taking  the  western  part  (since 
known  by  the  general  name  of  Fore  Pomerania),  and  the  younger 


PRUSSIA.  469 


Province  of  Pomerania. 


of  the  eastern  part  (since  called  Back  Pomerania).  In  1 1 82  the 
princes  of  Pomerania  were  by  Emperor  Frederic  I.  endowed  with 
the  privileges  of  actual  membership  of  the  German  empire,  and 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  dukes.  In  1325  the  principality  of  Ru- 
gen  (comprising  the  island  of  the  same  name)  was  inherited  and 
annexed  to  Pomerania,  which  was  united  in  one  single  duchy  in 
1625  by  Duke  Bolislav  XIII.  With  the  latter'sson  and  succes- 
sor, duke  Bolislav  XIV.,  the  reigning  house  of  Pomerania  became 
extinct  in  1637.  According  to  former  agreements  between  the 
dukes  of  Pomerania  and  the  electors  of  Brandenburg,  the  latter 
had  indeed  well-founded  claims  upon  the  inheritance.  However, 
Sweden,  which  was  to  be  indemnified  for  its  losses  and  assistance 
to  the  Protestant  cause  in  the  thirty  years'  war,  became  possessed 
of  the  greatest  part  of  Pomerania,  while  Brandenburg  acquired 
only  parts  of  Back  Pomerania.  In  1720  Sweden  ceded  other 
parts  of  Back  Pomerania  to  Prussia,  which  in  1815  became  also 
possessed  of  Fore  Pomerania  and  Bugen  (see  page  419).  The 
present  province  of  Pomerania  is  subdivided  into  the  govern- 
mental districts  of  Stettin,  Stralsund  and  Coslin. 

Prussian  Fore  Pomerania  (thus  styled  since  1720)  contains:  -|-Stettin, 
ancient  capital  of  all  Pomerania,  on  the  Oder,  94  miles  north-north-east  of 
Berlin,  is  strongly  fortified,  and  to  be  considered  as  the  chief  commercial 
city  and  seaport  of  Prussia,  is  at  the  same  time  noted  for  its  manufactures, 
and  has  45,000  inhabitants.  Its  royal  palace,  until  1637  the  residence  of  the 
dukes  of  Pomerania,  is  very  extensive,  and  was  reared  in  1577.  Swinemunde, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Swine  river  into  the  Baltic  Sea,  is  the  actual  seaport 
of  Stettin,  and  resorted  to  for  sea-bathing,  and  has  4,200  inhabitants.  Swine- 
munde is  situated  on  the  isle  of  Usedom,  which  in  the  early  part  of  the 
middle  ages  was  renowned  for  its  emporium,  named  Vineta  or  Wineda.  The 
town  of  Wollin  (with  timber  trade  and  4,100  inhabitants)  is  situated  on  the 
isle  of  the  same  name,  and  stands  on  the  same  spot  where  in  the  middle 
ages  the  powerful  commercial  city  of  Julin  (destroyed  in  1170)  stood. 
Qarz  (with  4,400  inhabitants),  Damm  (with  3,100  inhabitants),  Politz  (with 


470  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Prussia.— Province  of  Pomerania. 

2,600  inhabitants),  and  Penkuu  (with  1,750  inhabitants),  towns  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Stettin.  Anclam,  Demmiii,  and  Jarmen,  towns  on  the  Peene 
river,  with  respectively  8,500,  7,000,  and  1,700  inhabitants.  Demmin  was 
extant  so  early  as  in  540,  and  a  celebrated  city  in  the  days  of  Charle- 
magne. Uckermunde,  a  town  on  the  Ucker  river,  and  near  the  Little  Half, 
north-westward  and  42  miles  distant  from  Stettin,  with  a  remarkable  ancient 
castle,  and  3,700  inhabitants.  Pasewalk,  a  town  on  the  Ucker  river,  with 
noted  breweries,  and  6,850  inhabitants.  Gollnow,  a  town  with  some  manu- 
factures, and  5,600  inhabitants,  was  in  the  middle  ages  an  actual  member  of 
the  Hanseatic  League. — Back  Pomerania  contains:  Stargard,  its  ancient 
capital,  on  the  Ihna  river,  30  miles  east-south  east  of  Stettin,  with  a  remarkable 
ancient  church,  several  important  branches  of  industry,  and  13,200  inhabi- 
tants. Naugard,  a  town  on  a  lake,  with  remarkable  church,  a  house  of  correc- 
tion, and  3,600  inhabitants.  Greiffenberg,  a  town  on  the  Rega  river,  north-east- 
ward and  46  miles  distant  from  Stettin,  is  noted  for  its  linen  manufactures, 
and  has  4,600  inhabitants.  It  is  situated  northward  and  220  miles  distant 
from  Greiffenberg  in  Silesia,  which  accidentally  is  likewise  renowned  for  its 
linens.  Greiffenhagen,  a  town  on  the  Reglitz  river,  with  some  cloth  manu- 
factures, and  5,300  inhabitants.  Pyritz,  a  town  in  a  fertile  district,  south- 
eastward and  30  miles  distant  from  Stettin,  has  5,500  inhabitants,  and  was 
anciently  very  remarkable.  In  a  well  here,  the  first  Pomeranians  who  em- 
braced the  Christian  creed  (7,000  in  number)  were  baptized,  in  1124.  Lobes 
and  Regenwalde,  towns  with  respectively  3,350  and  2,500  inhabitants.  Kam- 
min  or  Cammin,  a  town  at  the  mouth  of  the  Divenow,  into  the  Baltic  Sea, 
has  3,600  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  churches  and  flax,  and  was  until  1650 
the  seat  of  a  sovereign  bishopric,  instituted  in  1128. 

Ancient  Fore,  or  Swedish  Pomerania  (see  above),  contains :  -J-Stralsund, 
its  ancient  capital,  on  Strait  Gellen  (which  separates  the  island  of  Rxigen 
from  continental  Pomerania),  northward  and  170  miles  distant  from  Ber- 
lin, is  fortified,  and  noted  for  its  commerce,  shipping  business,  and  manu- 
factures, and  has  18,500  inhabitants.  Stralsund  ranked  among  the  most 
noted  members  of  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  is  also  renowned  in  military 
history.  Barth,  a  commercial  town  on  a  little  bay  of  the  Baltic,  has  4,800 
inhabitants.  Other  towns  are :  Dammgarten  (with  linen  manufactures,  and 
1,500  inhabitants),  Grimmen  (with  2,900  inhabitants),  and  Tribsees,  or  Trib- 
besee  (with  2,800  inhabitants).  A  very  ancient  city,  at  present  noted  for  its 
commerce  and  shipping  business,  is  Wolgast,  near  the  Baltic  Sea,  with  5,350 


PRUSSIA.  471 


Province  of  Pomerania. 


inhabitants.  Greifswald,  a  city  near  the  Baltic  Sea,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a  canal,  south-eastward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Stralsund,  has 
12,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  university  (see  above  and  page  287), 
its  commerce  and  its  salt-works.  The  neighboring  ancient  Cistercian  abbey 
of  Eldena,  is  at  present  noted  for  its  academy  for  political  economy. — The 
island  of  Rugen  (426  square  miles,  and  40,000  inhabitants),  the  largest  of 
all  German  islands,  is  separated  by  a  strait  called  Gellen,  and  only  1  mile 
wide,  from  continental  Pomerania  (see  above  undei  the  head  of  Stralsund), 
and  is  noted  both  for  the  fertility  of  its  soil  and  the  beauty  of  its  natural 
sceneries.  In  the  early  times  of  the  middle  ages,  it  was  the  chief  seat  of 
idolatry  on  the  part  of  Slavonic  tribes,  and  many  prisoners  taken  among 
the  neighboring  Christians,  were  immolated  on  its  bloody  altars.  Finally, 
King  Waldemar  I.  of  Denmark,  who  in  1169  conquered  the  island,  put  an 
end  to  these  abominations,  and  since  then  the  inhabitants  embraced  the 
Christian  creed.  The  native  princes  of  the  island  continued  to  be  vassals  of 
the  Danish  crown  until  in  1325,  when  they  became  extinct,  Rugen  was 
inherited  by  the  duke  of  Pomerania  (see  above).  There  are  to  be  noticed 
here:  Bergen,  ancient  capital  of  the  island,  situated  in  its  centrex  was 
founded  in  1190,  and  has  3,150  inhabitants.  Puttbus,  a  market-town,  and 
residence  of  the  dependent  prince  of  the  same  name,  and  descendant  of  the 
native  princes  of  Rugen  (see  above),  is  noted  as  a  watering-place,  and  for 
its  handsome  princely  palace  and  park.  Other  market-towns  are  Gingst 
(with  800  inhabitants),  and  Sagard  (with  1,000  inhabitants).  On  a  cape  of 
the  western  coast,  at  present  with  a  lighthouse,  stood  anciently  the  renowned 
stronghold  of  Arcona.     The  town  of  Garz  has  1,750  inhabitants. 

Back  Pomerania  (see  above)  contains :  -{-Coslin,  at  present  the  capital  of 
the  governmental  district  of  the  same  name,  near  the  Baltic  Sea,  north-east- 
ward and  85  miles  distant  from  Stettin,  has  8,350  inhabitants.  Colberg  or 
Kolberg,  a  strongly  fortified  city  near  the  mouth  of  the  Persante  into  the 
Baltic,  westward  and  22  miles  distant  from  Coslin,  has  8,700  inhabitants, 
several  remarkable  churches,  salt-works,  commerce  and  fishery,  and  is  noted 
in  military  history.  Anciently  Colberg  was  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Cas- 
mben,  at  present  only  mentioned  in  history.  Rugenwalde,  a  commercial 
town  near  the  Baltic,  is  noted  for  various  branches  of  industry,  and  has  5,000 
inhabitants.  Stolpe,  a  maritime  and  commercial  town,  near  the  Baltic,  north- 
eastward and  45  miles  distant  from  Coslin,  and  westward  and  70  miles  dis- 
tant from  Dantzick,  has  9,600  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  articles  made 


472  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Prussia.— Provinces  of  Pomerania  and  Silesia. 

of  yellow  amber.  Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are  :  C'orlin  (with 
2,500  inhabitants),  Bublitz  (with  3,100  inhabitants),  Belgard  (with  3,700  in- 
habitants), Polzin  (with  3,150  inhabitants),  Neustettin  (with  4,300  inhabitants), 
Tempelburg  (with  3,500  inhabitants),  and  Rummelsburg  (with  3,350  inhabi- 
tants).— Schiefelbein  (with  3,650  inhabitants),  Dramburg  (with  3,500  inhabi- 
tants), and  Callies  (with  3,000  inhabitants)  are  towns  situated  within  the 
limits  of  the  Neumark  (see  back). 


IIL— THE  PROVINCE  OF  SILESIA. 

Area:  15,799  square  miles. 
Population  :  3,065,800  inhabitants. 

Silesia,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Oder,  was  anciently 
inhabited  by  Quades  and  Lygians  or  Elysians,  two  Germanic 
tribes,  who  about  the  middle  of  the  6th  century  were  dispossessed 
by  Slavonic  tribes.  In  the  10th  century  Silesia  came  under  the 
sway  of  the  dukes  of  Poland,  but  since  the  year  1 163  it  was  ruled 
by  independent  princes  or  dukes,  descendants  of  King  Wladislav 
II.  of  Poland.  There  were  at  first  three,  but  subsequently  two 
dukes,  who  reigned  the  one  in  Upper  Silesia  (answering  to  the 
present  governmental  district  of  Oppeln),  and  the  other  in 
Lower  Silesia  (comprising  the  remainder  of  Silesia,  with  one  ex- 
ception). In  the  course  of  time  several  collateral  lines  sprung 
up,  and  since  the  middle  of  the  13th  century  the  Silesian  princes 
submitted  spontaneously  to  the  feudal  sovereignty  of  the  kings 
of  Bohemia.  How  since  the  year  1740  Prussia  became  possessed 
of  Silesia,  has  been  already  alluded  to  (page  463).  According  to 
the  terms  of  the  treaties  of  peace  concluded  in  1742,  1745  and 


PRUSSIA.  473 

The  Province  of  Silesia. 


1763,  Austria  (whose  sovereign  was  since  1440  at  the  same  time 
the  sovereign  of  Bohemia)  ceded  Upper  and  Lower  Silesia,  to- 
gether with  the  Silesian  earldom  of  Glatz,  to  Prussia,  and  re- 
tained only  the  Silesian  principalities  of  Teschen,  Troppau  and 
Jagerndorf.  The  present  province  of  Silesia  is  subdivided  into 
the  governmental  districts  of  Breslau,  Liegnitz  and  Oppeln.    " 

Lower  Silesia  (see  above)  contains :  -f-I3aESLAU,  ancient  capital  of  all  Sile- 
sia, and  considered  as  the  third  royal  residence  (see  under  the  head  of  Pots- 
dam), on  the  Oder,  south-eastward  and  220  miles  distant  from  Berlin,  and 
north-eastward  and  156  miles  distant  from  Prague,  had  at  the  end  of  the 
year  1846  a  population  of  112,798  inhabitants,  among  whom  were  32,904  Ro- 
man Catholics  and  7,057  Jews,  the  remainder  consisting  of  Evangelicals. 
Breslau  carries  on  a  very  extensive  inland  trade,  especially  in  wool,  has  nu- 
merous manufactures,  and  is  noted  for  its  literary  institutions,  among  which 
ranks  first  the  university  (see  above  and  page  287).  The  Gothic  cathedral, 
and  besides  it  the  city-hall,  the  royal  palace,  etc.,  are  very  notable.  The 
neighboring  village  of  Leuthen  (with  600  inhabitants)  is  noted  in  history  for 
a  battle  in  1757.  Brieg,  a  city  on  the  Oder,  25  miles  above  Breslau,  with  a 
remarkable  ancient  castle,  cloth  manufactures,  considerable  cattle  marts,  and 
12,250  inhabitants.  Schweidnitz,  a  fortified  city  near  the  Bohemian  frontier, 
south-westward  and  33  miles  distant  from  Breslau,  with  considerable  trade, 
and  12,700  inhabitants.  Zobten,  a  town  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  of  the 
same  name  (see  page  7),  with  1,700  inhabitants.  Freiburg,  surnamed  unterm 
Furstenstein,  a  town  on  the  Polsnitz  river,  with  4,100  inhabitants.  The  sur- 
name of  Freiburg  is  derived  from  Furstenstein,  a  magnificent  and  romantic- 
ally situated  mountain  castle  of  the  count  of  Hochberg-Furstenstein.  The 
village  of  Salzbrunn  is  noted  for  its  mineral  waters,  and  annually  visited  by 
many  strangers.  Reichenbach,  a  manufacturing  town  at  the  Eulengebirge 
(see  page  7),  with  considerable  trade,  and  5,400  inhabitants.  Other  more  or 
less  remarkable  towns  are :  Namslau  (with  4,100  inhabitants),  Newnarkt 
(with  4,150  inhabitants),  Olau  (with  5,800  inhabitants),  Strehlen  (with  4,800 
inhabitants),  Nimptsch  (with  2,100  inhabitants),  Striegau  (with  5,100  inhabi- 
tants), Waldenburg  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Wolau  (with  2,500  inhabitants), 
Steinau  (with  2,700  inhabitants),  and  Chirau  (with  3,900  inhabitants).  Within 
the  limits  of  Upper  Silesia  are  situated  the  towns  of  Silberberg  (noted 


474  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

t — 1 

Prussia. — Province  of  Silesia. 

for  its  strong  fortress,  has  2,000  inhabitants),  Munsterberg  (with  4,600 
inhabitants),  Wartha  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  Frankenstein  (with  6,200  in- 
habitants), and  Reichenstein  (with  2,200  inhabitants).  The  earldom  of  Glalz 
(in  reality  only  a  Silesian  dominion,  which  in  1462  was  raised  to  the  dignity 
of  an  earldom)  contains:  Glatz,  its  ancient  capital  on  the  Neisse,  60  miles 
south-south-west  of  Breslau,  has  10,200  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  for- 
tress. Habelschwerdt,  a  town  on  the  Neisse,  southward  and  9  miles  distant 
from  Glatz,  with  various  important  manufactures,  and  3,200  inhabitants. 
Other  towns  are:  Reiner z  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Lewin (with  1,450  inhabi- 
tants), and  Mittelwalde  (with  1,900  inhabitants).  The  above  (under  the  head 
of  Brunswick)  mentioned  dependent  principality  of  Oels  (681  £  square  miles, 
and  100,000  inhabitants),  contains  :  Oels,  its  capital,  on  the  Oelsa  river,  18 
miles  north-east  of  Breslau,  with  an  extensive  ducal  palace,  and  6,200  inhabi- 
tants. Trebnitz,  a  manufacturing  town,  with  4,200  inhabitants.  Juliusburg 
and  Bernstadt,  towns  with  respectively  1,100  and  3,800  inhabitants.  The  fol- 
lowing towns  are  capitals  of  dependent  dominions  of  the  same  names,  and 
belonging  to  various  princes :  Wartenberg  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  Trachen- 
berg  (with  2,600  inhabitants),  Militsch  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  Freihan  (with 
1,100  inhabitants),  and  Sulau  (with  800  inhabitants). 

Lower  Silesia  (see  above)  contains  moreover :  -J-Liegnitz,  the  capital  of  the 
governmental  district  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Katzbach,  westward  and  36 
miles  distant  from  Breslau,  is  noted  for  its  college  styled  Ritteracademie,  its 
ancient  castle  or  palace,  and  greens,  and  has  14,200  inhabitants.  On  the  9th 
April,  1241,  a  very  bloody  battle  was  fought  in  its  neighborhood  between  the 
Germans  and  the  Moguls.  Goldberg,  a  town  on  the  Katzbach,  is  noted  for 
its  cloth  manufactures,  and  has  7,500  inhabitants.  Glogau,  a  city  on  the 
Oder,  north-westward  and  80  miles  distant  from  Breslau,  has  14,750  inhabi- 
tants, and  is  noted  for  its  fortress,  its  ancient  cathedral  and  industry.  Grun- 
berg,  a  city  at  the  high-road  between  Breslau  and  Berlin,  with  10,500  inhabi- 
tants, cloth  and  other  manufactures,  and  vine  culture  on  a  large  scale,  though 
the  wine  produced  is  by  no  means  of  an  excellent  quality.  Jauer,  a  town  on 
the  Neisse  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Riesengebirge,  has  6,650  inhabitants,  and 
considerable  trade  in  corn,  and  is  noted  for  its  gloves  and  sausages.  Bunz- 
lau,  a  town  on  the  Bober,  has  6,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  potteries. 
The  towns  of  Hirschberg  (romantically  situated  at  the  northern  foot  of  the 
Riesengebirge,  with  7,500  inhabitants),  Schmiedeberg  (at  the  foot  of  the 
Schneekoppe,  with  3,600  inhabitants),  Lowenberg  (with  4,400  inhabitants), 


PRUSSIA.  475 


The  Province  of  Silesia. 


Oreiffenberg  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  Friedeberg  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  and 
Laridshut  (with  4,150  inhabitants),  are  noted  for  their  linens.  The  market- 
town  of  Warmbrunn  (with  a  handsome  palace  of  the  count  of  Schaffgotsch, 
and  1,900  inhabitants),  is  noted  and  much  resorted  to  as  a  watering-place. 
The  village  of  Stohnsdorf  (with  800  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  beer. 
Naumburg,  surnamed  am  Quels  (with  1,750  inhabitants),  Bolkenhain  (with 
1,900  inhabitants),  Deutsch-  Wartenberg  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Hohenfried- 
berg  (with  850  inhabitants),  Liebau  (with  2,100  inhabitants),  and  Schomberg 
(with  2,200  inhabitants),  more  or  less  noted  towns.  Sagan,  the  capital  of  the 
dependent  principality  of  the  same  name  (since  1842  belonging  to  the  prince 
of  Hohenzollern-Hechingen,  and  having  426  square  miles  in  extent,  with  41,000 
inhabitants),  on  the  Bober,  westward  and  35  miles  distant  from  Glogau,  with 
stately  palace  of  the  prince,  considerable  corn  trade,  and  7,200  inhabitants. 
Naumburg,  surnamed  am  Bober  (with  950  inhabitants),  Priebus  (with  1,200 
inhabitants),  and  Freiwaldau  (with  800  inhabitants),  towns  of  this  principality 
Beuthen,  a  town  on  the  Oder,  14  miles  west-north-west  of  Glogau,  with  3,800 
inhabitants,  is  the  capital,  and  Garolath  (with  princely  palace,  and  750  inhabi- 
tants), a  market-town  of  the  dependent  principality  of  Carolath  (96  square 
miles,  and  10,000  inhabitants),  belonging  to  the  prince  of  Carolath- Be  uthen. 
That  part  of  Upper  Lusatia  (see  under  the  head  of  Saxony,  page  385) 
Prussia  became  possessed  of  in  1815,  contains:  G6aLiTz,a  city  on  the  Neisse, 
westward  and  60  miles  distant  from  Liegnitz,  and  eastward  and  66  miles  dis- 
tant from  Dresden,  has  several  remarkable  public  edifices,  and  16,000  inhabi- 
tants, and  is  noted  for  its  literary  institutions  and  cloth  manufactures.  Lau- 
ban,  a  city  on  the  Queis  river,  with  remarkable  ancient  church,  some  manu- 
factures, inland  trade,  and  6,150  inhabitants.  Hoyerswerda,  a  town  on  the 
Black  Elster,  has  2,300  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  the  vast  amount  of  boots 
and  shoes  made  here.  Niesky,  a  market-town,  with  a  paedagogium  or  col- 
lege, and  700  inhabitants,  being  Moravian  Brethren.  Muskau,  a  town  on  the 
Neisse,  has  2,100  inhabitants,  and  is  the  capital  of  a  dependent  principality 
of  the  same  name,  since  1846  belonging  to  the  prince  Frederic  of  the  Nether- 
lands. 

Upper  Silesia  (see  back)  contains :  -|-Oppeln,  its  ancient  capital,  on  the 
Oder,  64  miles  above  Breslau,  with  remarkable  city -hall  and  royal  palace,  con- 
siderable cattle-marts,  and  7,900  inhabitants.  The  neighboring  village  of  Mala- 
pane  is  noted  for  its  important  iron-works.  Kosel,  a  strongly  fortified  town 
on  the  Oder,  with  linen  and  cloth  manufactures,  and  3,700  inhabitants.     The 


476  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Prussia.— Province  of  Silesia. 

village  of  Gnadenfeld  is  noted  for  a  theological  seminary  of  the  Moravian 
Brethren.  The  market-town  of  Schlawentzitz  or  Slawensik  is  remarkable  as 
capital  of  a  dependent  dominion  of  the  same  name,  belonging  to  the  prince 
of  Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen.  Ober-Glogan,  a  town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ko- 
sel,  with  a  remarkable  ancient  castle,  and  3,750  inhabitants.  Other  more  or 
less  remarkable  towns  are :  Gleiwitz  (with  a  noted  iron-foundry,  and  1,400  in- 
habitants), Gross- Strehlitz  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Ujest  (with  2,450  inhabi- 
tants), Lublinitz  (with  2,250  inhabitants),  Rosenberg  (with  2,850  inhabitants), 
and  Kreuzburg  (with  3,800  inhabitants).  Ratibor,  a  city  on  the  Oder,  50 
miles  above  Oppeln,  and  near  the  frontier  of  Austrian  Silesia,  carries  on  a  con- 
siderable trade,  especially  in  grain,  has  7,900  inhabitants,  and  is  the  capital 
of  a  dependent  principality  of  the  same  name,  since  1834  belonging  to  the 
prince  of  Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst.  Pless,  a  town  near  the  frontier  of  Ga- 
licia,  south-eastward  and  64  miles  from  Oppeln,  has  3,550  inhabitants,  and 
is  the  capital  of  the  dependent  principality  of  the  same  name,  mentioned  un- 
der the  head  of  Anhalt,  page  405.  Beuthen  (south-eastward  and  48  miles 
distant  from  Oppeln,  with  5,150  inhabitants)  is  the  capital  of  a  dependent  do- 
minion of  the  same  name  (298  square  miles,  and  40,000  inhabitants),  belong- 
ing to  the  count  Henkel  of  Donnersmark,  and  within  whose  limits  is  also 
situated  the  celebrated  mining  town  of  Tarnowitz  (with  3,900  inhabitants). 
Neisse,  a  strongly  fortified  city  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  south-west- 
ward and  34  miles  distant  from  Oppeln,  has  16,400  inhabitants,  and  is  the 
capital  of  a  dependent  principality  of  the  same  name  (511  square  miles,  and 
105,000  inhabitants),  belonging  to  the  bishop  of  Breslau.  Other  towns  of 
this  princpality  are :  Patschkau  (with  linen  and  woollen  manufactures,  and 
4,000  inhabitants),  Ziegenhals  (with  noted  linen  manufactures,  and  3,700 
inhabitants),  Grotkau  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  and  Ottmachau  (with  2,900 
inhabitants).  The  towns  of  Hultschin  (with  2,600  inhabitants),  Bauerwitz 
(with  2,600  inhabitants),  and  Leobschutz  (with  6,800  inhabitants),  belong  to 
the  prince  of  Liechtenstein  (see  page  350).  The  town  of  Katscher  (with 
linen  manufactures,  and  2,750  inhabitants)  is  situated  in  a  district  known 
by  the  name  of  Prussian  Moravia,  and  belonging  to  the  archbishop  of 
Olmutz. 


PRUSSIA.  477 


The  Province  of  Saxony. 


IV.— THE  PROVINCE  OF  SAXONY. 

Area:  9,818$  square  miles. 
Population:  1,742,500  inhabitants. 

It  is  situated  between  the  Elbe,  Hartz,  and  Thuringerwald,  is 
subdivided  into  the  governmental  districts  of  Magdeburg,  Merse- 
burg,  and  Erfurt,  and  comprises  in  substance:  1.  The  northern 
half  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1815  (see 
page  380).  2.  The  so-called  Altmark  (historically  forming  a  con- 
stituent part  of  the  ancient  margraviate  of  Brandenburg). 
3.  The  ancient  duchy  of  Magdeburg.  4.  The  ancient  principality 
of  Halberstadt.  5.  Ancient  dominions  and  territories  of  the  for- 
mer electorate  of  Meniz,  etc. 

The  duchy  of  Magdeburg,  primitively  an  independent  archbishopric,  institu- 
ted in  967,  which  in  1648  was  secularized,  and  in  1680  annexed  to  the  elec- 
torate of  Brandenburg  (i.  e.  to  the  present  Prussia,  by  the  title  of  a  duchy), 
contains :  -|-Magdeburg,  the  capital  of  the  province,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Elbe,  110  miles  south-west  of  Berlin,  and  130  miles  south-east  of  Hamburg, 
has  68,500  inhabitants,  is  strongly  fortified,  and  is  highly  renowned,  not  only 
for  its  extensive  inland  trade  and  manufactures,  but  also  for  its  architectural 
monuments,  among  which  ranks  first  the  very  handsome  Gothic  cathedral, 
reared  in  the  period  from  1211  to  1363.  It  was  one  of  the  few  buildings 
that  remained  unhurt  in  the  conflagration  occasioned  by  the  storming  of 
Magdeburg  on  the  10th  May,  1631.  Burg,  a  city  on  the  Bile  river,  14  miles 
north-north-east  of  Magdeburg,  has  14,800  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for 
its  cloth  manufactures.  Neuhaldensleben  (a  town,  with  4,800  inhabitants)  and 
Althaldensleben  (a  village,  with  2,000  inhabitants)  are  noted  for  their  numer- 
ous and  various  manufactures.  Schdnebeck,  a  town  at  the  railroad  between 
Magdeburg  and  Cothen,  has  8,200  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  salt-works 
and  chemical  articles.  The  neighboring  town  of  Gross-Salze,  with  2,700 
inhabitants,  is  likewise  noted  for  its  salt-springs,  and  much  resorted  to  for 
bathing.    Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are :  Kalbe  (with  noted  man- 


478  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Prussia.— Province  of  Saxony. 

ufactures,  and  5,750  inhabitants),  Wanzleben  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  Aken 
(with  4,400  inhabitants),  Stassfurth  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  Wollmirstadt 
(with  3,500  inhabitants),  and  Genthin  (with  2,500  inhabitants).— The  above- 
mentioned  so-called  Altmark  contains :  Stendal,  its  ancient  capital,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  northward  and  40  miles  distant  from  Magdeburg,  with 
remarkable  ancient  churches,  woollen  manufactures,  and  6,700  inhabitants. 
Salzwedel,  a  city  near  the  frontier  of  Hanover,  with  celebrated  ancient 
churches,  noted  cloth  manufactures,  and  8,000  inhabitants.  Tangermunde, 
a  town  on  the  Elbe,  at  its  junction  with  the  Tanger  river,  has  4,400  inhabi- 
tants, and  noted  breweries,  and  is  distinguished  in  history  for  its  having  been 
the  residence  of  the  first  elector  of  Brandenburg  from  the  house  of  Hohen- 
zollern,  whose  son,  the  elector  Frederic  IL,  was  born  here  in  1413.  Other 
more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are:  Ameburg  (with  1,700  inhabitants),  Bis- 
mark  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  Osterburg  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  Werben 
(with  2,000  inhabitants),  Arendsee  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  and  Gardelegen 
(with  5,400  inhabitants). — The  ancient  principality  of  Halberstadt  primitively 
an  independent  bishopric,  instituted  in  814,  and  secularized  in  1648,  when  it 
was,  by  the  title  of  principality,  annexed  to  the  electorate  of  Brandenburg, 
contains:  Halberstadt,  its  ancient  capital,  on  the  Holzemme  river,  south- 
westward  and  30  miles  distant  from  Magdeburg,  is  noted  for  its  Gothic 
ancient  cathedral,  and  other  architectural  monuments,  is  considerably  engaged 
in  manufactures,  and  has  18,500  inhabitants.  The  neighboring  village  of 
Strobeck  (with  800  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  the  skill  of  its  peasantry  in 
playing  at  chess.  Aschersleben,  a  city  on  the  Eine  river,  south-eastward  and 
18  miles  distant  from  Halberstadt,  with  noted  woollen  manufactures,  and 
11,600  inhabitants.  Until  the  year  1319,  Aschersleben  was  the  capital  of 
the  earldom  of  Ascania  (see  page  402).  Oschersleben  (with  4,000  inhabi- 
tants), Wegeleben  (with  2,600  inhabitants),  Osterwiek  (with  3,500  inhabitants), 
Derenburg  (with  2,600  inhabitants),  and  Schwanebeck  (with  2,150  inhabitants), 
more  or  less  notable  towns. — Quedlinbueg,  a  city  on  the  Bode  river,  south- 
eastward and  9  miles  distant  from  Halberstadt,  with  14,000  inhabitants,  con- 
siderable corn  trade,  various  manufactures,  and  a  highly  celebrated  and 
extensive  ancient  castle,  with  the  sepulchre  of  Emperor  Henry  I,  who  in 
920  founded  Quedlinburg,  which  was  until  1803  the  seat  of  an  indepen- 
dent or  sovereign  female  abbey  of  the  same  name. — Wernigerode,  a  town 
at  the  foot  of  the  Brocken  (see  page  8),  has  5,500  inhabitants,  and  an  exten- 
sive and  remarkable  mountain  castle,  the  residence  of  the  earl  of  Stolberg- 


PRUSSIA.  479 


The  Province  of  Saxony. 


Wernigerode,  who,  until  1807,  was  an  independent  sovereign  of  the  earldom 
of  Wernigerode  (106  square  miles,  and  18,000  inhabitants),  which  then 
became  dependent,  and  was  as  such  annexed  to  Prussia  in  1815.  llsenburg, 
a  market-town,  with  iron-works,  and  2,400  inhabitants. — Barby,  anciently 
the  capital  of  an  earldom,  which,  from  1659  to  1815,  did  belong  to  the  elec- 
torate (at  present  kingdom)  of  Saxony,  is  situated  on  the  Elbe,  and  has 
3,500  inhabitants.  The  neighboring  market-town  of  Gnadau  (with  600 
inhabitants)  is  a  settlement  of  Moravian  Brethren. 

The  territories  formerly  belonging  to  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  and  in 
1815  ceded  to  Prussia,  contains:  -[-Merseburg,  presently  the  capital  of  the 
governmental  district  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Saale,  about  half-way 
between  Halle  and  Leipsic,  is  noted  for  its  ancient  cathedral  and  other  archi- 
tectural monuments,  and  for  its  excellent  beer,  and  has  11,500  inhabitants. 
Lutzen,  a  town  at  the  high-road  between  Leipsic  and  Weimar,  13  miles 
west-south-west  of  Leipsic,  has  2,400  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  in  history  for 
the  battle  on  the  16th  Nov.,  1632,  in  which  Gustavus  Adolphus,  the  renowned 
king  of  Sweden,  was  killed.  Other  towns  are  Schkenditz  (with  2,800  inhabi- 
tants), Lauchstadt  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  and  Schaafstadt  (with  2,000 
inhabitants).  Naumburg,  a  city  on  the  Saale,  between  Weimar  and  Leipsic, 
with  a  remarkable  ancient  cathedral,  various  manufactures,  annual  fairs 
(which  however  are  at  present  rather  unimportant),  and  13,200  inhabitants. 
Zeitz,  a  city  on  the  Elster,  south-westward  and  24  miles  distant  from  Leip- 
sic, with  woollen  and  other  manufactures,  a  remarkable  ancient  castle,  and 
11,200  inhabitants.  Querfurt,  a  town  south-westward  and  18  miles  distant 
from  Halle,  with  rather  considerable  trade,  and  3,800  inhabitants.  Heldrun- 
gen,  a  town  with  1,850  inhabitants.  Mansfeld,  formerly  the  capital  of  an 
earldom  of  the  same  name,  25  miles  west-north-west  of  Halle,  with  1,600 
inhabitants.  Eisleben,  a  town  near  two  lakes,  with  several  architectural 
monuments,  etc.  (among  them  the  house  where  Luther  was  born,  on  the  10th 
Nov.,  1483),  various  branches  of  industry,  and  9,000  inhabitants.  Witten- 
berg, a  strongly  fortified  city  on  the  Elbe,  44  miles  north-north-east  of  Leip- 
sic, and  58  miles  south-south-west  of  Berlin,  with  11,300  inhabitants,  a  remark- 
able ancient  castle  (once  the  residence  of  the  electors  of  Saxony,  and  whose 
church  it  was  where  Luther  affixed  his  95  positions,  on  the  31st  Oct,  1517, 
and  where  he  and  Melanchthon  are  buried),  and  several  higher  schools.  The 
once  so  renowned  university,  founded  in  1602,  was  in  1817  united  with  that 
of  Halle     Zahna  (with  2,300  inhabitants),  Pretsch  (with  2,000  inhabitants), 


480  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Prussia.— Province  of  Saxony. 

Ziebenwerda  (with  2,260  inhabitants),  Bitter/eld  (with  4,200  inhabitants), 
Grdfenhainchen  (with  2,900  inhabitants),  and  Schweinitz  (with  1,500  inhabi- 
tants), towns.  Eilenburg,  a  city  on  the  Mulde,  north-eastward  and  9  miles 
distant  from  Leipsic,  is  noted  for  its  hops,  and  has  9,000  inhabitanta  De- 
litzsch,  a  town  with  some  manufactures,  breweries,  and  5,000  inhabitants. 
Duben  and  Zorbig,  towns  with  respectively  4,700  and  3,000  inhabitants. 
Torgau,  fortified  city  on  the  Elbe,  46  miles  below  Dresden,  with  a  remarka- 
ble ancient  castle,  and  9,200  inhabitants.  Muhlberg,  a  town  on  the  Elbe, 
about  half-way  between  Torgau  and  Dresden,  has  3,500  inhabitants,  and  is 
remarkable  in  history  for  a  battle  on  the  24th  April,  1547,  in  which  the  elector 
John  Frederic  the  Generous  (see  page  379)  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  troops 
of  Emperor  Charles  V.  Schilda  and  Elsterwerda,  towns  with  respectively 
1,750,  and  1,400  inhabitants.  Weissenfels,  a  city  on  the  Saale,  below 
Naumburg  and  Lutzen,  with  various  important  manufactures,  considerable 
timber  trade,  and  9,000  inhabitants.  Schulpforta,  or  Pforta,  a  village  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Naumburg,  is  noted  for  its  highly  celebrated  college.  The 
village  of  Kosen  is  noted  for  its  salt-springs  and  works.  Eckardtsberga,  a 
town  between  "Weimar  and  Naumburg,  with  2,000  inhabitants.  In  its  neigh- 
borhood is  situated  the  village  of  Auerstddt,  where  on  the  very  day  of  the 
battle  of  Jena,  another  chief  body  of  the  Prussian  army  was  defeated  by  the 
French  marshal  Davoust.  The  village  of  Mernmleben,  9  miles  north-north- 
west of  Eckardtsberga,  was  once  the  seat  of  a  celebrated  Benedictine  monas- 
tery, where  the  German  emperors,  Henry  I.  and  Otto  I.,  died.  Sanger hau- 
sen,  a  town  on  the  little  Gonna  river,  with  various  important  branches  of 
industry,  and  6,250  inhabitants.  North-westward  and  7  miles  distant  from 
"Weissenfels,  is  situated  the  village  of  Rossbach,  noted  in  history  for  the  battle 
on  the  5th  Nov.,  1757. — The  ancient  duchy  of  Magdeburg  (see  above)  con- 
tains, within  the  limits  of  the  governmental  district  of  Merseburg :  Halle,  a 
city  on  the  Saale,  and  at  the  Magdeburg  and  Leipsic  Railroad,  north-west- 
ward and  20  miles  distant  from  Leipsic,  has  32,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted 
for  its  university  (see  above,  and  page  287),  its  considerable  salt-works,  and 
its  orphan  asylum,  in  an  enormous  edifice,  whose  foundation  was  laid  on  the 
13th  July,  1698,  by  a  faithful  follower  of  Christ,  Augustus  Hermann  Franlce, 
by  name.  The  neighboring  royal  estate  of  Giebichenstein  was  in  the  middle 
ages  highly  remarkable  for  its  mountain  castle,  at  present  in  ruins.  Wettin, 
a  town  on  the  Saale,  with  important  coal  mines,  and  3,400  inhabitants. 

The  former  territories  of  the  electorate  of  Mentz  (see  page  355),  within 


PRUSSIA.  481 

The  Province  of  Saxony. 

the  limits  of  this  province,  contain :  -{-Erfurt,  ancient  capital  of  Thuringia, 
exactly  half-way  between  Gotha  and  Weimar,  has  82,000  inhabitants,  carries 
on  a  rather  considerable  inland  trade,  is  engaged  in  various  branches  of  indus- 
try, and  noted  for  its  ancient  Gothic  cathedral,  several  other  ancient  churches, 
and  its  fortifications.  The  ancient  Augustine  monastery,  in  which  Luther 
lived  since  1505.  is  yet  extant,  as  an  orphan  asylum.  Erfurt  was  in  the  mid- 
dle ages  an  emporium,  and  since  741  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  whose  ecclesias- 
tical authority  was  in  a  later  period  exercised  by  the  electors,  archbishops  of 
Mentz,  who  subsequently  became  also  possessed  of  the  city.  In  1806  the 
French  acquired  it,  and  in  1813  Erfurt  was  restored  to  Prussia,  to  which  it 
had  been  ceded  in  1803.  The  ancient  territory  of  Erfurt  contains,  among 
others,  the  town  of  Sommerda  (with  manufactures  of  hardware  and  fire-arms, 
and  3,500  inhabitants),  and  the  market-town  of  Gross- Vargula  (with  1,000 
inhabitants).  Heiligenstadt,  ancient  capital  of  the  so-called  Eichsfeld  (see 
page  440),  on  the  Leine  river,  34  miles  east-north- east  of  Cassel,  with  several 
remarkable  churches,  manufactures,  and  5,000  inhabitants.  Worbis,  a  town 
with  2,200  inhabitants. — The  Prussian  part  of  the  ancient  earldom  of  Hohn- 
stein  (see  page  440)  contains :  Ellrich,  its  ancient  capital,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Hartz,  north-westward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Nordhausen,  with  several 
branches  of  industry,  and  3,250  inhabitants.  Sachsa,  Bleicherode,  and  Ben- 
neckenstein,  towns  with  respectively  1,800,  3,000,  and  3,800  inhabitants. 
Muehlhausen  (a  city  half-way  between  Erfurt  and  Gottingen,  with  Gothic 
churches,  rather  important  manufactures,  and  14,000  inhabitants)  and  Nord- 
hausen  (a  city  at  the  Giildene  Aue,  westward  and  60  miles  distant  from 
Halle,  with  considerable  corn  trade,  and  13,800  inhabitants),  were  until  1803 
imperial  cities. — The  territories  formerly  belonging  to  the  kingdom  of  Sax- 
ony, and  in  1815  ceded  to  Prussia,  contain,  within  the  limits  of  this  govern- 
mental district:  Langensalza,  a  city  on  the  Salza,  north-westward  and  18 
miles  distant  from  Erfurt,  with  a  remarkable  Gothic  church,  several  manu- 
factures, and  8,300  inhabitants.  Tennstadt  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  Weissen- 
see  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  Kindelbruck  (with  1,900  inhabitants),  Gebesee 
(with  2,200  inhabitants),  and  Treffurt  (with  2,200  inhabitants).  The  town 
of  Schleusingen  (on  the  Thuringerwald,  40  miles  south-south-west  of 
Erfurt,  with  a  noted  gymnasium,  and  3,500  inhabitants)  was  anciently  the 
residence  of  the  princes  of  Henneberg  (see  page  388).  Suhl,  an  important 
manufacturing  town,  9  miles  north-north-west  of  Schleusingen,  is  noted  for 
its  fire-arms  and  hardware  manufactures,  aud  has  8,400  inhabitants.     Zie- 

21 


482  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Prussia.— Provinces  of  Saxony  and  Westphalia. 


genrueck,  a  town  on  the  Saale,  south-eastward  and  40  miles  distant  from 
Erfurt,  with  linen  manufactures,  iron-works,  and  1,050  inhabitants.  Rahnis, 
a  town  with  1,300  inhabitants. 


V.— THE  PROVINCE  OF  WESTPHALIA. 

Area  :  7,838£  square  miles. 
Population  :  1,445,700  inhabitants. 

It  is  situated  between  the  Weser  and  Rhine  rivers,  on  the 
west  bound  by  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  and  on  the  east 
bordering  upon  Hesse-Cassel.  That  Westphalia  is  no  political, 
but  a  general  name  for  a  tract  of  land  once  inhabited  by  the 
Westphalians,  one  of  the  Saxon  tribes,  is  already  alluded  to, 
pages  298  and  441.  The  present  Prussian  province  of  West- 
phalia bears  its  name,  for  the  very  reason  that  its  political  con- 
stituent parts  (as  the  ancient  independent  bishoprics  of  Minister 
and  Paderborn,  duchy  of  Westphalia,  earldoms  of  Mark,  Ravens- 
berg,  and  Tecklenburg,  etc.)  are  situated  within  the  limits  of 
Westphalia  It  is  subdivided  into  the  governmental  districts  of 
Miinster,  Minden,  and  Arnsberg. 

The  ancient  sovereign  bishopric  of  Munster  (instituted  in  802  by  Charlemagne 
and  secularized  in  1 803,  when  Prussia  became  possessed  of  it)  contains :  -}-Muen- 
ster,  its  ancient  capital,  at  present  the  capital  of  the  province,  near  the  Ems 
river,  northeastward  and  70  miles  distant  from  Diisseldorf,  and  120  miles 
east-south-east  of  Amsterdam,  with  25,000  inhabitants,  an  extensive  palace 
(formerly  the  residence  of  the  sovereign  bishop),  a  celebrated  Gothic  cathe- 
dral, and  numerous  other  architectural  monuments,  a  Gothic  city -hall  (where 
the  Westphalian  peace  was  concluded  in  1648),  a  Catholic  theological  faculty 


PRUSSIA.  483 


The  Province  of  Westphalia. 


(see  above,  page  460),  various  manufactures,  and  a  considerable  trade,  espe- 
cially in  excellent  hams.  Telgte  (with  2,300  inhabitants),  Warendorf  (with 
4,500  inhabitants),  Beckum  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  Ludinghausen  (with 
1,850  inhabitants),  and  Werne  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  more  or  less  remark- 
able towns.  Other  former  territories  of  the  bishopric  are,  since  1803,  de- 
pendent dominions,  chiefly  belonging  to  the  princes  of  Salm,  and  contain 
among  others :  Koesfeld  or  Coesfeld,  a  town  on  the  Berkel  river,  westward 
and  18  miles  distant  from  Munster,  with  2  palaces,  paper  manufactures,  and 
3,700  inhabitants.  Horstmar,  a  town  with  1 ,300  inhabitants.  Billerbeck,  a 
town  with  linen  manufactures,  and  1,600  inhabitants.  Aahaus,  a  town  on 
the  Aa  river,  with  princely  palace,  linen  manufactures,  and  1,900  inhabitants. 
Bocholt,  a  town  on  the  Aa,  with  princely  palace,  a  haudsome  Gothic  church, 
various  manufactures,  and  5,200  inhabitants.  Borken  (with  3,200  inhabitants), 
Stadtlohn  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Wreden  (with  2,750  inhabitants),  towns 
noted  for  their  linens.  Duelmen,  a  town  south-westward  and  18  miles  dis- 
tant from  Munster,  with  3,300  inhabitants,  linen  manufactures,  and  a  palace 
of  the  duke  of  Croy-Dulmen.  Rheina,  a  town  24  miles  north-north-west  of 
Munster,  linen,  woollen  and  other  manufactures,  and  2,600  inhabitants. — To 
the  electorate  of  Cologne  formerly  belonged :  Recklinghausen  (a  town  south- 
westward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Munster,  with  linen  manufactures,  brew- 
eries, and  3,700  inhabitants),  Dorsten  (a  town  with  linen  and  cloth  manufac- 
tures, and  3,100  inhabitants),  Anholt  (a  town  south-westward  and  60  miles 
distant  from  Munster,  with  2,100  inhabitants,  and  an  extensive  palace  of  the 
prince  of  Salm-Salm),  and  Steinfurt  (a  town  with  2,900  inhabitants). — Teck- 
lenburg,  ancient  capital  of  an  earldom  of  the  same  name  (which  in  1707  was 
inherited  by  Prussia),  between  Munster  and  Osnabruck,  with  linen  manufac- 
tures, and  1,400  inhabitants.  Lengerich,  a  town  near  Tecklenburg,  with  linen 
manufactures,  and  1,600  inhabitants.  Ibbenburen,  a  town  on  the  Plane  river, 
with  linen  manufactures,  coal  mines,  and  2,200  inhabitants. 

The  ancient  independent  bishopric  of  Minden  (instituted  in  780  by  Charle- 
magne, and  secularized  in  1648,  when  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  became 
possessed  of  it  by  the  title  of  a  principality)  contains :  -{-Minden,  its  ancient 
capital,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Weser,  70  miles  above  Bremen,  and  westward 
and  40  miles  distant  from  Hanover,  has  12,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for 
its  ancient  cathedral,  its  manufactures,  inland  trade,  and  fortress.  Minden 
is  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  Germany ;  Emperor  Henry  III.  was  born, 
and  his  son  Henry  IV.  resided  here  for  a  while.      Petershagen  (with  2,200 


484  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Prussia.— Province  of  Westphalia. 

inhabitants),  and  Lubbecke  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  towns.  Hausberge  (with 
linen  manufactures,  and  900  inhabitants),  Schlusselburg  (with  linen  manufac- 
tures, and  1,000  inhabitants),  and  Rahden  (with  linen  manufactures,  and  2,300 
inhabitants),  market-towns. — The  former  independent  or  sovereign  bishopric 
of  Paderborn  (instituted  in  780  by  Charlemagne,  and  secularized  in  1803, 
when  Prussia  became  possessed  of  it)  contains :  Paderborn,  its  ancient  capi- 
tal, on  the  little  Pader  river,  southward  and  44  miles  distant  from  Minden, 
with  a  highly  remarkable  cathedral,  a  Catholic  theological  seminary,  brewe- 
ries, and  9,500  inhabitants.  Warburg,  a  town  in  one  of  the  most  fertile  dis- 
tricts of  Westphalia,  south-eastward  and  23  miles  distant  from  Paderborn, 
with  linen  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and  3,600  inhabitants.  Driburg, 
a  town  noted  for  its  mineral  waters,  has  2,250  inhabitants.  Other  more  or 
less  notable  towns  are :  Delbruck  (with  1,300  inhabitants),  Buren  (with  a 
handsome  Gothic  church,  and  1,800  inhabitants),  Salzkotten  (with  2,000  inhabi- 
tants), Brakel  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and  Lugde  or  Lude  (with  2,200  inhabi- 
tants).— Corvey,  an  ancient  and  extensive  castle  on  the  "Weser,  south-east- 
ward and  44  miles  distant  from  Minden,  was  until  1803  the  residence  of  an 
independent  abbot,  whose  abbey  had  been  instituted  by  Louis  the  Pious  in 
the  9th  century.  The  territory  of  the  abbey,  endowed  with  the  title  of  a  de- 
pendent principality,  belongs  at  present  to  the  dependent  prince  of  Hoheu- 
lohe-Schillingsfurst,  and  contains  (beside  that  castle  and  some  villages)  the 
town  of  H'dxter,  on  the  Weser,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  castle  of  Cor- 
vey, with  important  branches  of  industry,  and  3,800  inhabitants. — The  ancieut 
earldom  of  Ravensberg,  which  in  1666  was  inherited  by  the  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg, contains:  Bielefeld,  its  ancient  capital,  south-westward  and  27 
miles  distant  from  Minden,  and  south-eastward  and  30  miles  distant  from 
Osnabriick,  is  highly  renowned  for  its  excellent  linens,  and  has  10,500  inhabi- 
tants. The  neighboring  villages  of  Brackwede  (with  1,200  inhabitants)  and 
Jssellvorst  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  the  market-town  of  Schildesche  (with  2,500 
inhabitants),  and  the  towns  of  Werther  (with  2,100  inhabitants),  Versmold 
(with  1,600  inhabitants),  Borgholzhausen  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  and  Bunde 
(with  1,600  inhabitants),  are  likewise  noted  for  their  linen  manufactures. 
Herford,  a  city  north-eastward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Bielefeld,  with  va- 
rious manufactures,  some  literary  institutions,  and  8,800  inhabitants.  En- 
ger,  a  market-town,  with  1,500  inhabitants,  is  noted  in  history  as  having  been 
once  the  seat  of  the  celebrated  Saxon  duke  Wittekind.  Rheda  (with  noted 
linen  manufactures,  and   1,900  inhabitants),  and   Rietberg  (with  important 


PRUSSIA.  485 


The  Province  of  Westphalia. 


linen  manufactures,  and  2,200  inhabitants),  are  the  capitals  of  dependent 
principalities  of  the  same  names. 

The  ancient  duchy  of  Westphalia  was  primitively  nothing  but  part  of  West- 
phalia in  general,  and  thus  belonged  to  the  ancient  duchy  of  Saxony.  After 
Duke  Henry,  surnamed  the  Lion,  having  been  outlawed  in  1180,  this  part  of 
his  duchy  was,  by  the  title  of  a  duchy  of  Westphalia,  given  and  annexed  to 
the  archbishopric  and  electorate  of  Cologne.  In  1803  Hesse-Darmstadt,  and 
in  1816  Prussia  became  possessed  of  it.  It  contains:  -{-Abnsberg,  its  for- 
mer capital  on  the  Ruhr,  south-eastward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Miin- 
ster,  with  the  ruins  of  an  anciently  very  remarkable  mountain  castle,  and 
4,500  inhabitants.  In  the  middle  ages  Arnsberg  was  a  member  of  the  Han- 
seatic  League.  Brilon,  a  town  at  the  high-road  between  Arnsberg  and  Cas- 
seL  with  some  manufactures  of  hardware,  and  3/700  inhabitants.  In  the 
middle  ages  Brilon  belonged  to  the  Hanseatic  League  as  actual  member. 
Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are :  Olpe  (with  2,000  inhabitants), 
Neheim  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  Marsberg,  also  named  Stadtberg  (with 
3,600  inhabitants),  Meschede  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  Gesecke  (with  3,550  in- 
habitants,) Mmden  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  and  Werl  (anciently  noted  for 
its  trade,  at  present  for  its  salt-works,  has  3,900  inhabitants). — The  ancient 
earldom  of  Mark  (whose  native  earls  became  extinct  in  1609,  when  the  elec- 
tor of  Brandenburg  became  possessed  of  it  by  way  of  inheritance)  contains: 
Hamm,  its  ancient  capital,  on  the  Lippe  river,  north-westward  and  23  miles 
distant  from  Arnsberg,  and  south-eastward  and  24  miles  distant  from  Miin- 
ster,  with  linen  manufactures,  linen  trade,  and  6,000  inhabitants.  Iserlohn, 
an  important  manufacturing  town  in  a  mountainous  district,  westward  and 
23  miles  distant  from  Arnsberg,  is  especially  noted  for  its  hardware,  and  has 
11,100  inhabitants.  Similar  articles,  as  in  Iserlohn,  are  fabricated  in  the 
neighboring  manufacturing  town  of  Altena,  with  4,900  inhabitants.  Other 
towns  noted  for  their  manufactures,  are :  Bockum  (with  4,400  inhabitants), 
Hattingen  (with  4,500  inhabitants),  Ludenscheid  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Ha- 
gen  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  and  Schwelm  (with  4,400  inhabitants).  The 
town  of  Unna  (between  Arnsberg  and  Hamm,  with  5,500  inhabitants),  is 
noted  for  its  salt-works.  The  town  of  Horde  (with  2,200  inhabitants)  is 
noted  for  its  coal  mines.  Soest,  a  city  in  one  of  the  most  fertile  districts  of 
Westphalia,  is  chiefly  engaged  in  linen  manufacturing  and  corn  trade,  has 
8,800  inhabitants,  and  was  in  the  middle  ages  a  renowned  member  of  the 
Hanseatic  League. — Dortmund,  a  city  in  a  fertile  district,  north-westward 


486  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Province  of  Westphalia  and  Rhenish  Province. 

and  32  miles  distant  from  Arnsberg,  with  considerable  manufactures  and 
trade,  and  7,900  inhabitants,  was,  like  Soest,  a  renowned  member  of  the 
Hanseatic  League,  and  traded  to  Nowgorod,  in  Russia,  as  well  as  to  London, 
etc. — The  former  principality  of  Nassau  Siegen  (which  in  1806  was  annexed 
to  the  grand-duchy  of  Berg,  and  in  1815  ceded  to  Prussia)  contains :  Siegen, 
its  ancient  capital,  on  the  Sieg  river,  46  miles  east-south-east  of  Cologne,  and 
southward  and  45  miles  distant  from  Arnsberg,  has  6,500  inhabitants,  and  is 
noted  for  its  iron  mines  and  manufactures.  Hilchenbach,  a  town  at  the  foot 
of  the  Westerwald,  7  miles  north-north-east  of  Siegen,  with  various  manu- 
factures, iron-works,  and  1,600  inhabitants.  The  neighboring  village  of 
Grund  is  remarkable  as  the  birth-place  of  the  pious,  and  among  faithful 
Christians,  well-known  Jung-Stilling. — Berleburg  (south- eastward  and  30 
miles  distant  from  Arnsberg,  with  a  handsome  princely  palace,  iron-works, 
and  2,400  inhabitants)  and  Laasphe  (southward  and  9  miles  distant  from 
Berleburg,  with  2,200  inhabitants,  cloth  manufactures,  iron-works,  and  a 
stately  princely  palace),  are  capitals  of  the  dependent  principalities  of  Witt- 
genstein. 


VL— THE  RHENISH  PROVINCE. 

Area  :  10,373  square  miles. 
Population  :  2,763,000  inhabitants. 

This  province  (formerly  consisting  of  two  provinces,  viz.,  Ju- 
lich-Cleve-Berg  and  Lower  Rhine)  has  been  thus  styled  on  ac- 
count of  its  being  situated  on  both  sides  (though  chiefly  on  the 
left  bank)  of  the  Rhine,  and  comprises  (with  the  exception  of  the 
ancient  duchies  of  Cleve  and  Geldern,  and  principality  of  Moers) 
only  newly  acquired  (i.  e.  since  1815)  territories,  the  most  notable 
of  which  are  the  former  electorates  of  Treves  and  Cologne,  the 
duchies  of  Berg  and  Juliers,  etc.    In  the  beginning  of  the  present 


PRUSSIA.  487 


The  Rhenish  Province. 


century  there  were  about  100  independent  dominions  of  the  Ger- 
man empire  in  the  present  Rhenish  province,  which  is  subdivided 
into  the  5  governmental  districts  of  Coblenz,  Treves,  Aix  la  Cha- 
pelle,  Cologne  and  Dusseldorf. 

The  former  independent  or  sovereign  archbishopric  and  electorate  of  Treves 
is  of  very  ancient  origin  ;  its  first  bishop,  Agritius  by  name,  being  appointed 
as  early  as  in  327  by  the  Roman  emperor  Constantine.  He  took  his  seat  in 
the  city  of  Treves,  and  his  successors,  raised  to  the  dignity  of  archbishops  and 
electors,  became  in  the  course  of  time  possessed  of  considerable  territories. 
According  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty  concluded  at  Luneville  in  1801,  the  ter- 
ritories situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  were  ceded  to  France ;  while 
the  remainder,  on  the  right  bank  of  this  river,  was  in  1803  given  to  Nassau- 
What  in  1814  France  restored,  Prussia  became  possessed  of,  together  with  a 
little  district  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine.  The  territories  of  the  electorate 
within  the  limits  of  the  following  governmental  district  contain :  -+-Coblenz, 
a  fortified  city,  and  formerly  the  residence  of  the  elector  archbishop  of 
Treves,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  (crossed  here  by  a  bridge  of  boats 
1,100  feet  long),  at  its  junction  with  the  Moselle  (crossed  by  a  beautiful 
Gothic  bridge,  reared  in  the  middle  of  the  14th  century  and  thoroughly 
built  of  freestone),  about  half-way  between  Mentz  and  Cologne,  with  vari- 
ous and  important  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and  23,000  inhabitants. 
Coblenz,  at  present  the  capital  of  the  Rhenish  province,  is  noted  for  several 
literary  institutions,  the  former  electoral  palace,  several  remarkable  ancient 
churches,  and  for  its  fortifications,  among  which  ranks  first  the  very  strong 
fortress  of  Ehrenbreitstein,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  opposite  Co- 
blenz, and  standing  on  a  high  rock,  at  the  foot  of  which  is  situated  the  town 
of  Thai- Ehrenbreitstein,  with  4,200  inhabitants.  Vallendar,  a  town  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  with  important  leather  manufactures,  and  3,400 
inhabitants.  Boppard,  a  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  with  vine  cul- 
ture, noted  potteries,  and  4,200  inhabitants.  Oberwesel,  a  town  on  the  Rhine, 
with  vine  culture,  and  2,850  inhabitants.  Stolzenfels,  a  remarkable  Gothic 
mountain  castle,  at  present  arranged  as  the  private  palace  of  the  king  of 
Prussia.  Kochheim  and  Zell,  towns  on  the  Moselle,  with  vine  culture,  and 
respectively  2,700  and  2,300  inhabitants. — The  territories  of  the  former  elec- 
torate of  Cologne  (see  forward  under  the  head  of  Cologne),  within  the  limits 
of  this  governmental  district,  contain :  Andebnach,  a  town  on  the  left  bank  of 


488  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Prussia.— Rhenish  Province. 


the  Rhine,  14  miles  below  Coblenz,  with  considerable  trade,  and  3,800  in- 
habitants. Rhense,  a  market-town  on  the  Rhine,  5  miles  above  Coblenz, 
has  1,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  anciently  celebrated  king's  seat 
(Konigsstuhl),  an  open  building  resting  on  9  pillars.  The  market-towns  of 
Unkel  (with  900  inhabitants)  and  Erpel  (with  900  inhabitants),  are  noted  for 
their  wines.  Ahrweiler,  a  town  on  the  Ahr  river,  has  2,600  inhabitants,  and 
is  renowned  for  its  wines.  Linz,  a  town  on  the  Rhine,  30  miles  below  Co- 
blenz, and  north-westward  and  nearly  400  miles  distant  from  Linz  in  Aus- 
tria, with  vine  culture,  and  2,650  inhabitants. — To  various  territories  formerly 
belonged :  St.  Goar,  ancient  capital  of  the  lower  earldom  of  Katzenellnbo- 
gen  (see  page  364),  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  opposite  St.  Goarshausen 
(in  Nassau),  with  important  leather  manufactures,  and  1,100  inhabitants. 
Remagen  (with  1,900  inhabitants)  and  Sinzig  (with  2.000  inhabitants),  towns 
formerly  belonging  to  the  duchy  of  Juliers  Bacharach,  a  town  on  the 
Rhine,  with  vine  culture,  and  1,750  inhabitants.  Kreuznach,  a  town  on  the 
Nahe  river,  southward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Bingen,  with  important  lea- 
ther manufactures  and  vine  culture,  salt-works,  bathing,  and  9,400  inhabitants. 
Simmern,  formerly  the  capital  of  a  principality  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
Hunsruck,  with  leather  and  other  manufactures,  iron-works,  and  3,300  inhabi- 
tants. Sobernheim,  a  town  with  vine  culture,  and  2,700  inhabitants.  Kirn, 
a  town  on  the  Nahe  river,  with  coal  mines,  and  1,950  inhabitants.  Wetzlar, 
formerly  an  imperial  city,  and  from  1691  to  1806  the  seat  of  the  Supreme 
Tribunal  of  the  German  Empire  (see  page  293),  romantically  situated  on  the 
Lahn  river,  46  miles  east-north-east  of  Coblenz,  and  north-westward  and  33 
miles  distant  from  Frankfort,  with  remarkable  ancient  cathedral,  and  5,700 
inhabitants. — Neuwied,  the  capital  of  the  dependent  principality  or  earl- 
dom of  Wied,  on  the  Rhine  (right  bank),  10  miles  below  Coblenz,  with  a 
magnificent  princely  palace,  various  higher  schools,  numerous  manufactures, 
and  6,250  inhabitants,  among  whom  are  many  Moravian  Brethren.  Braun- 
fels  (near  Wetzlar,  with  1,800  inhabitants)  is  the  capital  of  a  dependent 
dominion  belonging  to  the  prince  of  Solms-Braunfels. 

The  territories  of  the  former  electorate  of  Treves,  within  the  limits  of  the 
following  governmental  district,  contain :  -{-Treves  (in  German  Trier),  for- 
merly the  capital  of  the  electorate,  on  the  Moselle  (crossed  by  a  bridge 
built  of  freestone,  and  690  feet  long),  south-westward  and  60  miles  distant 
from  Coblenz,  has  20,000  inhabitants,  various  manufactures  and  vine  culture, 
and  is  renowned  for  its  very  ancient  cathedral  and  numerous  other  architec- 


PRUSSIA.  489 


The  Rhenish  Province. 


tural  monuments.  Treves  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  in  Europe,  and 
was  frequently  the  temporary  residence  of  the  Roman  emperors,  subse- 
quently also  the  seat  of  the  Roman  governor  of  Gaul.  The  market-town 
of  Pfalzel  (with  1,300  inhabitants),  and  the  villages  of  Piesport  (with  600 
inhabitants),  Dusemond  (with  700  inhabitants),  and  Guns  (with  1,000  inhabi- 
tants), situated  on  the  Moselle,  are  noted  for  their  wines.  More  or  less 
celebrated  towns  are:  Bernkastel  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  Wittlich  (with 
3,000  inhabitants),  Merzig  (with  3,700  inhabitants),  and  Saarburg  (with 
2,200  inhabitants).  The  town  of  St.  Wendel  (on  the  Blies  river,  south-east- 
ward and  82  miles  distant  from  Treves,  with  2,800  inhabitants)  was  until 
1884  the  capital  of  the  principality  of  Lichtenberg,  which  then  was  ceded 
by  Saxe-Gotha  to  Prussia  (see  page  393).  To  various  other  territories  did 
formerly  belong:  Saarbbueck,  until  1801  the  capital  of  an  earldom  belong- 
ing to  the  princely  house  of  Nassau,  on  the  Saar,  south-westward  and  80 
miles  distant  from  Treves,  has  8,900  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  manu- 
factures and  coal  mines.  Ottweiler,  a  town  on  the  Blies  river,  with  some 
manufactures,  and  3,200  inhabitants.  Pbuem,  a  town  at  the  foot  of  the 
Eifel,  north-eastward,  and  34  miles  distant  from  Treves,  with  important 
leather  manufactures,  and  2,500  inhabitants.  Bitburg,  a  town  between 
Prum  and  Treves,  with  2,200  inhabitants,  and  Neuerburg,  market-town,  with 
1,7000  inhabitants,  formerly  belonged  to  the  duchy  of  Luxemburg.  Veldenz, 
a  village  with  800  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  mines  and  iron-works.  Saar- 
louis,  strongly  fortified  town  on  the  Saar  river,  southward  and  30  miles 
distant  from  Treves,  with  various  manufactures,  and  7,200  inhabitants.  Saar- 
louis,  founded  by  Louis  XIV.,  did  until  1815  belong  to  France. 

The  formerly  imperial  city  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  founded  or  at  least  embel- 
lished by  Charlemagne,  was  for  a  long  while  considered  as  the  capital  of  the 
German  empire.  In  the  period  from  813  to  1558,  the  emperors  were  usu- 
ally crowned  here.  Towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  the  city  was 
occupied  by  the  French,  and  in  1801  formally  ceded  to  France.  In  1815 
Prussia  became  possessed  of  it.  We  thus  describe :  -j- Aix-la-Chapelle  (in 
German  Aachen),  at  present  the  capital  of  a  governmental  district  of  the 
same  name,  close  by  the  Netherlandish  frontier,  eastward  and  18  miles  dis- 
tant from  Mastricht,  and  westward  and  40  miles  distant  from  Cologne,  has 
48,600  inhabitants,  and  is  renowned  for  its  numerous  and  important  manu- 
factures of  fine  cloth,  cassimere,  pins,  needles,  and  various  other  articles,  for 
its  mineral  waters  and  baths,  and  finally  for  its  numerous  architectural  mon- 


490  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Rhenish  Province. 

uments,  among  which  ranks  first  the  very  ancient  Gothic  cathedral  (founded 
in  796  by  Charlemagne,  who  lies  buried  here),  with  many  historical  curios- 
ities, and  next  to  it  the  Gothic  city-hall,  reared  in  1353,  and  standing  upon 
the  same  spot  where  the  palace  of  Charlemagne  was.  The  neighboring 
town  of  Burtscheid  (with  5,700  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  cloth,  cassimere, 
and  needle  manufactures,  and  its  hot  sulphur  baths. — The  ancient  duchy  of 
Juliers  (whose  native  sovereigns  became  extinct  in  1423,  when  the  duchy 
was  inherited  by  the  dukes  of  Berg;  from  1666  to  the  end  of  last  century, 
the  electors  of  the  Palatinate  were  possessed  of  it,  and  in  1815  it  was  ceded 
to  Prussia)  contains,  within  the  limits  of  this  governmental  district :  Juliers 
(in  German  Jiilich),  its  ancient  capital,  on  the  Roer,  north-eastward  and  18 
miles  distant  from  Aix-la-Chapelle,  is  fortified,  and  has  4,400  inhabitants. 
JDuren,  a  city  on  the  Roer,  has  8,200  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  manu- 
factures of  cloth,  cassimere,  etc.,  of  hardware  and  various  other  articles. 
Stollberg,  important  manufacturing  town,  eastward  and  7  miles  distant  from 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  has  3,800  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  especially  for  its  various 
and  numerous  articles  made  of  brass.  Montjoie,  a  noted  manufacturing 
town,  near  the  head  of  the  Roer,  southward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  and  is  renowned  for  its  fine  cloth  and  cassimere.  Eschweiler,  a  man- 
ufacturing town  on  the  Inde  river,  has  8,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its 
silks,  woollens,  etc.,  and  for  its  coal  mines.  Imgenbroich,  a  village  with  con- 
siderable manufactures  of  cloth  and  cassimere,  and  900  inhabitants. — To 
various  other  territories  formerly  belonged :  Eupen  (in  French  Ne.au),  a  noted 
manufacturing  town,  romantically  situated  on  the  little  Wenze  river,  south- 
ward and  12  miles  distant  from  Aix-la-Chapelle,  has  12,400  inhabitants,  and 
is  noted  especially  for  its  superfine  cloth  and  cassimere.  Herzogenrath  (in 
French  Rolduc,  or  Rode  le  Due),  a  market-town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  has  800  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  coal  mines  and  quarries. 
Schleiden,  a  market-town  on  the  Eifel,  south-eastward  and  24  miles  distant 
from  Aix-la-Chapelle,  with  manufactures  of  woollens,  etc.,  iron-works,  and 
750  inhabitants.  Malmedy,  a  town  on  the  Warge  river,  southward  and  23 
miles  distant  from  Aix-la-Chapelle,  with  the  most  important  leather  manu- 
factures in  Prussia,  mineral  waters,  and  4,300  inhabitants.  Corneliwmunster, 
a  market-town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  with  cloth  and  cassi- 
mere manufactures,  quarries,  lead  mines,  and  800  inhabitants. 

The  former  archbishopric  and  electorate  of  Cologne.     As  first  bishop  of 
Cologne,  is  considered  Maternus,  who  lived  about  the  year  314 ;  this  bishop- 


PRUSSIA.  491 


The  Rhenish  Province. 


ric  was  in  745  raised  to  the  dignity  of  an  archbishopric.  The  archbishop 
Heribert  (997-1021)  was  invested  with  the  electoral  privileges,  and  in  the 
course  of  time,  considerable  dominions  were  acquired,  especially  in  West- 
phalia, since  Duke  Henry  of  Saxony,  surnamed  the  Lion,  had  been  outlawed 
(see  before,  under  Westphalia).  Since  the  year  1263,  the  archbishops,  elec- 
tors, resided  usually  in  Bonn  or  in  Bruhl,  and  not  more  in  Cologne,  on 
account  of  altercations  with  this  city,  that  relied  upon  its  privileges  as  impe- 
rial city,  and  was  not  willing  to  be  unconditionally  subjected  to  the  author- 
ity of  the  archbishop.  It  may  be  mentioned  here  by  the  way,  that  arch- 
bishop Guebhard  of  Waldburg,  who  occupied  the  see  in  the  period  of 
1577-83,  turned  Protestant,  being  enamored  of  the  fair  countess,  Agnes  of 
Mansfeld,  whom  he  married.  However  his  chapter  chose  instantly  another 
archbishop  in  his  place.  Since  the  end  of  the  last  century,  the  electorate 
underwent  the  same  vicissitudes  as  the  electorate  of  Treves.  Its  territories, 
within  the  limits  of  the  following  governmental  district,  contained :  -{-Co- 
logne (in  German  Coin),  the  largest  city  in  the  Rhenish  province,  on  the 
Rhine  (left  bank),  crossed  here  by  a  bridge  of  boats,  had,  at  the  close  of  the 
year  1846,  9,020  habitations,  227  public  edifices  (among  them  25  churches 
and  8  chapels),  and  95,202  inhabitants,  is  strongly  fortified,  and  highly  famed 
for  its  important  trade  and  commerce,  its  numerous  manufactures  (univer- 
sally known  is  the  excellent  Cologne-water),  its  literary  institutions,  and  for 
its  vast  number  of  interesting  monuments  of  Gothic  architecture.  Among 
the  latter  ranks  first  the  sublime  edifice  of  the  cathedral,  which  was  founded 
in  1248,  and  since  the  days  of  the  Reformation  left  unfinished,  thoifgh  at 
present  the  completion  of  the  work  is  projected.  In  the  middle  ages  Cologne 
was  a  powerful  and  far-renowned  commercial  and  manufacturing  city,  num- 
bered 30,000  warriors,  and  had  a  population  of  more  than  150,000  inhabi- 
tants. Opposite  Cologne,  is  situated  on  the  Rhine,  the  town  of  Deutz,  with 
various  manufactures,  and  4,900  inhabitants.  Bruhl,  a  market-town  roman- 
tically situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Eifel,  southward  and  5  miles  distant  from 
Cologne,  with  1,600  inhabitants,  and  a  magnificent  palace  and  park.  The 
archbishops  of  Cologne  resided  here  in  the  summer  season.  Bonn,  a  city  on 
the  Rhine,  formerly  the  usual  residence  of  the  electors  of  Cologne,  14  miles 
above  Cologne,  has  18,000  inhabitants,  and  is  since  1818  noted  for  its  univer- 
sity (see  above  and  page  287),  to  which  is  ceded  the  former  palace  of  the 
electors.  Zulpich,  a  town  in  a  fertile  and  romantic  plain,  south-westward 
and  23  miles  distant  from  Cologne,  has  1,400  inhabitants,  and  is  historically 


EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Prussia.— Rhenish  Province. 


remarkable  for  a  decisive  victory  obtained  here  by  King  Clovis  over  the  Ale- 
manni,  in  496.  Konigswinter,  a  town  on  the  Rhine  (right  bank),  and  at  the 
foot  of  the  Seven  Hills  (see  page  8),  has  1,200  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for 
its  quarries.  The  market-town  of  Bedburg  (with  700  inhabitants)  is  noted 
for  its  college. — The  towns  of  Munstereifel  (with  woollen  manufactures,  and 
2,100  inhabitants)  and  Euskirchen  (with  3,250  inhabitants),  belonged  to  the 
ancient  duchy  of  Juliers. — The  ancient  duchy  of  Berg  (see  below)  contains, 
within  the  limits  of  this  governmental  district:  Siegburg,  a  town  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  on  the  Sieg  river,  with  a  madhouse,  and  3,200 
inhabitants.  Muhlheim  am  Ehein,  a  town  on  the  Rhine,  opposite  Cologne, 
with  important  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and  5,400  inhabitants.  The 
village  of  Bensberg  (with  800  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  military  academy. 
The  village  of  Waldbroel  (with  500  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  iron-works. 
Wipperfurt,  a  town  on  the  Wupper,  below  Elberfeld,  with  woollen  manu- 
factures, and  2,000  inhabitants. 

The  ancient  duchy  of  Berg  (whose  native  sovereigns  became  extinct  in  the 
17th  century,  when  the  Palatines  became  possessed  of  it  by  way  of  inher- 
itance; in  1806  it  was  ceded  to  France  by  the  king  of  Bavaria,  from  the 
Palatine  house,  and  in  1815  to  Prussia)  contains:  -(-Duesseldorf,  its  ancient 
capital,  on  the  Rhine  (right  bank),  between  Cologne  and  Wesel,  north-east- 
ward and  46  miles  distant  from  Aix-la-Chapelle,  is  at  present  the  capital  of 
a  governmental  district  of  the  same  name  (2,087  square  miles,  and  892,500 
inhabitants),  carries  on  a  considerable  trade,  especially  to  Holland,  has  a 
vast  number  of  various  and  important  manufactures,  and  28,000  inhabitants, 
and  is  famed  for  its  literary  and  artistical  institutions.  (About  the  gallery 
of  paintings,  which  was  here  until  1806,  see  page  288.)  The  neighboring 
village  of  Pempelfort  (with  2,300  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  greens.  In 
the  neighboring  Dusselthal  (formerly  a  Carthusian  monastery)  was  founded  in 
1819,  an  institution  for  educating  disorderly  children.  Ratingen  and  Gerres- 
heim,  towns  with  respectively  4,200  and  1,500  inhabitants.  Elberfeld,  one  of 
the  moBt  important  manufacturing  and  trading  towns  in  the  kingdom,  on  the 
Wupper,  eastward  and  19  miles  distant  from  Diisseldorf,  has  38,250  inhabi- 
tants, and  is  famed  especially  for  its  cotton  and  silk  articles,  ribbons,  and 
dyeing  in  Turkish  red.  The  whole  valley  along  the  Wupper,  upwards  to  and 
beyond  Barmen  (with  34,950  inhabitants),  is  covered  with  factories  of  various 
kinds,  and  the  density  of  population  is  471  on  a  square  mile,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Elberfeld   and  Barmen.     Solingen,  likewise  a  very  important 


PRUSSIA.  493 


The  Rhenish  Province. 


manufacturing  town,  on  the  Wupper,  10  miles  below  Elberfeld,  is  from  old 
renowned  for  its  sword-blades  and  cutleries,  and  has  6,300  inhabitants. 
Remscheid,  a  manufacturing  town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Elberfeld,  is  famed 
for  its  steel  and  iron-works,  especially  for  its  farming  utensils.  Its  township 
has  12,100  inhabitants.  Lennep,  a  manufacturing  town  on  a  little  river  of 
the  same  name,  south-eastward  and  7  miles  distant  from  Elberfeld,  has 
6,900  inhabitants,  and  is  famed  for  its  cloth  and  other  woollen  articles. 
Other  towns  noted  for  their  manufactures  of  cotton  goods,  woollens,  cutlery, 
hardware,  etc.,  are :  Burscheid  and  Leichlingen  (united  and  together,  with 
11,000  inhabitants),  Opladen  and  Neukirchen  (united  and  together,  with 
8,400  inhabitants),  Graf  rath  (with  4,400  inhabitants),  Wulfrath  (with  1,200 
inhabitants),  Hohscheid  (with  11,650  inhabitants),  Ronsdorf  (with  7,000 
inhabitants),  Huckeswagen  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  Wald  (with  4,650  inhabi- 
tants), Rode  vor  dem  Wald  (with  1,300  inhabitants),  Luttringhausen  (with 
1,100  inhabitants),  Neviges  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Langenberg  (with  2,500 
inhabitants),  and  Mettmann  (with  2,800  inhabitants).  The  city  of  Muhlheim 
an  der  Ruhr,  situated  on  the  river  Ruhr,  between  Dusseldorf  and  Wesel, 
with  10,000  inhabitants,  is  likewise  noted  for  its  manufactures,  but  especially 
for  its  coal  mines. — The  former  territories  of  the  electorate  of  Cologne  (see 
back)  contain,  within  the  limits  of  this  governmental  district :  Kempen,  a 
town  on  the  Niers  river,  westward  and  9  miles  from  Crefeld,  has  4,000  inhabi- 
tants, and  is  noted  for  its  linens  and  flax.  The  Christian  author,  Thomas 
Hammerken,  universally  known  by  the  name  of  Thomas  a  Kempis,  was  born 
here  in  1380.  Neuss,  a  city  on  the  Erft,  near  its  junction  with  the  Rhine,  7 
miles  above  Dusseldorf,  is  noted  for  its  Gothic  church  (founded  in  825),  its 
cloth  and  cassimere  manufactures,  and  considerable  corn  trade,  and  has 
9,800  inhabitants.  The  towns  of  Uerdingen,  (with  3,100  inhabitants),  Wevel- 
inghoven  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  Odenkirchen  (with  1,550  inhabitants), 
are  noted-  for  their  manufactures,  especially  of  cotton  goods. — To  the  ancient 
duchy  of  Juliers (see  above)  belonged:  Gladbach,  a  town  near  the  Mers 
river,  westward  and  17  miles  distant  from  Dusseldorf,  is  famed  for  its  excel- 
lent linens,  and  has  3,300  inhabitants.  Grevenbroich,  a  town  on  the  Erft, 
with  manufactures  of  woollens  and  hardware,  and  1,000  inhabitants.  Dulken, 
a  town  with  2,500  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  flax.  Dahlen,  a  town  with 
considerable  linen  trade,  and  1,500  inhabitants.  Rheidt,  a  manufacturing 
town,  with  3,800  inhabitants. — To  various  other  dominions  formerly  belonged : 
Kaiserswerth,  a  town  on  the  Rhine  (right  bank),  and  in  the  neighborhood  of 


494  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Rhenish  Province. 

Diisseldorf,  with  2,100  inhabitants.  Essen,  a  city  on  the  Berne  river,  south- 
eastward and  24  miles  distant  from  Wesel,  with  a  remarkable  ancient  church, 
manufactures  of  hardware,  etc.,  coal  mines,  and  7,300  inhabitants.  Werden, 
a  city  on  the  Ruhr,  with  cloth  and  other  manufactures,  and  2,800  inhabitants. 
Ketlwig,  a  town  with  2,800  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  cloth  manufactures. 
— The  ancient  duchy  of  Cleve  (whose  native  dukes  became  extinct  in  the  17  th 
century,  when  Brandenburg  or  Prussia  became  possessed  of  it)  contains : 
Cleve,  its  former  capital,  near  the  Rhine,  46  miles  north-north-west  of  Diis- 
seldorf, with  a  renowned  ancient  castle,  some  manufactures,  and  7,700  inhab- 
itants. Calcar,  a  market- town,  with  flannel  manufactures,  and  1,900  inhabi- 
tants. Goch,  a  town  near  the  Netherlandish  frontier,  with  cotton  manufactures, 
and  3,900  inhabitants.  Cranenburg,  a  market-town,  with  1,100  inhabitants. 
Xanten,  a  town  on  the  Rhine  (left  bank),  has  3,200  inhabitants,  and  is  noted 
for  its  Gothic  church,  and  cloth,  cassimere,  and  other  manufactures.  Orsoy,  a 
town  on  the  Rhine,  with  woollen  manufactures,  and  1,600  inhabitants.  Rees, 
a  town  on  the  Rhine  (right  bank),  below  Wesel,  with  3,700  inhabitants,  who 
are  largely  engaged  in  agricultural  business.  Anciently  tins  town  was  noted 
for  its  fortress.  Emmerich,  a  town  on  the  Rhine  (right  bank),  and  close  by 
the  Netherlandish  frontier,  with  rather  important  manufactures,  and  6,500 
inhabitants.  Isselburg,  or  Ysselburg,  a  town  near  the  Netherlandish  frontier, 
with  foundries,  iron-works,  and  1,050  inhabitants.  Wesel,  a  strongly  fortified 
city  on  the  Rhine  (right  bank),  at  its  junction  with  the  Lippe,  with  numerous 
manufactures,  and  16,000  inhabitants.  Duisbicrg,  a  city  on  the  Ruhr,  2£ 
miles  from  its  junction  with  the  Rhine,  with  numerous  manufactures,  and 
7,700  inhabitants,  was  in  the  period  from  1655  to  1802  the  seat  of  a  univer- 
sity. Ruhrort,  a  town  on  the  Ruhr,  at  its  junction  with  the  Rhine,  is  noted 
for  its  coal  trade,  and  has  3,400  inhabitants.  Dinslaken,  a  town  near  the 
Rhine,  with  cotton  manufactures,  and  1,700  inhabitants. — The  ancient  duchy 
of  Geldern  (since  1543  forming  part  of  the  duchy  of  Burgundy,  until  in 
1713  one  part  was  ceded  to  the  republic  of  the  Netherlands,  and  the  other 
to  Prussia)  contains :  Geldern,  its  ancient  capital,  23  miles  south-south-east 
of  Cleve,  with  cloth  and  flannel  manufactures,  breweries,  and  3,850  inhabi- 
tants. Viersen,  a  noted  manufacturing  town,  with  5,250  inhabitants. — The 
ancient  principality  of  Moers  (whose  native  princes  became  extinct  in  1488, 
when  it  was  inherited  by  the  princely  house  of  Nassau,  while  in  the  begin- 
ning of  last  century,  Prussia  became  possessed  of  it  by  way  of  inheritance) 
contains :  Moers,  or  Meurs,  its  ancient  capital,  near  the  Rhine  (left  bank), 


PRUSSIA.  495 


Prussia.— Province  of  Prussia. 


with  3,200  inhabitants,  and  manufactures  of  silks,  woollens,  and  cotton  goods. 
Yet  the  most  important  city  of  the  ancient  principality  is  Kkefeld,  situated 
on  a  fertile  plain,  about  5  miles  from  the  Rhine,  north-westward  and  12 
miles  distant  from  Diisseldorf,  has  30,000  inhabitants,  and  is  highly  renowned 
for  its  silks  and  velvet,  moreover  for  its  cloth,  cassimere,  and  various  other 
articles. 


Vn.— THE  PROVINCE  OF  PRUSSIA. 

Area  :  25,091  square  miles. 
Population  :  2,499,400  inhabitants. 

This  province  has  derived  its  name  from  the  ancient  Prussians, 
a  mixed  Germanic  and  Slavonic  tribe,  who  respectively  since  the 
3d  and  6th  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  had  settled  in  the 
country.  They  were  fanatic  pagans,  and  evinced  their  hatred 
against  Christianity  on  numerous  occasions.  Especially  in  Po- 
land they  made  frequent  plundering  incursions,  by  which  at  last 
the  sovereign  of  this  country  was  induced  to  require  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Teutonic  Order  (see  pages  46  and  336).  That  thi3 
order  conquered  the  country  of  the  Prussians  (which  had  the 
same  extent  as  the  present  province),  and  that  in  1525  it  was 
transformed  into  a  duchy,  and  in  1618  inherited  by  the  reigning 
house  of  Brandenburg,  is  already  related  above  in  the  general 
history  of  Prussia.  Formerly  the  present  province  of  Prussia 
consisted  of  two,  styled  East  and  West  Prussia,  and  their  names 
occur  still  in  common  life ;  but  at  present  they  are  imited  into 
one,  which  is  subdivided  into  the  4  governmental  districts  of 
Konigsberg,  Gumbinnen  (formerly  constituting  the.  province  of 


496  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Prussia.— Its  Governmental  Districts. 

East  Prussia),  Danlzic  and  Marienweirler  (these  two  latter  consti- 
tuted formerly  the  province  of  West  Prussia.) 

+K6nigsberg,  the  capital  of  the  province,  and  considered  as  the  third 
royal  residence,  on  the  Pregel  (see  page  13),  north-eastward  and  360  miles 
distant  from  Berlin,  and  south-westward  and  550  miles  distant  from  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, has  7*7,100  inhabitants,  carries  on  a  considerable  commerce,  and 
is  noted  not  only  for  its  university  (see  page  460),  but  also  its  remark- 
able ancient  ducal,  at  present  royal  palace,  333  feet  long  by  213  feet  wide, 
and  containing  many  historical  curiosities,  and  for  several  other  architectural 
monuments.  The  seaport  of  Konigsberg  is  at  Pillau,  a  fortified  town  at 
the  entrance  into  the  Fresh  Haff,  with  commerce,  and  4,700  inhabitants. 
Memel,  a  maritime  town  on  the  Baltic,  and  the  Russian  frontier,  northward 
and  96  miles  distant  from  Konigsberg,  with  considerable  trade  (especially 
in  timber)  and  commerce,  and  10,250  inhabitants.  The  towns  of  Eylau  (prop- 
erly styled  Preussisch  Eylau,  is  situated  southward  and  23  miles  distant  from 
Konigsberg,  and  has  2,800  inhabitants)  and  Friedland  (south-eastward  and 
32  miles  distant  from  Konigsberg,  with  2,650  inhabitants)  are  noted  for  bat- 
tles fought  here  respectively  on  the  7th  and  8th  February,  and  on  the  14th 
June,  1807.  Braunsberg,  a  city  on  the  Passarge,  with  various  manufactures, 
rather  considerable  trade,  noted  high  schools,  and  9,100  inhabitants.  Frau- 
enburg,  a  town  on  the  Fresh  Haff,  is  the  residence  of  the  Catholic  bishop  of 
Ermeland,  and  has  2,500  inhabitants.  The  celebrated  astronomer  Nicholas 
Copernicus  died  here  in  1543.  Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are: 
Welau  (with  4,200  inhabitants),  Tapiau  (with  3,400  inhabitants),  Heiligenbeil 
(with  3,000  inhabitants),  Schippenbeil  (with  2,650  inhabitants),  Bartenstein 
(with  4,200  inhabitants),  Rastenburg  (with  4,650  inhabitants),  Gerdauen 
(with  2,500  inhabitants),  Wormditt  (with  3,550  inhabitants),  Mehlsack  (with 
3,100  inhabitants),  Heilsberg  (with  4,600  inhabitants),  Allenstein  (with  3,600 
inhabitants),  Preussisch-Holland  (with  3,600  inhabitants),  Mohrungen  (with 
2,900  inhabitants),  Neidenburg  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  Soldau  (with  2,000 
inhabitants),  and  Ortelsburg  (with  1,750  inhabitants).  South-eastward  and 
65  miles  distant  from  Konigsberg  is  situated,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Rasten- 
burg, the  celebrated  Catholic  convent  of  Heilige  Linde  (holy  linden),  a  place 
of  great  report  for  pilgrims,  to  visit  its  holy  shrine. 

-}-GuMBiNNEN,  the  capital  of  a  governmental  district  of  the  same  name, 
eastward  and  66  miles  distant  from  Konigsberg,  and  northward  and  170 


PRUSSIA.  497 


The  Province  of  Prussia. 


miles  distant  from  Warsaw,  is  well  built,  carries  on  a  considerable  corn  trade, 
and  has  6,800  inhabitants.  Insterburg,  a  city  on  the  Inster  river,  westward 
and  16  miles  distant  from  Gumbinnen,  with  notable  stud,  corn  trade,  and 
9,700  inhabitants.  Stallupdhnen,  a  town  near  the  Russian  frontier,  eastward 
and  17  miles  distant  from  Gumbinnen,  with  cattle  trade,  and  3,150  inhabi- 
tants. South-eastward  and  7  miles  from  here  is  the  highly  noted  royal  stud 
of  Trakehnen.  Southward  and  72  miles  distant  from  Insterburg  is  situ- 
ated the  town  of  Johannisburg  (with  a  historically  remarkable  castle,  and 
2,100  inhabitants),  near  the  extensive  forest  of  the  same  name,  and  30  miles 
in  length.  Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are:  Angerburg  (with 
3,600  inhabitants),  Goldapp  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Lyck  (with  3,550  in- 
habitants), Oletzko  (with  3,100  inhabitants),  Sensburg  (with  2,400  inhabi- 
tants), Nikolaiken  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Lotzen  (with  2,000  inhabitants), 
Ragnit  (with  2,900  inhabitants),  Bialla  (with  1,300  inhabitants),  Schirwind 
(with  1,500  inhabitants),  Pillkallen  (with  1,900  inhabitants),  and  Darkehmen 
(with  2,400  inhabitants).  Tilsit,  a  city  on  the  Memel  river,  north-eastward 
and  74  miles  distant  from  Konigsberg,  with  noted  horse-marts,  considerable 
trade,  and  13,900  inhabitants.  Historically  remarkable  is  this  city  for  the 
treaty  of  peace  concluded  here  on  the  9th  of  July,  1807. 

-{-Dantzick.  (in  German  Danzig),  the  capital  of  a  governmental  district 
of  the  same  name,  on  a  branch  of  the  Vistula,  5  miles  from  the  Baltic  Sea, 
120  miles  west-south-west  of  Konigsberg,  is  one  of  the  first  maritime  and 
commercial  cities  of  the  kingdom,  engaged  in  numerous  branches  of  indus- 
try, and  strongly  fortified,  has  66,000  inhabitants,  and  is  highly  famed  for 
several  of  its  Gothic  churches  and  other  architectural  monuments.  Dant- 
zick  is  of  very  ancient  origin,  and  was  already  in  the  6th  century  a  very  nota- 
ble place ;  in  1310  it  came  under  the  sway  of  the  Teutonic  order,  and  in  1454 
under  that  of  Poland,  until  in  1793  Prussia  became  possessed  of  it.  The 
actual  seaport  of  Dantzick  is  at  Neufahrwasser  and  Weichselmunde,  on  the 
Baltic  Sea.  Oliva,  a  market-town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dantzick,  with 
1,400  inhabitants,  and  an  ancient  Cistercian  abbey,  noted  in  history  for  a 
treaty  of  peace  concluded  here  on  the  3d  of  May,  1660,  between  Prussia  and 
Poland.  Elbing,  a  city  in  a  fertile  district  near  the  Fresh  Haff,  40  miles 
east-south-east  of  Dantzick,  has  20,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  char- 
ities for  the  poor,  its  commerce  and  manufactures.  Marienburg,  a  city  on 
the  Nogat,  south-eastward  and  34  miles  distant  from  Dantzick,  has  6,600  in- 
habitants, and  is  famed  for  its  having  been  anciently  the  chief  seat  of  the 


498  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Prussia.— Its  Governmental  Districts. 

Teutonic  Order,  whose  master  resided  here  in  an  extensive  and  admirable 
Gothic  castle,  which  in  recent  times  is  completely  restored.  Tolkemit,  a 
town  on  the  Fresh  Haff,  is  noted  for  its  fishing  and  fowling,  and  has  2,300 
inhabitants.  Other  more  or  less  notable  towns  are :  Putzig  (with  2,300  in- 
habitants), Berent  (with  2,300  inhabitants),  Schbneck  (with  2,200  inhabi 
tants),  Dirschau  (with  3,800  inhabitants),  and  Carthaus  (with  600  inhabi- 
tants). 

-{-Marienwerder,  the  capital  of  a  governmental  district  of  the  same  name, 
in  a  fertile  plain  near  the  Vistula,  64  miles  south-south-east  of  Dantzick,  with 
an  extensive  ancient  castle,  a  remarkable  Gothic  church,  corn  trade,  and 
6,250  inhabitants.  Culm,  a  city  near  the  Vistula,  southward  and  76  miles 
distant  from  Dantzick,  with  a  military  academy,  some  woollen  manufactures, 
and  6,800  inhabitants.  In  the  middle  ages  Culm  was  an  important  member 
of  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  famed  for  its  cloth  manufactures.  Graudenz, 
a  city  on  the  Vistula  (crossed  here  by  a  bridge  of  boats,  2,700  feet  long),  18 
miles  south-south-west  of  Marienwerder,  has  8,700  inhabitants,  and  is  noted 
for  its  strong  fortress.  Thorn,  a  strongly  fortified  city,  on  the  Vistula,  north- 
westward and  125  miles  distant  from  Warsaw,  has  12,000  inhabitants,  and 
is  remarkable  as  the  birth-place  of  the  celebrated  astronomer  Nicholas 
Copernicus  (born  in  1473),  and  noted  for  its  gingerbread,  corn,  and  timber 
trade.  Christburg,  a  town  on  the  Sorge  river,  with  cloth  and  linen  manu- 
factures, and  2,700  inhabitants.  The  neighboring  village  of  Stuhmsdorf  is 
remarkable  in  history  for  a  convention  concluded  here  on  the  9th  September, 
1635,  between  Sweden  and  Poland.  Lobau,  a  town  south-eastward  and  43 
miles  distant  from  Marienwerder,  has  3,300  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its 
linen  and  flax  Other  more  or  less  notable  towns  are :  Stuhm  (with  1,300 
inhabitants),  Rosenberg  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Riesenburg  (with  3,600  in- 
habitants), Gollup  (with  2,300  inhabitants),  Oulmsee  (with  1,700  inhabitants), 
Briesen  (with  2,100  inhabitants),  Schwetz  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  Conitz 
(with  4,100  inhabitants),  Schlochau  (with  2,100  inhabitants),  Deutsch-Crone 
(with  3,900  inhabitants),  Hammerstein  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Jasirow  (with 
3,750  inhabitants),  Flatow  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  and  Zempelburg  (with 
3,500  inhabitants). 


PRUSSIA.  499 


The  Province  of  Posen. 


VHL— THE  PROVINCE  OF  POSEN. 

Area:  11,417  square  miles. 
Population  :  1,364,000  inhabitants. 

This  province  was  until  1795,  when  Prussia  took  possession  of 
it,  a  constituent  part  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Poland  ;  it  was  in 
1807  annexed  to  the  then  created  grand-duchy  of  Warsaw,  and 
in  1814  restored  to  Prussia.  (About  its  other  historical  particu- 
lars see  history  of  Poland  under  the  head  of  Russia.)  The  title 
of  a  grand-duchy  conferred  upon  this  province,  is  but  seldom 
used.  It  is  subdivided  into  the  two  governmental  districts  of 
Posen  and  Bromberg,  and  contains : 

-[-Posen,  the  capital  of  the  province,  on  the  Warthe  river,  about  half-way 
between  Berlin  and  Warsaw,  is  at  present  strongly  fortified,  has  40,500  in- 
habitants (of  whom  18,500  are  Roman  Catholics,  12,000  Protestants,  and 
10,000  Jews),  and  is  noted  for  its  handsome  cathedral  and  several  other 
churches,  its  remarkable  city-hall,  its  literary  institutions,  manufactures,  and 
considerable  trade.  Posen  was  in  the  middle  ages  for  a  long  while  the 
residence  of  the  Polish  sovereigns.  Fraustadt  (in  Polish  Wschowa),  a  city 
near  the  frontier  of  Silesia,  with  noted  cloth  and  linen  manufactures,  consid- 
erable corn  trade,  and  6,100  inhabitants.  Other  cities  and  towns  noted  for 
their  manufactures  of  various  articles  are :  Lissa  (with  9,300  inhabitants), 
Rawicz  (with  10,200  inhabitants),  Krotoszin  (with  7,600  inhabitants),  Mese- 
ritz  (with  4,800  inhabitants),  Tirschtiegel  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Zduny 
(with  3,600  inhabitants),  Bratz  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  Rogasen  (with  4,900 
inhabitants),  and  Pleszew  (with  5,150  inhabitants).  Still  may  be  noticed  the 
towns  of  Samter  (with  2,850  inhabitants),  Reisen  (with  1,500  inhabitants), 
Storchnest  or  Osieczno  (with  1,550  inhabitants),  Bojanowo  (with  3,000  inhab- 
itants), Schrimm  (with  3,850  inhabitants),  and  Kurnik  (with  2,850  inhab- 
itants). 

-j-Bromberg,  the  capital  of  a  governmental  district  of  the  same  name,  on 


500  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Province  of  Posen. 

the  Brahe  river,  north-eastward  and  72  miles  distant  from  the  city  of  Posen, 
with  several  high  schools,  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and  9,800  inhab- 
itants. Gnesen,  a  very  ancient  and  once  renowned  city,  45  miles  south- 
south-west  of  Bromberg,  with  a  highly  remarkable  cathedral,  considerable 
manufactures,  noted  cattle-  and  horse-marts,  and  7,350  inhabitants.  In  the 
earlier  period  of  the  middle  ages  the  Polish  kings  were  crowned  here. 
Inowraclaw  (in  German  Jung-Breslau),  a  town  in  a  fertile  plain,  with  con- 
siderable trade,  and  5,800  inhabitants.  The  town  of  Kruschwitz  has  at 
present  only  450  inhabitants,  but  was  in  the  middle  ages  an  important  city. 
Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are :  Fordon  (with  2,250  inhabitants), 
Czarnikow  (with  3,700  inhabitants),  Schonlanke  (with  4,000  inhabitants), 
Filehne  (with  3,800  inhabitants),  and  Schneidemuhl  or  Pila  (with  4,400  in- 
habitants). 


THE   AUSTRIAN  EMPIRE. 

Area  :  258,262  square  miles. 
Population:  37,850,000  inhabitants. 

The  Austrian  Empire  is  situated  between  Germany  and  Tur- 
key, and  between  Italy  and  Russia,  and  embraces  four  principal 
constituent  parts,  which  with  reference  to  the  nationality  of  their 
inhabitants  are  styled  German,  Polish.  Hungarian  and  Italian 
Provinces,  and  whose  common  sovereign  is  the  Emperor  of 
Austria. 

The  above-stated  area  and  population  is  distributed  as  fol- 
lows : 

German  provinces  (see  p.  309) 16,147  sq.  m.  and  12,700,000  inh. 

***  -  i»5t2gsj  32>908  -  -  •*  *>™  : 

Hungarian"       j  g^^ffiS         [  129'696  "     "   and  14,900,000    « 
Italia  «       j  and1IsatHay_VeniCe      \    19'511  "     "   and   5>300>000    " 

In  point  of  religion  the  Roman  Catholic  is  prevailing,  and  the 
particulars  may  be  learned  from  the  official  statements  of  the  year 
1842,  when  the  total  population  of  the  empire  was  35,804,152  in- 
habitants. Of  these  were  24,874,139  Roman  Catholics  (with  12 
archbishops  and  61  bishops),  more  than  3£  million  conformed  (i.  e. 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  church)  and  nearly  3  million  nonconformed 
Greek  Christians ;  1,207,309  Lutherans,  and  2,037,479  Calvinists; 
the  remainder  consisting  (beside  668,906  Jews)  of  Unitarians,  etc. 

In  point  of  origin,  there  are  somewhat  more  than  7  million 


502  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Austria — its  Mountains,  Rivers,  Soil,  etc. 

inhabitants  belonging  to  the  Germanic  tribe,  about  18  millions 
belonging  to  the  Slavonic  tribe  (as  Poles,  Bohemians  proper, 
Slowacks,  Slavonians,  etc.),  nearly  5£  millions  belonging  to  the 
Romanic  tribe,  and  about  5  million  Magyars  (see  pages  18  and 
19),  besides  about  700,000  Jews,  etc. 

With  regard  to  the  surface,  it  may  generally  be  said  that  in 
the  western  section  of  the  empire  high  mountains,  and  in  the  east- 
ern section  level  plains  prevail ;  with  the  exception,  however,  of  a 
level  plain  in  Lombardy,  and  mountain  ranges  in  Transylvania. 

The  chief  mountain  ranges  within  the  limits  of  the  Austrian 
empire  are:  eastern  branches  of  the  Alps  (see  page  4) ;  the  Car- 
pathian Mountains  (see  page  5),  the  Bohmerwald,  Erzgebirge,  and 
part  of  the  Sudetic  Mountains  (see  pages  6  and  7). 

The  shores  of  the  south-western  section  of  the  empire  are 
washed  by  the  Adriatic  Sea  (see  page  10). — The  most  notable 
lakes  are  the  Maggiore  and  Garda  lakes  in  Lombardy,  the  Ba- 
laton and  Neusiedl  lakes  in  Hungary,  and  the  Gmunden,  Ossiach, 
Clagenfurt  and  Cirknitz  lakes  in  the  German  provinces  (see  page 
11). — The  chief  rivers  and  tributaries  are:  the  Danube  (with 
the  Inn,  Ens,  March,  Trasen,  Waag,  Neitra,  Gran,  Theiss,  Leitha, 
Raab,  Drave  and  Save  (see  page  16) ;  the  Elbe  (with  the  Mol- 
dau  and  Egcr  (see  page  16)  ;  the  Po  (with  the  Adda,  Oglio, 
Mincio,  Tagliamenlo,  Piaveand  Brenta  (see  page  15)  ;  the  Adige 
(see  page  15),  and  the  sources  of  the  Vistula  (see  page  13). 

The  soil  is  generally  very  fertile,  especially  most  of  the  plains 
in  Hungary  and  Slavonia.  Yet  not  only  the  most  fertile,  but  at 
the  same  time  best-cultivated  districts  of  the  empire,  are  the 
valley  of  the  Danube,  in  the  Austrian  arch-duchy,  and  the  plain 
along  the  Po,  in  Lombardy  and  Venice.  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and 
Galicia,  are  likewise  favored  with  a  fertile  soil ;  while  the  exten- 
sive heaths  of  Ketskemet  and  Debreczin  in  Hungary,  are  sterile 
wastes. 


AUSTRIA.  fiOS 


The  Natural  Products  of  Austria. 


Of  the  total  area  above  stated,  218,431  square  miles  are  com- 
puted to  be  arable  land,  distributed  as  follows:  82,090  square 
miles,  appropriated  to  agriculture,  3,855  square  miles  to  vine  cul- 
ture, 234  square  miles  to  rice  culture  (in  Lombardy),  25,816 
square  miles,  consisting  of  meadows  and  gardens,  and  27,945 
square  miles  of  common  pastures ;  the  remainder  being  covered 
with  forests,  and  partly  appropriated  to  the  cultivation  of  various 
fruits. 

From  this  it  may  easily  be  inferred,  that  grain  is  raised  far 
more  than  what  is  required  for  home  consumption.  The  same 
may  be  said  with  reference  to  the  rearing  of  cattle.  In  1842,  the 
whole  empire  had  an  aggregate  number  of  more  than  14,000,000 
heads  of  black  cattle  (the  most  valuable  breed  is  reared  in  the  dis- 
tricts of  the  Alps,  in  the  German  provinces  in  general,  and  in 
Hungary  and  Galicia),  about  2,800,000  horses  (the  finest  breed  in 
Hungary,  Transylvania,  but  also  in  the  northern  German  prov- 
inces), nearly  34,000  mules  (reared  in  Lombardy  and  Venice  and 
in  Dalmatia),  32,000,000  sheep  (three  fifths  of  them  of  improved 
breed),  and  5,345,000  hogs  (especially  in  Hungary,  but  also  in 
other  provinces  of  the  empire).  The  produce  of  the  silkworm 
(for  which  Lombardy  and  Venice,  the  southern  part  of  Tyrol, 
Istria,  etc.,  are  noted)  amounted  in  1841  to  about  4  million 
pounds  of  raw  silk.  Game  of  various  kinds  is  to  be  found  abun- 
dantly in  most  of  the  provinces.  The  mining  products  in  1841, 
had  a  value  of  26,058,802  florins  (more  than  $9,827,000),  and 
consisted  of  gold  (6,213  marks:  Transylvania  and  Hungary 
proper),  silver  (97,329  marks :  Hungary  proper,  Bohemia,  Tran- 
sylvania, etc.),  quicksilver  (2,973  quintals,  chiefly  from  the  mines 
of  Istria),  tin  (877  quintals,  only  in  Bohemia),  copper  (49,157 
quintals,  chiefly  in  Hungary),  lead  for  the  marts  (72,028  quintals: 
Carinthia  and  Carniola,  moreover  in  Hungary,  etc.),  lead  ore 
(20,629  quintals,  only  in  Bohemia),  zinc  (4,060  quintals,  in  Hun- 


504  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Austria— its  Natural  Products,  Mauufacttures  and  Commerce. 

gary  and  Tyrol),  iron  of  every  description  (2.649,632  quintals, 
chiefly  in  Styria,  but  also  in  Illyria,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  etc.), 
and  coal  (9,353,939  quintals,  chiefly  in  Bohemia,  but  also  in 
Moravia,  Lower  Austria,  etc.).  Austria  abounds  in  salt  of  every 
description,  and  in  1841  the  rock-salt  mines  in  Galicia,  Transyl- 
vania, Hungary  proper,  Upper  Austria,  and  Styria,  produced 
3,031,079  quintals,  the  salt-springs  (in  Upper  Austria,  Salzburg, 
Galicia,  etc.)  2,011,616  quintals,  and  in  the  seaports  733,942 
quintals  of  salt  were  made.  The  Austrian  empire  has  the  most 
valuable,  and  next  to  Russia,  the  most  extensive  forests  in  Europe, 
yielding  both  timber  and  fuel  in  immense  quantities. 

Since  the  days  of  the  celebrated  empress  Maria  Theresa,  the 
manufactures  in  Austria  have  made  immense  progress,  and  at 
present  they  rival  those  of  England  and  France.  Yet  only  the 
German  and  Italian  provinces  excel  in  them,  while  in  the  Hunga- 
rian and  Polish  provinces,  the  manufactures  are  in  a  backward 
state.  The  principal  articles  of  manufacture  are  glass  (for  which 
Bohemia  is  famed),  looking-glasses  (Venice  and  Lower  Austria), 
shawls  (Vienna  is  universally  noted  for  them),  cloth  (chiefly  in 
Moravia),  linens  (Bohemia,  Austrian  /  ilesia,  Lombardy,  etc.), 
silks  and  velvet  (Vienna,  Milan,  Venice,  etc.),  farming  utensils 
(Styria),  hardware,  cutlery,  and  fire-arms,  etc.  (Lower  Austria, 
Venice,  Lombardy,  Bohemia,  etc.),  cotton  goods  (in  the  German 
provinces  and  Lombardy),  besides  paper,  porcelain,  lace,  etc. 

The  inland  trade  ( Vienna,  Prague,  Pesth,  Brody,  Botzen,  Lem- 
burg,  Kronstadt,  and  Brunn,  are  chiefly  noted  for  it)  as  well  as 
the  commerce  [Trieste  ranks  first  among  the  seaports  on  the  Adri- 
atic), is  very  considerable.  The  chief  exports  (in  1842  at  the 
value  of  124,075,107  florins,  or  about  $46,794,000)  are  silk  and 
silks,  wool  and  woollens,  glass  of  every  description,  cutlery,  hard- 
ware, farming  utensils,  leather  articles,  furniture,  tobacco,  wine, 
grain,  olive  oil,  and  timber.     The  principal  imports  (in  1842  at 


AUSTRIA.  605 


The  Means  of  Education  and  Forms  of  Government. 


the  value  of  126,510,526  florins,  or  about  $47,712,500)  are:  cot- 
ton, tropical  produce,  hides  and  furs. 

In  the  means  of  education  Austria  rivals  any  other  European 
country,  and  it  is  distinguished  both  for  eminence  in  literature 
and  science,  and  for  the  general  diffusion  of  knowledge,  with  the 
only  exception  of  Hungary,  where  the  Austrian  government  was 
hitherto  prevented  by  the  jealousy  of  the  privileged  classes  in 
that  country  from  exercising  any  substantial  direct  influence  on 
school  education.  There  are  9  universities  in  the  Austrian 
empire,  viz  ,  at  Prague  (founded  in  1348,  and  in  1842  with  2,741 
students),  Vienna  (founded  in  1365,  and  in  1842  with  5,395  stu- 
dents), Olmutz  (founded  in  1581,  and  in  1842  with  559  students), 
Grdlz  (founded  in  1486,  and  in  1842  with  942  students),  Inns- 
bruck (founded  in  1672,  and  in  1842  with  416  students),  Padua 
(founded  in  1228,  and  in  1842  with  1,825  students),  Pavia 
(founded  in  1361,  and  in  1842  with  1,484  students),  Lemberg 
(founded  in  1784,  and  in  1842  with  1,182  students),  and  at  Pesth 
(founded  in  1465,  and  in  1842  with  1,250  students).  Besides 
these  there  are  37  academies  or  higher  special  schools,  77  theo- 
logical and  78  philosophical  faculties,  31  lycea,  283  gymnasia, 
1,428  seminaries,  etc.  The  total  number  of  common  schools  was  in 
1842,  in  the  German,  Italian,  and  Polish  provinces  (thus  exclu- 
sive the  Hungarian  provinces),  31,436,  that  were  then  frequented 
by  2,427,857  children. 

With  regard  to  the  government,  it  was  until  1848  partly  a  lim- 
ited, partly  an  unlimited  monarchy.  In  Dalmatia  and  the  Mili- 
tary Frontier  the  power  of  the  emperor  was  absolute,  in  the  Ger- 
man, Italian  and  Polish  provinces  limited  by  provincial  diets,  and 
in  the  kingdom  of  Hungary  and  in  Transylvania  the  executive 
power  was  by  the  legislative  power  of  an  aristocratic  body  of  no- 
bles, prelates  and  representatives  of  privileged  towns  so  restricted, 
that  it  was  almost  reduced  to  nothing.     The  sovereign  of  the 

22 


506  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Austria — its  Government,  Finances,  Army,  etc. 

Austrian  empire  bears  since  the  11th  August,  1804,  the  title  of 
hereditary  Emperor  of  Austria ;  for  the  imperial  title  borne  by  the 
Austrian  sovereign  since  the  days  of  Albert  II.,  as  elected  emperors 
of  Germany,  kad  nothing  in  common  with  their  patrimonial  domin- 
ions. The  plenary  title  runs  thus  :  Emperor  of  Austria,  King 
of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  King  of  Lombardy  and  Venice,  of 
Dalmatia,  Croatia,  Slavonia,  Galicia,  Lodomeria  and  Illyria ; 
Arch-Duke  of  Austria,  Grand  Duke  of  Transylvania,  etc.,  etc. 
As  king  of  Hungary  the  sovereign  has  since  1758  the  predicate 
of  "  Apostolic  Majesty." 

The  public  revenue  for  several  years  anterior  to  the  commotions 
in  1848  were  about  152,000,000  florins  (including  4,395,000 
florins  raised  as  taxes  in  Hungary),  and  the  public  expenditure 
amounted  to  only  125,000,000  florins.  The  revenue  and  expen- 
diture thus  yielded  a  surplus  'of  27  million,  which  was  appropri- 
ated to  the  sinking  fund  and  paying  interest  of  the  public  debt 
that  in  1841  amounted  to  822  million  florins. 

The  regular  army  on  the  peace  footing  consisted  prior  to  the 
year  1848  of  about  230,000  men,  and  can  in  time  of  war  be  in- 
creased to  750,000  men. — The  navy  consisted,  beside  8  unrigged 
ships  of  the  line,  of  8  frigates,  4  sloops  of  war,  6  brigs,  7  schooners 
and  other  smaller  vessels. 

Besides  the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece  (see  page  83),  there  are 
the  following  other  orders  of  honor:  1.  The  military  order  of 
Maria  Theresa,  instituted  in  1757,  and  in  3  classes.  2.  The  order 
of  Elizabeth  Theresa,  instituted  in  1750,  and  renewed  in  1771. 
3.  The  Hungarian  order  of  St.  Stephen,  instituted  in  1764,  and  in 
3  classes.  4.  The  order  of  Leopold,  instituted  in  1808,  and  in  3 
classes.  5.  The  order  of  the  Iron  Crown,  instituted  in  1805  by 
Napoleon  and  renewed  in  1816  by  Emperor  Francis,  in  3  classes. 

History. — The  basis  of  the  Austrian  empire  is  the  Avarian  mark  men- 
tioned  page  31,  and  which  was  erected  by  Charlemagne  in  788-801  as  a 


AUSTRIA.  507 


The  History  of  Austria. 


bulwark  against  the  Avares  (see  page  29),  who  had  settled  in  this  quarter  since 
the  6th  century.  In  a  later  period  that  name  had  been  supported  by  the 
name  of  Eastern  mark  or  orientalis  regio,  from  which  was  finally  derived 
the  name  of  Austria.  Leopold,  earl  of  Babenberg  (whose  ancestral  castle 
was  close  by  the  city  of  Bamberg  on  the  Mayne),  appointed  in  944,  was  the 
first  hereditary  margrave  of  Austria.  In  1156  the  district  at  present  known 
by  the  general  name  of  Upper  Austria  (between  the  Inn  and  the  Ens  rivers) 
was  annexed  to  the  margraviate  of  Austria,  and  the  latter  raised  to  the  dig- 
nity of  a  duchy  by  Emperor  Frederic  I  Duke  Leopold  VI.  inherited  tStyria 
in  1186,  and  his  son  and  successor,  Frederic  II.,  Carniola  in  1232.  With 
Duke  Frederic  II.  the  male  line  of  the  house  of  Babenberg  became  extinct, 
and  now  his  brother-in-law,  King  Ottokar  of  Bohemia,  took  possession  of 
Austria  in  1260 ;  he  was,  however,  deprived  of  it  in  1276  by  emperor  Rodolph 
of  Hapsburg,  who  then  invested  his  sons  with  the  Austrian  dominions,  and 
whose  descendants  are  still  possessed  of  them  (see  History  of  Germany, 
page  301).  To  Austria,  Styria  and  Carniola  (see  above)  were  annexed  in 
1331  Carinthia,  and  in  1365  Tyrol,  by  way  of  inheritance.  Duke  Rodolph 
IV.  (-f-1365)  assumed  the  archducal  title,  which  was  since  1453  an  official 
one.  The  general  history  of  Austria  being  since  the  days  of  Rodolph  of 
Hapsburg  more  or  less  closely  connected  with  the  general  history  of  Ger 
many,  the  most  remarkable  particulars  of  it  are  to  be  found  in  the  latter  ; 
and  we  have  only  to  add  some  few  others.  In  1740  the  male  line  of  the 
house  of  Hapsburg  became  extinct  with  the  German  emperor  Charles  VL, 
and  as  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa,  who  succeeded  him  in  the  patrimonial 
dominions,  was  married  to  Duke  Francis  of  Lorraine,  the  reigning  house  is 
frequently  styled  Hapsburg-Lorraine.  Emperor  Francis  I.  (as  emperor  of 
Germany  Francis  II.)  died  in  1835,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ferdinand 
I.,  who  resigned  in  November,  1848,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  the 
present  reigning  emperor  Francis  Joseph  Charles,  born  in  1 830. 

As  has  already  been  mentioned  above,  the  Austrian  empire 
embraces  four  principal  constituent  parts,  styled  the  German, 
Polish,  Hungarian  and  Italian  provinces.  Yet  by  the  term  of 
Hungarian  Provinces,  the  Austrian  statistics  indicate  all  coun- 
tries under  the  imperial  sway,  which  form  part  neither  of  the 
German,  nor  of  the  Polish,  nor  of  the  Italian  provinces ;  and  thus 


508  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Austria— its  Geographical  Divisions. 

under  this  head  are  comprised  the  kingdom  of  Hungary  as  well 
as  Transylvania,  the  Military  Frontier,  and  even  Dalmatia,  though 
the  latter  has  no  administrative  connection  with  all  the  other 
provinces  just  named,  while  the  Military  Frontier  has  thoroughly 
a  military  organization,  and  Transylvania  has  likewise  no  admin- 
istrative connection  with  the  kingdom  of  Hungary.  Thus  they 
are  to  be  described  separately,  and  we  shall  give  the  topographi- 
cal description  in  the  following  order  of  succession  :  I.  The  Ger- 
man Provinces  ;  II.  The  Kingdom  of  Galicia ;  III.  The  King- 
dom of  Hungary ;  IV.  The  Grand-Duchy  of  Transylvania ;  V. 
The  Military  Frontier;  VI.  The  Kingdom  of  Dalmatia,  and 
VII.  The  Kingdom  of  Lombardy  and  Venice. 


L— THE  GERMAN  PROVINCES  OF  AUSTRIA 

Area  :  76,147  square  miles. 
Population:  12,700,000  inhabitants. 

They  comprise,  as  has  already  been  stated,  page  309,  the  arch- 
duchy of  Austria,  Styria,  lllyria,  Tyrol,  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and 
Austrian  Silesia,  and  finally  the  duchies  of  Auschwitz  and  Zator. 

1.  The  Arch-duchy  of  Austria  (15,070  square  miles,  and  2,400,000 
inhabitants),  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Danube,  between  Bavaria  and 
Hungary  proper,  and  is  officially  divided  into  4  districts,  styled  circles,  two 
of  which  embrace  the  eastern  half,  in  common  life  named  Lower  Austria, 
while  the  western  half  is  commonly  named  Upper  Austria.  Lower  Austria 
contains:  Vienna  (in  German  Wien),  the  metropolis  of  the  empire  and 
imperial  residence,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  360  miles  south-south- 


AUSTRIA.  509 


The  German  Provinces  of  Austria. 


east  of  Berlin,  north-eastward  and  284  miles  distant  from  Venice,  and  north- 
westward and  1,070  miles  distant  from  Constantinople,  is  at  present  strongly 
fortified,  and  had  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1846,  8,776  habitations,  and 
429,500  inhabitants.  Vienna,  already  extant  in  the  days  of  the  ancient 
Romans,  and  a  flourishing  emporium  in  the  ear  her  period  of  the  middle  ages, 
is  at  present  the  first  trading  and  manufacturing  city  of  the  empire,  and  is 
besides  this,  highly  renowned  for  its  vast  number  of  literary  and  scientific 
establishments  (see  page  288),  of  stately  palaces  and  public  edifices  (the 
most  remarkable  among  the  latter  is  St  Stephen's  cathedral,  whose  steeple 
is  435  J  feet  high),  for  its  handsome  public  gardens  (as  Prater,  Angarten,  etc.), 
and  for  its  wealth.  There  are  dwelling-houses  in  Vienna  with  more  than 
1,500  inhabitants,  and  yielding  an  annual  house-rent  of  100,000  florins.  The 
number  of  magnificent  and  extensive  palaces  (besides  those  of  the  emperor) 
amounted  to  123  some  years  ago.  Vienna  consists  of  the  principal  city  and 
34  suburbs,  as  they  are  styled,  though  they  are  more  regularly  built  than 
the  city  itself.  The  neighboring  imperial  palaces  of  Schonbrunn  and  Lax- 
enburg,  are  noted  for  their  beautiful  parks  and  other  curiosities.  Baden,  a 
town  on  the  Schwechat,  14  miles  south-south-west  of  Vienna,  has  4,000 
inhabitants,  and  is  highly  famed,  and  much  resorted  to  as  a  watering-place 
Wienerisch-Neustadt,  a  city  on  a  canal,  southward  and  28  miles  distant  from 
Vienna,  has  12,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  military  academy  and 
manufactures.  Schwechat,  a  market-town  on  the  river  of  the  same  name, 
and  at  the  high-road  to  Hungary,  with  cotton  manufactures,  and  2,500  inhab- 
itants. Pottendorf,  a  market-town  near  the  Hungarian  frontier,  is  noted  for 
its  cotton  manufactures,  and  has  3,000  inhabitants.  St.  Polten,  a  town  on 
the  Trasen  river,  westward  and  33  miles  distant  from  Vienna,  with  various 
manufactures,  and  5,000  inhabitants.  Mblk,  or  Melk,  a  market-town  on  the 
Danube,  with  1,200  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  magnificent  Benedictine 
abbey,  instituted  in  984.  Krems,  a  town  on  the  Danube,  88  miles  west- 
north-west  of  Vienna,  with  various  higher  schools,  manufactures,  and  5,000 
inhabitants.  The  village  of  Maria  Taferl  is  a  place  of  great  resort  for  pil- 
grims, to  visit  its  holy  shrine.  Korneuburg,  a  town  on  the  Danube,  north- 
ward and  9  miles  distant  from  Vienna,  with  2,600  inhabitants.  The  neigh- 
boring villages  of  Aspern,  Essling,  and  Wagram,  are  remarkable  for  battles 
fought  here  in  1809,  between  the  Austrians  and  French — Upper  Austria 
contains:  Linz,  its  capital,  on  the  Danube,  westward  and  112  miles  distant 
from  Vienna,  has  25,000  inhabitants,  is  strongly  fortified,  and  noted  for  its 


610  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Austria.— The  German  Provinces  of  Austria  and  Styria. 

manufactures  and  important  inland  trade.  Stcyer,  a  city  on  the  Ens,  south- 
eastward and  18  miles  distant  from  Linz,  has  11,000  inhabitants,  and  is,  on 
account  of  its  numerous  and  important  hardware  manufactures,  sometimes 
called  the  Austrian  Birmingham.  St.  Florian,  a  market-town,  with  900 
inhabitants,  is  situated  in  a  district  noted  for  the  fertility  of  its  soil,  and  for 
the  wealth  of  its  peasantry.  In  this  district  is  also  situated  the  market-town 
of  Kremsrnunster  (with  1,050  inhabitants),  highly  renowned  for  its  Benedic- 
tine abbey,  instituted  in  772.  Ischl,  a  market-town  on  the  Traun  river, 
south-westward  and  48  miles  distant  from  Linz,  and  eastward  and  28  miles 
distant  from  Salzburg,  has  2,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  salt-springs 
and  baths.  Ischl  is  the  chief  place  of  a  district  styled  Salzkammergut  (salt- 
domain),  on  account  of  the  vast  quantities  of  salt  made  here.  Wels,  a  town 
on  the  Traun  river,  south-westward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Linz,  with 
various  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and  5,000  inhabitants.  Hied,  a 
market-town  on  two  little  rivers,  westward  and  28  miles  distant  from  "Wels, 
with  linen  and  cloth  manufactures,  and  3,200  inhabitants.  JBraunau,  a  town 
on  the  Inn,  and  at  the  frontier  of  Bavaria,  westward  and  60  miles  distant 
from  Linz,  with  various  manufactures,  numerous  breweries,  and  2,500  inhab- 
itants.— The  former  independent  or  sovereign  archbishopric  of  Salzburg  (it 
had  before  its  secularization  an  extent  of  3,706  square  miles,  with  250,000 
inhabitants,  was  instituted  in  716,  in  1801  secularized  and  given  to  the  grand 
duke  of  Tuscany,  Ferdinand  Joseph,  in  1805  ceded  to  Austria,  in  1809  to 
Bavaria,  and  in  1815  restored  to  Austria)  contains:  Salzburg,  its  former 
capital  very  romantically  situated  on  the  Salzach  river,  and  near  the  Bava- 
rian frontier,  160  miles  west-south-west  of  Vienna,  has  13,400  inhabitants,  is 
famed  for  its  cathedral  and  numerous  other  architectural  monuments,  and 
for  its  manufactures  and  inland  trade.  Close  by  the  city  towers  on  a  steep 
rock,  440  feet  high,  the  remarkable  ancient  fortress  of  Hohensalzburg. 
Southward  and  48  miles  distant  from  Salzburg  is  situated  the  market-town 
of  Gastrin  (with  600  inhabitants),  highly  famed  and  much  resorted  to  as  a 
watering-place.  Hallein,  a  town  on  the  Salzach  river,  southward  and  9  miles 
distant  from  Salzburg,  has  4,100  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  important 
gait-works.  Nearly  the  whole  territory  of  the  ancient  bishopric  of  Salzburg 
is  distinguished  for  the  wild  and  sublime  character  of  its  sceneries. 

2.  The  Duchy  of  Styria,  in  German  Steiermark  (8,690  square  miles,  and 
1,000,000  inhabitants),  on  the  south  side  of  the  former  province,  contains : 
Graetz  or  Gratz,  its  capital,  romantically  situated  on  the  Mur  river,  with 


AUSTRIA.  611 


The  German  Provinces  of  Styria,  Carniola  and  Carinthia. 

numerous  manufactures,  noted  annual  fairs,  several  Gothic  and  remarkable 
churches,  a  university  (see  above)  and  other  literary  and  scientific  institu- 
tions, and  50,000  inhabitants.  Marburg,  a  city  on  the  Drave,  40  miles  south- 
south-east  of  Gratz,  with  noted  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and  6,200 
inhabitants.  Luttenberg,  a  market-town,  with  850  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its 
vine  culture.  Cilli,  a  town  on  the  San  river,  southward  and  56  miles  distant 
from  Gratz,  with  Roman  antiquities,  corn  and  wine  trade,  and  2,000  inhabi- 
tants. Judenburg,  a  town  on  the  Mur  river,  westward  and  40  miles  distant 
from  Gratz,  with  remarkable  ancient  castle,  iron-works,  and  2,000  inhabi- 
tants. Brack,  a  town  on  the  Mur,  25  miles  north-north-west  of  Gratz,  has 
1,850  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  hardware.  Leoben,  a  town,  south- 
westward  and  90  miles  distant  from  Vienna,  with  hardware  manufactures, 
considerable  trade  in  iron,  and  3,200  inhabitants.  Mariazell,  a  market- 
town  on  the  Salza  river,  south-westward  and  64  miles  distant  from  Vienna, 
has  1,100  inhabitants,  and  has  long  been  a  place  of  great  resort  for  pilgrims, 
to  visit  its  holy  shrine. 

3.  The  Kingdom  of  Illyria  (9,052£  square  miles,  and  1,357,000  inhabi- 
tants) is  situated  between  Styria  and  the  kingdom  of  Lombardy  and  Venice, 
on  the  south  bordering  upon  the  Adriatic  Sea.  In  the  period  from  1809  to 
1814  it  was  under  the  sway  of  Napoleon,  and  embraces  the  ancient  duchies 
of  Carniola  and  Carinthia,  the  so-called  Littorale,  Austrian  Friaul,  Austrian 
Istria,  and  the  former  Venetian  Istria,  (which  two  latter  districts  have,  how- 
ever, no  political  connection  with  Germany). — The  ancient  duchy  of  Carni- 
ola (in  German  Krain)  contains :  Laibach  or  Laybach,  its  ancient  capital, 
and  at  present  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Illyria,  on  a  river  of  the  same 
name,  south-westward  and  190  miles  distant  from  Vienna,  with  remarkable 
cathedral,  important  inland  trade,  and  19,000  inhabitants.  Neustadtl,  a  town 
on  the  Gurk  river,  with  1,600  inhabitants.  Adelsberg,  a  market-town  south- 
westward  and  24  miles  distant  from  Laibach,  with  important  horse-marts, 
1,800  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  the  remarkable  caves  in  the  neighboring 
rocks. — The  ancient  duchy  of  Carinthia  (in  German  Karnthen)  contains: 
Klagenfurt,  its  ancient  capital,  near  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  43  miles 
north-north-west  of  Laibach,  ha3  13,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its 
white  lead  and  other  manufactures,  for  its  ancient  castle,  and  several  remark- 
able churches.  The  neighboring  very  ancient  castle  of  Tanzenberg  is  re- 
markable as  the  birth  place  of  Emperor  Maximilian  L  St.  Veit,  a  town  on 
the  Glan  river,  northward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Klagenfurt,  has  2,000  in- 


512  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Austria.— The  German  Provinces  of  Littorale,  Friaul,  etc. 

habitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  horse-marts  and  considerable  trade  in  iron  and 
hardware.  Villach,  a  town  on  the  Drave,  westward  and  24  miles  distant 
from  Klagenfurt,  with  iron  works,  considerable  trade  in  mining  products, 
and  3,200  inhabitants.  The  neighboring  village  of  Bleiberg  is  famed  for  its 
important  lead  mines.  The  so-called  Littorale  contains :  Trieste  (in  Ger- 
man Triest),  next  to  Hamburg  the  chief  commercial  city  in  Germany,  in  some 
respects  rivalling  Bremen,  on  the  Adriatic  Sea,  south-westward  and  240  miles 
distant  from  Vienna,  has  7  6,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  not  only  for  its  ex- 
tensive commerce,  but  also  for  its  manufactures  and  several  architectural 
monuments.  The  neighboring  village  of  Prosecco  is  renowned  for  its  wines. 
Aquileja,  a  town  near  the  Adriatic  Sea,  about  half-way  between  Trieste  and 
Venice,  has  at  present  only  1,800  inhabitants,  but  was  in  the  days  of  the 
ancient  Romans  a  celebrated  city  with  100,000  inhabitants,  when  in  452  of 
the  Christian  era  it  was  almost  totally  destroyed  by  the  Huns  under  Attila. — 
Austrian  Friaul  (see  page  31)  contains :  Gorz  (in  Italian  Gorizia),  a  city  on 
the  Isonzo  river,  24  miles  north-north-west  of  Trieste,  with  remarkable 
mountain  castle,  and  cathedral,  various  manufactures,  and  9,600  inhabitants. 
Gradisca,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Isonzo,  with  remarkable  mountain  castle, 
and  1,000  inhabitants.  Idria,  a  mining  town  in  a  mountainous  district,  north- 
eastward and  28  miles  distant  from  Trieste,  has  5,000  inhabitants,  and  is 
universally  noted  for  its  quicksilver  mines. — The  Austrian  and  former  Vene- 
tian Jstria  (which,  as  has  already  been  noticed,  do  not  belong  politically  to 
the  German  provinces)  contain :  Mitterburg  (in  Italian  Pisino),  a  town  to- 
wards the  centre  of  the  Istrian  peninsula,  south-eastward  and  40  miles  dis- 
tant from  Trieste,  with  remarkable  ancient  mountain  castle,  vine  culture,  and 
2,700  inhabitants.  Capodistria,  ancient  capital  of  Venetian  Istria,  on  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  southward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Trieste,  with  magnificent 
cathedral,  noted  manufactures,  considerable  commerce,  and  7,000  inhabitants. 
Isola,  a  market-town  on  the  sea,  has  3,800  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its 
wines.  Pola,  a  maritime  town,  southward  and  72  miles  distant  from  Trieste, 
has  1,200  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  cathedral  (reared  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury) and  Roman  antiquities.  Pola  was  anciently  a  station  of  the  Roman 
navy.  Rovigno,  a  city  on  the  Adriatic,  with  considerable  commerce,  and 
11,000  inhabitants.  Pirano,  a  city  on  the  Adriatic,  westward  and  7  miles 
distant  from  Capodistria,  is  noted  for  its  salt-works,  and  has  8,600  inhabi- 
tants. I/ussin  Piccolo,  a  maritime  town  on  the  isle  of  Osero,  is  noted  for  its 
commerce,  and  has  3,600  inhabitants. 


AUSTRIA.  513 


The  German  Province  of  Tyrol. 


4.  The  princely  Earldom  of  Tyrol  (11,140  square  miles,  and  900,000  in- 
habitants), a  thorough  mountainous  country,  between  Switzerland  and  Up- 
per Austria  (see  above),  and  between  Bavaria  and  Italy,  is  crossed  by 
branches  of  the  Alps,  and  by  the  rivers  Inn,  Adige  and  Eisack.  Tyrol 
came  in  the  6  th  century  under  the  sway  of  the  Bavarian  dukes,  and  in  a 
later  period  under  that  of  the  native  dukes  of  Meran,  and  of  the  independent 
or  sovereign  bishops  of  Brixen  and  Trent.  When  in  1248  the  male  line  of 
the  duke  of  Meran  became  extinct,  the  earls  of  Tyrol  became  possessed  of 
their  dominions,  and  in  1365  the  latter  were  inherited  by  the  dukes  of  Aus- 
tria. The  named  independent  bishoprics  were  secularized  in  1803,  and  sub- 
jected to  the  sovereignty  of  Austria.  In  1805  Tyrol  was  ceded  to  Bavaria, 
but  in  1814  restored  to  Austria.  It  contains:  Innspruck,  its  capital,  on  the 
Inn  river,  60  miles  south-south-west  of  Munich,  and  north-eastward  and 
170  miles  distant  from  Milan,  with  considerable  inland  trade,  a  university 
(see  above),  and  14,000  inhabitants,  is  famed  for  its  numerous  remarkable 
ancient  public  edifices,  among  which  ranks  first  the  imperial  castle,  once  the 
residence  of  the  sovereigns  of  TyroL  The  neighboring  town  of  Hall  (with 
5,000  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  salt-works.  Schwatz,  a  market-town  on 
the  Inn,  north-eastward  and  14  miles  distant  from  Innspruck,  has  4,100  in- 
habitants, and  is  noted  for  its  iron  and  copper  mines.  Kuf stein,  a  town  on 
the  Inn,  with  1,700  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  fortress.  Botzen  (in  Italian 
Bolzano),  the  emporium  of  Tyrol,  on  the  Eisack  river,  with  linen  and  silk 
manufactures,  noted  annual  fairs,  and  8,600  inhabitants.  Tramin,  a  market- 
town,  with  1,400  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  wines.  Meran,  a  town  on  the 
Adige,  48  miles  south-south-west  of  Innspruck,  has  3,000  inhabitants,  and  is 
much  resorted  to  as  a  watering-place,  and  was  anciently  the  residence  of  the 
dukes  of  Meran  (see  above).  The  neighboring  castle  of  Tyrol  was  the  an- 
cestral seat  of  the  earls  of  this  name  (see  above).  Roveredo  (in  German 
Rovereith),  a  city  near  the  Adige,  north-westward  and  12  miles  distant  from 
Venice,  has  8,000  inhabitants,  and  is  famed  for  its  silk  manufactures,  and 
considerable  trade. — Trent  (in  German  Trient),  formerly  the  capital  of  a 
sovereign  bishopric  of  the  same  name  (see  above),  on  the  Adige  and  near 
the  Italian  frontier,  with  15,000  inhabitants,  an  extensive  Gothic  castle  (for- 
merly the  residence  of  the  sovereign  bishop),  remarkable  churches  (among 
which  that  where  the  noted  council  in  the  period  from  1545  to  1563  was 
held),  important  manufactures,  and  considerable  trade. — Brixen  (in  Italian 
Bressanone),  formerly  the  capital  of  a  sovereign  bishopric  of  the  same  name 


514  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Austria. — The  German  Provinces  of  Tyrol  and  Bohemia. 

(see  back),  on  the  Eisack  river,  42  miles  south-south-east  of  Inuspruck,  with 
handsome  cathedral,  mineral  waters,  and  3,500  inhabitants. — The  dominions 
of  Voralberg  (which  were  acquired  by  Austria  since  the  14th  century,  but 
had  politically  nothing  in  common  with  the  earldom  of  Tyrol)  contain :  Bre- 
genz,  a  town  on  the  lake  of  Constance,  opposite  the  city  of  Constance,  with 
notable  branches  of  industry,  and  3,000  inhabitants.  Feldkirch  (in  Italian 
Campo  di  San  Pietro),  a  town  southward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Bregenz, 
with  considerable  inland  trade,  and  1,800  inhabitants.  Hohenembs,  a  market- 
town,  with  2,200  inhabitants. 

5.  The  Kingdom  of  Bohemia  (20,096£  square  miles,  and  4,600,000  inhabi- 
tants), forming  the  most  northern  and  north-western  part  of  the  Austrian 
empire.  It  has  derived  its  name  from  a  Celtic  tribe  that  in  589  before  the 
Christian  era  immigrated  here  from  Gaul.  In  the  6th  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  the  Celtic  inhabitants  of  the  country  were  subdued,  and  since  gradu- 
ally removed  by  Slavonian  tribes  who  had  emigrated  from  the  present  Cro- 
atia, headed  by  a  chief  named  Czech,  which  name  was  subsequently  adopted 
by  the  Slavonian  inhabitants  of  Bohemia.  The  latter  was  in  a  later  period 
ruled  by  native  dukes,  whose  ancestor  was  Primizl,  but  became  extinct  in 
1306  with  Wenceslaus  III.,  grandson  of  King  Ottocar  II.  (see  History  of 
Germany,  page  301).  Bohemia  had  meanwhile  become  a  constituent  part 
of  the  German  empire  (since  the  9th,  or  rather  since  the  10th  century),  and 
in  1061  been  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  kingdom.  After  the  death  of  Wen- 
ceslaus III.,  the  Bohemians  elected  princes  from  the  house  of  Luxemburg 
their  kings,  and  since  1440  for  the  most  part  princes  from  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg  or  Austria,  until  in  1547  Ferdinand  of  Austria  (subsequently  German 
emperor)  became  hereditary  king  of  Bohemia.  The  kingdom  contains :  Prague 
(in  German  Prag),  its  capital,  on  the  Moldau  river,  80  miles  south- south-east 
of  Dresden,  and  north-westward  and  160  miles  distant  from  Vienna,  is  forti- 
fied, and  has  114,000  inhabitants,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  trading 
and  manufacturing  cities  in  the  Austrian  empire,  and  highly  renowned  for  its 
magnificent  public  and  private  buildings,  its  literary  and  scientific  institu- 
tions (about  its  university  see  above),  and  its  wealth.  The  most  remarkable 
among  the  public  edifices  are  the  royal  castle,  styled  ffradschin,  containing 
440  saloons  and  other  splendidly  furnished  rooms, — the  cathedral  (reared  in 
the  middle  of  the  14th  century,  and  containing  among  others  the  remains  of 
the  holy  John  of  Nepomuk  in  a  cofiin  of  pure  silver,  5,000  marks  in  weight), 
—the  ancient  Gothic  city-hall,  eta     Wischehrad,  a  town  in  the  neighborhood 


AUSTRIA.  515 


The  Province  of  Bohemia. 


of  Prague,  has  2,000  inhabitants,  and  was  anciently  renowned  for  its  strong 
mountain  castle,  which  in  1420  was  destroyed  by  the  Hussites.  Kollin,  a 
town  on  the  Elbe,  eastward  and  36  miles  distant  from  Prague,  with  cotton 
manufactures,  iron-works,  and  6,500  inhabitants,  is  remarkable  for  a  battle  on 
the  18th  June,  1757,  in  which  the  Prussians  were  defeated.  Jankau,  or  Jan- 
kowitz,  a  market-town  south-eastward  and  32  miles  distant  from  Prague, 
with  only  500  inhabitants,  but  remarkable  in  history  for  the  victory  gained 
by  the  Swedes  on  the  24th  February,  1645.  Beraun,  a  town  south-west- 
ward and  18  miles  distant  from  Prague,  with  noted  potteries,  cotton  manu- 
factures, and  2,600  inhabitants.  The  neighboring  mountain  castle  of  Carl- 
stein,  reared  in  1348,  is  highly  remarkable.  Purglitz,  or  Burglitz,  is  likewise 
a  remarkable  mountain  castle,  and  was  reared  in  1110.  Pihen,  a  city  at  the 
junction  of  several  little  rivers,  60  miles  west-south-west  of  Prague,  with  a 
magnificent  church,  noted  manufactures,  considerable  inland  trade,  important 
coal  and  iron  mines,  and  10,000  inhabitants.  The  town  of  Tepl  (south-west- 
ward and  66  miles  distant  from  Teplitz,  with  2,000  inhabitants)  is  noted  for 
its  ancient  and  wealthy  Premonstrant  abbey,  and  for  the  neighboring  water- 
ing-place of  MarienbacL  The  town  of  Ellbogen,  on  the  Eger  river,  80  miles 
west-north-west  of  Prague,  is  noted  for  its  porcelain,  and  has  2,500  inhabi- 
tants. In  its  neighborhood  is  situated  the  long  since  as  a  watering-place  re- 
nowned town  of  Carlsbad,  with  3,700  inhabitants,  and  numerous  manufac- 
tures. Eger,  a  city  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  and  near  the  Bavarian 
frontier,  north-westward  and  54  miles  distant  from  Pilsen,  with  numerous 
and  important  manufactures,  and  10,000  inhabitants.  The  house  where  Wal- 
lenstein  was  murdered  on  the  25th  February,  1634,  is  still  extant.  Near 
Eger  is  the  noted  watering-place  of  Franzensbrunnen.  The  mining  town  of 
Joachimsthal  (14  miles  north-north-east  of  Ellbogen,  with  various  manufac- 
tures, and  4,750  inhabitants)  was  formerly  noted  for  its  silver  mines.  Leit- 
meritz,  a  town  romantically  situated  on  the  Elbe,  40  miles  north-north-west 
of  Prague,  with  remarkable  cathedral,  important  manufactures,  considerable 
corn  trade,  vine  culture,  and  4,700  inhabitants.  Teplitz,  or  Toplitz,  a  town 
romantically  situated  in  a  valley,  southward  and  34  miles  distant  from  Dres- 
den, and  50  miles  north-north-west  of  Prague,  is  highly  renowned  and  much 
resorted  to  as  a  watering-place,  and  has  3,500  inhabitants.  Tetschen,  a  town 
near  the  Saxon  frontier,  carries  on  a  considerable  trade,  and  has  1,600  inhabi- 
tants. Melnik,  a  town  on  the  Elbe,  northward  and  24  miles  distant  from 
Prague,  is  noted  for  its  wines,  and  has  1,750  inhabitants.    Munchengratz,  a 


,-- 


EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Austria. — The  German  Provinces  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia. 

town  on  the  Little  Iser  river,  north-eastward  and  40  miles  distant  from 
Prague,  with  a  remarkable  palace,  a  church  with  the  sepulchre  of  Wallen- 
stein,  cotton  manufactures,  and  3,000  inhabitants.  Reichstadt,  a  market- 
town  northward  and  48  miles  distant  from  Prague,  has  2,000  inhabitants,  and 
was  until  1832  the  capital  of  a  dependent  duchy  of  young  Napoleon,  who 
died  in  that  year.  Reichenberg,  one  of  the  most  important  manufacturing 
towns  in  Bohemia,  north-eastward  and  60  miles  distant  from  Prague,  is  noted 
especially  for  its  cloth,  linen,  hosieries,  and  cotton  goods,  and  has  12,000  in- 
habitants. Friedland,  a  town  on  the  Wittich  river,  72  miles  north-north-east 
of  Prague,  has  3,600  inhabitants,  and  was  anciently  the  capital  of  a  duchy 
belonging  to  "Wallenstein.  Koniggratz,  a  fortified  city  on  the  Elbe,  70  miles 
east-north-east  of  Prague,  with  scientific  institutions,  manufactures,  and  8,000 
inhabitants.  Chrudim,  a  town  on  the  Chrudimka,  64  miles  east-south-east  of 
Prague,  has  6,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  horse-marts.  Kuttenberg, 
a  mining  town,  40  miles  east-south-east  of  Prague,  has  10,000  inhabitants,  and 
is  noted  for  its  silver  mines.  Budweis,  a  town  on  the  Moldau  river,  with  cloth 
manufactures,  rather  considerable  trade,  and  8,200  inhabitants. 

6.  The  Margraviate  of  Moravia,  and  Austrian  Silesia  (total  area:  10,607 
square  miles;  total  population:  2,310,000  inhabitants),  situated  between  Bo- 
hemia and  Hungary.  Moravia  (8,616  square  miles,  and  1,833,200  inhabi- 
tants) was  in  the  8th  century  a  powerful  kingdom,  which,  beside  the  present 
margraviate,  comprised  also  considerable  parts  of  Hungaria  and  Austria 
proper.  About  the  year  871  King  Swatopluk  or  Zwentibold  reigned  and  re- 
sided in  "Welehrad  (at  present  a  Cistercian  monastery,  44  miles  south-south- 
east of  Olmutz).  During  the  reign  of  his  son,  Swatobog,  or  since  the  year 
908,  the  kingdom  became  mostly  a  prey  of  the  Hungarians,  Poles,  and  Ger- 
mans, and  of  the  present  margraviate  the  duke  of  Bohemia  became  pos- 
sessed. In  11C2  Emperor  Frederic  L  conferred  the  title  of  a  margraviate 
upon  the  country,  which  since  the  year  1293  has  constantly  been  united  with 
Bohemia.  It  is  at  present  noted  for  its  important  manufactures,  and  con- 
tains: Bruenn,  its  capital,  on  the  Schwarzawa  river,  northward  and  64 
miles  distant  from  Vienna,  and  south-eastward  and  120  miles  distant  from 
Prague,  has  42,000  inhabitants,  and  is  famed  for  its  cloth  and  leather  manu- 
factures, its  considerable  inland  trade,  its  cathedral  and  Gothic  St.  James' 
church,  and  its  citadel  named  Spielberg.  Eastward  and  14  miles  distant 
from  Brunn  is  situated  the  town  of  Austerlitz  (with  a  magnificent  palace  of 
the  prince  of  Kaunitz-Rietberg,  and  3,300  inhabitants),  historically  noted  for 


AUSTRIA.  517 


The  German  Provinces  of  Moravia  and  Austrian  Silesia. 

the  battle  on  the  2d  December,  1805.  Msgrub,  a  market-town,  half-way  be- 
tween Briinn  and  Vienna,  has  2,200  inhabitants,  and  is  famed  for  the  palace 
and  one  of  the  finest  parks  and  gardens  in  Europe,  belonging  to  the  prince  of 
Liechtenstein.  Nikolsburg,  a  town  in  a  fertile  district,  and  near  the  frontier 
of  Austria  proper,  has  8,150  inhabitants,  who  carry  on  a  considerable  trade, 
and  is  noted  for  a  stately  palace  of  the  prince  of  Dietrichstein.  Olmuetz, 
formerly  the  capital  of  Moravia,  on  the  March  river,  42  miles  north-north- 
east of  Briinn,  has  18,300  inhabitants,  is  strongly  fortified,  and  noted  for  the 
magnificent  palace  of  the  archbishop  of  Olmutz,  for  several  highly  remark- 
able churches,  and  for  its  cattle-marts.  Znaym,  a  town  on  the  Thaya,  48 
miles  north-north-west  of  Vienna,  with  ancient  castle,  once  the  residence  of 
the  margraves  of  Moravia,  cloth  manufactures,  vine  culture,  and  6,400  inhab- 
itants. Iglau,  a  city  near  the  frontier  of  Bohemia,  with  a  remarkable  Gothic 
church,  noted  cloth  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and  16,000  inhabitants. 
Kremsier,  a  town  southward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Olmutz,  with  a  costly 
palace  of  the  archbishop  of  Olmutz,  and  6,400  inhabitants.  Neu-Titschein 
(eastward  and  35  miles  distant  from  Olmutz,  with  cloth  and  other  manufac- 
tures, considerable  trade,  and  7,500  inhabitants),  and  Fulnek  (with  cloth  and 
other  woollen  manufactures,  and  3,900  inhabitants),  towns  situated  in  a  fer- 
tile grazing  district,  named  Kuhlandchen  (literally,  Little  Cow-land). — Aus- 
trian Silesia  (1,991  square  miles,  and  4*76,800  inhabitants),  which  is  nothing 
else  but  a  Silesian  section  retained  by  Austria  according  to  the  treaties  of 
peace  concluded  with  Prussia  in  1742, 1745  and  1763,  contains  :  Teschen,  the 
capital  of  a  dependent  principality  belonging  to  the  Austrian  archduke 
Charles,  at  the  northern  foot  of  the  Beskides  (see  page  5),  south-eastward 
and  120  miles  distant  from  Breslau,  and  72  miles  east-north-east  of  Olmutz, 
with  notable  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and  7,600  inhabitants.  Trop- 
pau,  the  capital  of  a  dependent  principality  belonging  to  the  prince  of  Liech- 
tenstein (see  page  350),  on  the  Oppa  river,  north-westward  and  38  miles 
distant  from  Teschen,  with  a  Gothic  church  and  several  other  architectural 
monuments,  cloth  and  linen  manufactures,  and  14,000  inhabitants.  Jae- 
gerndorf,  the  capital  of  a  dependent  principality,  which  likewise  belongs 
to  the  prince  of  Liechtenstein,  north-westward  and  12  miles  distant  from 
Troppau,  with  cloth  and  linen  manufactures,  and  5,500  inhabitants.  Zuck- 
mantel,  a  town  with  various  manufactures,  and  3,200  inhabitants.  Freiwal- 
dau,  a  town  in  a  mountainous  district,  south-westward  and  48  miles  distant 
from  Oppeln  (in  Prussian  Silesia),  with  woollen  manufactures,  and  2,500  in- 


518  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Austria.— Galicia  and  Lodomeria. 

habitants.     In  its  neighborhood  is  situated  the  village  of  Grdfenberg,  re- 
nowned as  a  watering-place. 

7.  The  Duchies  of  Auschwitz  and  Zatoe  (1,491  square  miles,  and  365,000 
inhabitants),  situated  between  Teschen  and  Cracow.  Since  the  year  1179 
they  formed  a  constituent  part  of  Silesia,  but  were  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
15th  century  ceded  to  Poland.  In  1772  Austria  became  possessed  of  them, 
together  with  Galicia.  They  contain :  Auschwitz,  the  capital  of  the  duchy 
of  the  same  name,  on  the  Vistula,  westward  and  32  miles  distant  from  Cra- 
cow, with  2,400  inhabitants.  Binla,  a  town  on  the  river  of  the  same  name, 
with  cloth  manufactures,  and  4,400  inhabitants.  Wadomce,  a  town  with 
2,800  inhabitants.  Zator,  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  the  same  name,  with 
1,800  inhabitants.  Andrichau,  a  town  with  cloth  manufactures,  and  3,000 
inhabitants. 


H— THE  KINGDOM  OF  GALICIA 

Area:  32,908  square  miles. 
Population  :  4,950,000  inhabitants. 

It  is  officially  styled  the  Kingdom  of  Galicia  and  Lodomeria 
(as  for  the  reason  see  below),  and  was  primitively  a  constituent 
part  of  Russia,  at  which  period  it  was  named  Red  Russia.  In 
the  year  1019-1054  it  was  ruled  by  Jaroslav  I.,  son  of  the  Rus- 
sian grand  duke  Wladimir  the  Great ;  his  sons  divided  it,  and 
thus  one  part  of  it  was  since  called  Halicz  or  Galicia,  and  the 
other  Wladimir  or  Lodomeria.  Since  the  year  1084  and  the  lat- 
ter half  of  the  13th  century,  the  kings  of  Hungary  became  pos- 
sessed of  the  present  kingdom  of  Galicia.  but  in  1390  it  was 
wrested  from  them  by  the  Poles,  who  retained  it  until  1772,  when 
the  first  partition  of  Poland  took  place  and  Galicia  was  ceded  to 
Austria.     When  in  1795  Poland  was  divided  for  the  third  time, 


AUSTRIA.  519 


The  Province  of  Galicia. 


Austria  became  possessed,  besides  other  Polish  districts,  of  the 
city  of  Cracow,  which,  however,  from  the  period  1815  to  1846 
was  a  republic  (at  the  extent  of  447  square  miles,  with  nearly 
150,000  inhabitants);  but  in  the  last-named  year,  having  contin- 
ually been  a  central  seat  of  rebellion,  and  thus  endangering  the 
peace  and  order  in  the  neighboring  states,  Austria  took  posses- 
sion of  it  again,  and  it  now  forms  one  of  the  circles,  into  which 
the  kingdom  of  Galicia  is  divided.     The  latter  contains : 

Lemberg,  its  capital,  on  a  branch  of  the  Bug  river,  eastward  and  190 
miles  distant  from  Cracow,  and  north-eastward  and  386  miles  distant  from 
Vienna,  has  75,000  inhabitants  (among  them  more  than  20,000  Jews),  is  in 
general  well  built,  and  noted  for  its  university  (see  before,  page  505)  and  its 
considerable  inland  trade.  Cracow  (see  above),  a  city  on  the  Vistula,  west- 
ward and  190  miles  distant  from  Lemberg,  south-eastward  and  156  miles 
distant  from  Breslau,  and  166  miles  south-south-west  of  Warsaw,  has  45,000 
inhabitants,  carries  on  a  considerable  trade,  and  is  highly  renowned  for  its 
many  architectural  monuments,  especially  for  its  churches  and  extensive 
castle,  anciently  the  residence  of  the  Polish  king  for  a  long  while.  In  1343 
a  university  was  founded  here,  which  in  1843  was  frequented  by  149  stu- 
dents. Bochnia,  a  town  near  the  Raba  river,  24  miles  east-south-east  of  Cra- 
cow, with  rock-salt  mines  (wrought  since  the  year  1251),  and  6,300  inhabi- 
tants. But  far  more  renowned  for  its  rock-salt  mines  (wrought  since  the 
year  1250)  is  the  town  of  Wieliczka,  at  5  miles  distance  from  Cracow,  with 
7,000  inhabitants.  The  annual  produce  of  these  mines  is  upon  an  average 
about  700,000  quintals  salt  Podgorze,  a  town  on  the  Vistula,  opposite  Cra- 
cow, with  considerable  trade,  and  2,200  inhabitants.  Tarnoio,  a  town  on  the 
Biala  river,  with  remarkable  ancient  church,  linen  manufactures,  and  6,500 
inhabitants.  Dukla,  a  town  near  the  Hungarian  frontier,  with  considerable 
trade  in  Hungarian  wines,  and  2,500  inhabitants.  Jaroslaw,  a  town  on  the 
San  river,  with  noted  cloth  manufactures,  and  9,000  inhabitants.  Brody,  the 
emporium  of  Galicia,  near  the  Russian  frontier,  58  miles  east-north-east  of 
Lemberg,  has  25,000  inhabitants  (five  sixths  of  them  are  Jews),  and  is  not 
only  noted  for  its  important  inland  trade  to  Russia,  Poland  and  Turkey,  but 
also  for  its  variety  of  manufactures.  Tarnopol,  a  city  on  the  Sereth  river, 
86  miles  east-south-east  of  Lemberg,  is  noted  for  its  important  horse-marts, 


520  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Austria.— Galicia  and  Hungary. 


and  has  14,000  inhabitants. — The  Btjkowina,  administratively  belonging  to 
the  kingdom  of  Galicia,  was  since  1482  a  constituent  part  of  Moldavia,  but 
was  in  1174  conquered  by  Russia,  and  then  ceded  to  Austria.  It  has  an  ex- 
tent of  4,047  square  miles,  with  350,000  inhabitants,  and  contains :  Czerno- 
witz,  its  ancient  capital,  near  the  Pruth  river,  south-eastward  and  172  miles 
distant  from  Lemberg,  with  considerable  trade,  and  11,500  inhabitants.  Se- 
reth,  a  town  noted  for  its  horse-marts,  has  4,200  inhabitants.  Suczawa,  a 
town  with  various  manufactures,  rather  considerable  trade,  and  6,500  inhabi- 
tants, was  anciently  the  capital  of  Moldavia,  and  had  in  the  14th  century  not 
less  than  16,000  dwelling-houses. 


m— THE  KINGDOM  OF  HUNGARY. 

Area  :  88,267  square  miles. 
Population:  11,017,600  inhabitants. 

Referring  to  our  remarks  above,  page  508,  it  needs  only  to 
be  noticed  here,  that  what  is  styled  kingdom  of  Hungary,  com- 
prises Hungary  proper  (officially  styled  Provincial  Hungary), 
Croatia  and  Slavonia.  That  the  two  latter  constituent  parts 
bear  the  title  of  kingdoms,  makes  no  difference,  as  this  title  has 
only  a  historical  meaning.  More  than  5  millions  of  the  above- 
stated  population  belong  to  the  Slavonic  tribe  (see  pages  18  and 
19),  about  4  millions  are  Magyars  (see  page  19),  and  the  re- 
mainder consists  chiefly  of  Germans  (immigrated  here  since  the 
12th  century).  It  deserves  to  be  noticed  that  the  Latin  lan- 
guage is  very  much  in  use  among  nearly  all  classes  of  society. 
About  the  natural  features  of  the  country  see  page  502.  The 
immense  forest  of  Bakonya  (having  55  miles  in  length  and  from 
9  to  24  miles  in  width)  extends  between  Comorn  and  the  lake 


AUSTRIA.  521 


Provincial  Hungary. 


of  Balaton.  Not  unlike  the  prairies  in  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States  are  the  so-called  Puszten,  or  extensive  pasture- 
grounds,  especially  in  Lower  Hungary.  Of  the  number  of  horses, 
sheep,  etc.,  stated  page  503,  5  million  heads  of  black  cattle,  1  mil- 
lion horses  and  17  million  sheep  were  in  the  kingdom  of  Hun- 
gary, where  moreover  in  the  named  year  (1842)  23,400,000  quar- 
ters of  grain,  and  394,418,600  gallons  of  wine  were  produced. 
Nothing  is  known  of  the  early  history  of  Hungary  until  the 
time  of  the  Romans.  The  latter,  who  conquered  the  country, 
called  part  of  Upper  Hungary  (including  Transylvania)  Dacia, 
and  the  remainder  Pannonia.  The  native  population  consisted 
chiefly  of  Jazyges  and  Pannoni.  At  the  end  of  the  3d  century 
of  the  Christian  era,  the  Vandals  (see  page  24)  took  possession 
of  Pannonia  (while  Dacia  came  soon  after  under  the  sway  of  the 
Huns),  in  the  next  century  the  Groths  (see  pages  18  and  23), 
and  after  them  the  Avares  (see  page  29),  who  maintained  them- 
selves here  for  several  centuries,  till  they  by  degrees  melted 
away  among  the  surrounding  Slavonic  tribes.  It  was  chiefly  the 
latter  tribes  who  occupied  Pannonia  and  rDacia,  when  suddenly 
towards  the  end  of  the  9th  century  (in  889)  a  people,  until  then 
entirely  unknown  in  Europe,  appeared  in  that  quarter.  This 
people  were  the  Magyars,  a  Tartar  tribe,  who,  by  the  Petschene- 
gri  (another  Tartar  tribe),  had  been  forced  to  leave  their  primi- 
tive home  in  Jugria,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Ural  river,  and 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Caspian  lake.  As  a  Nomadic  nation, 
they  had  with  them  their  families,  horses  and  cattle,  wandering 
along  the  banks  of  the  Volga  and  Don  rivers,  and  then  along  the 
northern  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  from  one  pasture-ground  to  the 
other,  till  they  at  last  directed  their  attention  towards  the  fertile 
countries  skirting  the  Danube.  They  were  then  ruled  by  seven 
chieftains  or  dukes,  and  numbered  at  that  time  260,000  armed 
horsemen,  who  were  bold  warriors,  though  armed  only  with  bows 


522  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Austria.— The  History  of  Hungary. 


and  arrows.  To  make  it  short,  soon  after  they  had  entered  Pan- 
nonia,  they  conquered  it,  and  made  since  plundering  incursions 
into  Italy,  and  especially  into  Germany  (see  page  299).  Here 
they  were  called  Huns,  because,  by  their  atrocities,  they  called  to 
remembrance  the  ancient  Huns,  who  under  Attila  devastated  so 
many  countries  of  Europe  in  the  5th  century.  Since  that  time 
the  names  Hungarians  and  Hungary,  applied  to  the  Magyars 
and  their  country,  have  come  into  use.  In  the  latter  half  of  the 
10th  century  Christianity  began  to  take  root  among  the  Magyars, 
and  at  the  same  time  they  became  acquainted  with  agriculture, 
or  at  least  applied  themselves  to  it  with  more  inclination  than  be- 
fore, and  in  this  way  they  gradually  left  off  their  former  Nomadic 
habits.  When  they  had  entered  Pannonia  the  chief  among  their 
dukes  was  Arpad,  whose  descendants  became  in  a  later  period  the 
only  rulers  of  the  country.  The  most  renowned  of  them  was 
duke  Stephen,  who  in  the  year  1000  assumed  the  royal  title,  and 
may  be  considered  as  the  founder  of  the  political  and  adminis- 
trative organization  and  institutions  of  Hungary..  He  conquered 
Transylvania,  checked^  the  nobles  in  their  pretensions  and  en- 
croachments, and  reigned  with  energy  and  justice.  Unfortu- 
nately one  of  his  successors,  Andrew  II,  engaged  himself  in  a 
crusade  (in  1217),  and  during  his  long  stay  in  Palestine  the  no- 
bility and  clergy  in  Hungary  took  advantage  of  this  opportunity 
to  extend  their  rights  and  privileges,  and  after  his  return  he  saw 
himself  contrived  to  acquiesce  in  their  encroachments.  Thus  in 
1222  that  above  (page  505)  mentioned  aristocratic  constitution 
was  framed  which  has  since  limited  the  power  of  the  Hungarian 
kings  and  reduced  it  to  almost  nothing,  only  tending  to  invest  the 
nobles  and  prelates  (who  in  general  are  likewise  nobles  by  birth) 
with  the  actual  power.  In  the  year  1301  the  race  of  the  Arpa- 
dians  (or  descendants  of  the  above-named  Duke  Arpad)  became 
extinct,  and  Hungary  was  since  for  about  two  hundred   years 


AUSTRIA.  523 


The  History  of  Hungary. 


ruled  (with  one  single  exception)  by  kings  of  foreign  princely 
families.  By  treaties  concluded  in  the  years  1463  and  1506  be- 
tween the  Hungarians  and  Austria,  the  hereditary  right  of  succes- 
sion in  Hungary  was  insured  to  the  House  of  Hapsburg,  in  male 
and  female  lines.  The  first  Hungarian  king  of  this  house  was 
Ferdinand  Z,  subsequently  ^emperor  of  Germany;  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Maximilian,  and  in  this  way  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg  or  Austria  has  reigned  in  Hungary  uninterruptedly  for 
more  than  three  ceuturfes.  That  in  Hungary  the  various 
branches  of  husbandry  and  industry,  as  well  as  the  general  means 
of  education,  are  in  a  backward  state,  has  already  been  alluded  to 
in  the  preceding  statements  concerning  the  Austrian  empire.  In- 
stead of  that,  they  would  long  since  have  been  in  the  same  flour- 
ishing state  as  in  the  German  and  Italian  provinces,  had  not  the 
Hungarian  aristocracy  incessantly  counteracted  the  benevolent 
design  of  the  Austrian  government  in  favor  of  the  lower  classes, 
that  were,  until  recent  times,  kept  in  bondage  and  treated  with 
the  utmost  contempt  by  those  aristocrats.  According  to  authen- 
tic statements  of  the  year  1843,  Hungary  numbered  not  less 
than  275,600  nobles,  thus  having  3£  nobles  to  a  square  mile  !  (In 
Transylvania,  where  the  majority  of  the  population  consists  of 
Germans,  this  proportion  is  less,  there  being  at  that  time  only 
28,000  nobles  ;  yet  this  body  is  numerous  enough  too.)  For  more 
than  six  hundred  years  they  have  enjoyed  the  most  substantial 
privileges,  and  only  when  the  last  revolution  was  at  work,  re- 
nounced them  by  words  and  letters  on  the  paper.  Now,  we  leave 
it  entirely  to  our  readers  to  judge  for  themselves  by  these  facts,  whe- 
ther it  would  appear  probable  that,  in  case  the  last  revolution  had 
proved  successful,  a  Hungarian  Republic  would  have  both  been 
3stablished  and  permanently  rested  on  the  same  principles  as 
,he  republic  of  the  United  States  1  We  have  neither  any  pred- 
iction nor  antipathy  in  political  matters,  but  as  a  historian  we 


624  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Austria.— Provincial  Hungary. 

are  under  the  obligation  to  state  the  facts  as  they  actually  are, 
and  not  as  the  one  or  other  political  party  would  like  to  have 
them. — We  shall  describe  first  Provincial  Hungary  (or  Hungary 
proper),  and  then  Croatia  and  Slavonia. 

1.  Provincial  Hungary  (80,940  square  miles,  and  10,133,400  inhabitants), 
on  the  north  separated  from  Galicia  by  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  on  the 
east  bordering  upon  Transylvania,  and  on  the  west  upon  the  German  Prov- 
inces, while  on  the  south  it  is  separated  froaa  Turkey  by  Croatia,  Slavonia, 
and  the  MiHtary  Frontier.  In  common  life  the  western  half  of  the  country  is 
called  Lower  Hungary,  and  the  eastern,  more  mountainous  half,  Upper  Hun- 
gary. Officially,  Lower  Hungary  is  divided  into  two  circles  (styled  on 
this  side,  and  on  the  other  side  of  the  Danube),  and  Upper  Hungary  also  into 
two  circles  (styled  on  this  side,  and  on  the  other  side  of  the  Theiss) ;  and  these 
circles  are  subdivided  into  46  shires,  or  counties  (24  in  Lower  Hungary,  and 
22  in  Upper  Hungary ;  Croatia  and  Slavonia  are  divided  into  6 :  thus  there  are 
52  counties  in  the  kingdom  of  Hungary).  Beside  these  counties,  there  are  4 
privileged  districts  in  Provincial  Hungary :  Great  and  Little  Kumania,  the  dis- 
trict of  the  Hajduks,  and  that  of  the  Jazyges.  Until  1*784  Pressburg  was  the 
capital  of  Hungary  proper,  but  since  that  time  Buda  has  ranked  as  such.  As 
however  the  Diets  have  since  continued  to  be  held  at  Pressburg,  and  for  other 
reasons,  we  shall  begin  with  this  city  in  the  following  description.  Lower 
Hungary  contains :  Pressburg  (in  Magyar  language  named  Poso7iy),  a  city 
on  the  Danube,  below  or  eastward,  and  34  miles  distant  from  Vienna,  has 
45,000  inhabitants,  is  remarkable  for  that  the  kings  of  Hungary  have,  in  the 
last  centuries,  usually  been  crowned,  and  the  diets  held  here,  and  is  noted  for 
several  ancient  churches  and  for  its  manufactures.  Tymau,  a  city  on  a  river 
of  the  same  name,  north-eastward  and  28  miles  distant  from  Pressburg,  with 
several  higher  schools,  manufactures,  and  1,000  inhabitants.  Galantha,  a 
market-town  near  the  "Waag,  eastward  and  28  miles  distant  from  Pressburg, 
with  1,900  inhabitants,  and  a  palace  of  the  prince  of  Ester  hazy.  Within  the 
limits  of  the  county  of  Pressburg  is  situated  the  isle  of  Schutt  (54  miles  long, 
and  34  miles  wide),  formed  by  two  arms  of  the  Danube,  noted  for  the  fertility 
of  its  soil,  and  containing  the  fortress  of  Komorn  (see  below),  and  the  mar- 
ket-towns of  Sommerein  and  Wajka,  with  respectively  3,000  and  1,100  in- 
habitants.    Another  neighboring  isle  of  the  same  name  is  called  the  Little 


AUSTRIA. 


Provincial  Hungary. 


Schutt,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  former.  Ncuhausel,  a  market-town,  with 
7,000  inhabitants,  was  anciently  noted  for  its  strong  fortress.  Trencsin,  a 
city  on  the  Waag,  72  miles  north-north-east  of  Pressburg,  with  a  notable  an- 
cient mountain  castle,  and  3,600  inhabitants.  Gran,  the  ecclesiastical  metrop- 
olis of  Hungary,  on  the  Danube,  80  miles  east-south-east  of  Pressburg,  is  noted 
for  its  handsome  churches  and  other  public  edifices,  and  has  13,000  inhabi- 
tants. Kremnitz,  a  noted  mining  town,  north-eastward  and  96  miles  distant 
from  Pressburg,  is  highly  famed  for  its  silver,  and  especially  gold  mines,  and 
has  6,000  inhabitants.  Still  more  famed  for  its  gold,  but  especially  silver  mines, 
is  Schemnitz,  the  largest  mining  town  in  Hungary,  southward  and  16  miles 
distant  from  Kremnitz,  with  a  mining  academy,  and  (inclusive  the  suburbs) 
20,000  inhabitants.  Buda  (in  German  Oferi),  with  45,000  inhabitants,  and 
Pest,  with  90,000  inhabitants,  situated  on  opposite  sides  of  the  Danube 
(Buda  on  the  right,  and  Pest  on  the  left  side),  and  joined  together  by  a  bridge, 
thus  forming,  as  it  were,  one  single  city,  yet  with  some  difference,  in  so  far  as 
Pest  is  the  emporium  of  the  country,  and  at  the  same  time  noted  for  its  nu- 
merous and  important  manufactures,  while  Buda  is  chiefly  noted  for  its  exten- 
sive royal  castle  and  considerable  vine  culture.  However,  upon  the  whole, 
the  one  city  is  as  remarkable  as  the  other.  About  the  university  see  above, 
page  505.  It  may  finally  be  noticed,  that  Pest  and  Buda  are  situated  south- 
eastward and  150  miles  distant  from  Vienna.  The  neighboring  market- town 
of  Vissegrad  (in  German  Plintenburg),  with  1,100  inhabitants,  was,  in  the 
middle  ages,  renowned  for  its  splendid  and  majestic  royal  castle.  Waitzen 
(in  Magyarian  Vacz),  a  city  on  the  Danube.  18  miles  above  Pest,  with  a  mag- 
nificent cathedral,  and  13,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  cattle-marts  and 
vine  culture.  Kolocsa,  a  city  near  the  Danube,  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop 
(who  resides  in  an  extensive  ancient  palace),  and  has  8,200  inhabitants. 
Kecskemet,  or  Ketskemet,  is  the  largest  market-town  in  Hungary,  having 
40,000  inhabitants  (who  are  largely  engaged  in  various  branches  of  hus- 
bandry), and  is  situated  on  the  extensive  heath  of  the  same  name  (see  above, 
page  502),  south-eastward  and  118  miles  distant  from  Pest.  Zombor,  or  Som- 
bor,  a  city  near  the  Danube,  southward  and  125  miles  distant  from  Pest  and 
Buda,  with  considerable  trade  in  corn,  etc.,  and  22,500  inhabitants.  Theresien- 
stadt,  a  city  on  an  extensive  and  fertile  plain  (noted  for  its  cattle),  110  miles 
south-south-east  of  Pest,  with  leather  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and 
44,000  inhabitants.  Neusatz,  a  city  on  the  Danube,  160  miles  south-south- 
east of  Pest,  and   north-westward  and  46  miles  distant  from  Belgrad  (in 


626  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Austria.— Provincial  Hungary. 

Turkey),  is  the  emporium  in  this  quarter,  and  has  22,000  inhabitants.  Bacsy 
or  Batsch,  a  market-town,  34  miles  north-north-west  of  Neusatz,  carries  on  a 
considerable  trade  likewise,  and  has  8,000  inhabitants.  Zentha,  a  market- 
town  on  the  Theiss,  120  miles  south-south-east  of  Pest,  has  14,000  inhabitants, 
and  is  noted  in  history  for  the  victory  obtained  here  by  the  Austrians  over  the 
Turks,  on  the  11th  September,  1696.  Funfkirchen  (literally,  Five  Churches; 
in  Magyar ian  named  Pecs),  a  city  near  the  Slavonian  frontier,  112  miles 
south-south-west  of  Buda,  is  noted  for  its  cathedral  and  other  churches,  for  its 
leather  manufactures,  and  considerable  trade,  and  has  15,500  inhabitants. 
Mohacz,  a  market-town  on  the  Danube,  southward  and  112  miles  distant  from 
Buda,  has  9,000  inhabitants,  and  is  remarkable  in  history  for  two  battles,  in 
1526  (when  the  Turks  were  victorious)  and  168*7  (when  the  Turks  were  de- 
feated). Szigethvar,  or  Zigeth,  a  fortified  market-town  on  the  Almasch  river, 
westward  and  24  miles  distant  from  Funfkirchen,  has  4,000  inhabitants,  and 
is  noted  for  its  gallant  defence  in  1566  against  the  Turks.  Eisenburg  (in 
Magyarian  Vasvar),  a  market-town,  90  miles  south-south-east  of  Vienna,  with 
2,600  inhabitants.  Guns,  a  city  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  with  a  remark- 
able castle  of  the  prince  of  Esterhazy,  vine  culture,  and  6,500  inhabitants. 
Papa,  a  market- town,  south-eastward  and  52  miles  distant  from  Oedenburg, 
with  a  costly  palace  of  the  earl  of  Esterhazy,  and  15,000  inhabitants.  Vess- 
prim,  a  city  on  the  Sed  river,  eastward  and  54  miles  distant  from  Eisenburg, 
with  a  remarkable  mountain  castle,  considerable  trade  in  corn  and  wine,  and 
11,800  inhabitants.  Stuhlweissenburg  (in  Magyarian  Szekes-Fejervar),  a  city 
south-eastward  and  120  miles  distant  from  Vienna,  and  south-westward  and 
36  miles  distant  from  Buda,  with  many  remarkable  architectural  monuments, 
various  manufactures,  and  22,000  inhabitants.  Komom,  or  Comorn,  a  strongly 
fortified  city  on  the  Danube,  at  its  junction  with  the  Waag,  south-eastward  and 
62  miles  distant  from  Pressburg,  94  miles  east- south-east  of  Vienna,  and  east- 
ward and  25  miles  distant  from  Raab,  is  situated  on  the  eastern  extremity  of 
the  isle  of  Schiitt  (see  above),  and  has  19,500  inhabitants,  who  carry  on  a 
considerable  trade  in  corn,  wine,  and  timber.  The  neighboring  market-town 
of  Dotis  (or  Tata),  with  12,500  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  a  palace  of  the  earl 
of  Esterhazy,  with  handsome  park,  and  for  its  woollen  blankets.  Raab,  a  for- 
tified city  on  the  Raab  river,  south-eastward  and  40  miles  distant  from  Press- 
burg, is  noted  for  its  cathedral  and  other  churches,  its  horse-marts  and  con- 
siderable corn  trade,  and  has  18,500  inhabitants.  Battle  on  the  14th  June 
1809,  between  the  French  and  Austrians.     Oedenburg  (in  Magyarian  Soprony), 


AUSTRIA.  627 


Provincial  Hungary. 


a  city  near  the  lake  of  Neusiedl,  36  miles  south-south-east  of  Vienna,  with  a 
collegiate  church  whose  steeple  is  the  highest  in  Hungary,  considerable  cat- 
tle trade,  and  14,800  inhabitants.  The  neighboring  town  of  Russt  (with 
1,200  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  wines.  Near  the  lake  of  Neusiedl  is  situa- 
ted Estcrhaz,  the  highly  remarkable  and  magnificent  ancestral  castle  of  the 
princes  and  earls  of  Esterhazy.  The  chief  of  this  family  has  annual  revenues 
to  the  amount  of  2,000,000  florins.  Eisenstadt,  a  city  southward  and  24 
miles  distant  from  Vienna,  has  5,800  inhabitants,  and  is  famed  for  the  stately 
palace  and  handsome  park  and  gardens  of  the  prince  of  Esterhazy.  In  the 
neighboring  princely  mountain  castle  of  Forchtenstein  is  the  family  treasure 
of  the  princes  of  Esterhazy,  containing  a  vast  number  of  precious  stones, 
pearls,  plate,  etc.  Wieselburg-  (in  Magyarian  Mosony),  a  market-town  with 
considerable  corn  trade,  and  3,300  inhabitants. —  Upper  Hungary  contains: 
Kaschau,  a  city  on  the  Hernad  river,  north-eastward  and  150  miles  distant 
from  Pest,  and  south-westward  and  164  miles  distant  from  Lemberg,  is  con- 
sidered as  the  capital  of  Upper  Hungary,  carries  on  a  very  considerable 
trade,  is  noted  for  its  extensive  and  remarkable  cathedral,  and  has  14,500  in- 
habitants. Leutschau  (in  Magyarian  Zocse),  a  city  on  a  little  river  of  the  same 
name,  124  miles  north-north-east  of  Pest,  with  remarkable  ancient  city-hall  and 
Gothic  church,  noted  breweries  of  mead,  and  5,800  inhabitants.  Kesmark,or 
Kasmark,  a  city  near  the  Carpathes,  with  handsome  city-hall,  considerable 
trade,  and  6,300  inhabitants.  The  neighboring  mountain  castle  of  Zipserhaus 
(in  Magyarian  Szepes-  Var)  is  noted  in  history.  Erlau  (in  Magyarian  Eger),  a 
city  on  the  river  Erlau,  north-eastward  and  64  miles  distant  from  Pest,  with 
a  magnificent  cathedral,  vine  culture,  and  20,000  inhabitants.  Szolnok,  a  mar- 
ket-town on  the  Theiss,  with  considerable  salt  depot,  and  12,000  inhabitants. 
Eperies,  a  city  on  the  Tarcza  river,  156  miles  north-north-east  of  Pest,  is  noted 
for  its  considerable  trade,  and  has  9,000  inhabitants.  Bart/eld,  a  city  on  the 
Tepel  river,  with  noted  mineral  waters  and  baths,  considerable  trade  in  wine, 
corn,  eta,  and  6,700  inhabitants.  Satorallya  Ujhely,  a  market-town  at  the 
foot  of  the  Hegyallya  Hills  (noted  for  vine  culture),  north-eastward  and  146 
miles  distant  from  Pest,  with  vine  culture,  and  7,000  inhabitants.  Tokay,  a 
market-town  on  the  Theiss,  at  60  miles  distance  from  the  Transylvanian 
frontier,  and  eastward  and  240  miles  distant  from  Vienna,  is  famed  for  its 
excellent  wines,  and  has  4,700  inhabitants.  The  neighboring  market-town 
of  Tarczal  (with  3,200  inhabitants)  is  likewise  noted  for  its  wines.  The  same 
is  to  be  said  of  Bodrog-Keresstxir,  Maad,  and  Tallya,  market-towns,  with  re- 


528  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Austria.— Provincial  Hungary. 


spectively  2,000,  5,700,  and  5,400  inhabitants.  Munkacs,  a  market-town  on 
the  Latorcza  river,  with  a  remarkable  mountain  castle,  and  5,800  inhabitants. 
Szigeth,  a  market-town  on  the  Theiss,  towards  the  frontiers  of  Transylvania 
and  Galicia,  with  considerable  salt  depots,  and  10,500  inhabitants.  Nagy- 
Karoly,  a  market-town  near  the  northern  frontier  of  Transylvania,  with 
stately  palace  and  handsome  park  of  the  earl  of  Karoly,  vine  culture,  and 
12,000  inhabitants.  Szathmar-Nemet,  a  city  on  the  Szamos,  with  several 
seminaries  and  other  schools,  potteries,  vine  culture,  and  18,000  inhabitants. 
Nagy-Banya,  a  mining  town  near  the  northern  frontier  of  Transylvania,  with 
gold,  silver,  and  lead  mines,  a  mint,  various  branches  of  industry,  and  5,300 
inhabitants.  Gross  Wardein  (in  Magyarian  Nagy  Varad,  which  means 
Great  Wardein),  a  city  on  the  river  Sebes  Koros,  28  miles  from  the  Transyl- 
vanian  frontier,  and  146  miles  east-south-east  of  Pest,  with  a  stately  palace 
of  the  bishop,  who  resides  here,  a  highly  remarkable  cathedral,  various 
branches  of  industry,  hot  mineral  baths,  and  1*7,000  inhabitants.  Debreczin, 
next  to  Pest  the  largest  city  in  Hungary,  38  miles  north-north-west  of 
Grosswardein,  and  eastward  and  120  miles  distant  from  Pest,  is  noted  for 
its  academy,  for  its  soap,  Zischmen,  or  Hungarian  slippers,  and  for  numerous 
other  branches  of  national  industry,  and  has  60,000  Magyarian  inhabitants, 
The  neighboring  village  of  Hagos  (with  1,100  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its 
weekly  markets  held  there  every  Sunday,  and  at  which  vast  numbers  of  hogs 
are  sold.  Szegedin,  a  fortified  city  on  the  Theiss,  south-eastward  and  100  miles 
distant  from  Pest,  with  numerous  branches  of  national  industry,  considerable 
trade,  and  35,000  inhabitants.  Csongrad,  Szentes,  and  Vasarhely,  large 
market-towns,  with  respectively  15,500,  22,000,  and  32,500  inhabitants.  Arad, 
a  fortified  city  on  the  Maros  river,  64  miles  east-south -south  of  Szegedin,  and 
140  miles  north-north-east  of  Belgrad,  with  considerable  trade,  and  18,000  in- 
habitants.— The  south-eastern  section  of  Provincial  Hungary,  comprising  3  coun- 
ties, is  commonly  named  Banat,  and  contains :  Temesvar,  a  strongly  fortified 
city  on  a  canal,  south-eastward  and  170  miles  distant  from  Pest,  is  considered 
as  the  capital  of  Banat,  carries  on  a  considerable  trade,  and  has  18,500  in- 
habitants. Nagy-Szent-Miklos  (literally,  Great  St.  Nicholas),  a  market-town 
with  15,000  inhabitants. — The  above-mentioned  4  privileged  districts  are 
(with  one  exception)  situated  within  the  limits  of  Upper  Hungary,  have  an 
aggregate  area  of  2,215  square  miles,  and  a  total  population  of  263,200  in- 
habitants. Those  in  Upper  Hungary  are :  Great  Rumania  (whose  capital  is 
Kardsschag-  Uj-Szallas,  at  the  high-road  between  Pest  and  Debreczin,  with 


AUSTRIA.  529 


Provincial  Hungary,  Croatia  and  Slavonia. 


13,000  inhabitants) ;  Jazygia,  or  the  District  of  the  Jazyges  (whose  capital  is 
Jass-Bereny,  eastward  and  38  miles  distant  from  Pest,  with  17,300  inhabitants) 
and  the  Hajduks'  District  (whose  capital  is  Bossormeny,  northward  and  9 
miles  distant  from  Debreczin,  with  16,000  inhabitants).  Within  the  limits  of 
Lower  Hungary  is  situated  Little  Rumania  (whose  capital  is  Felegyhaza,  at 
the  high-road  between  Pest  and  Szegedin,  with  16,000  inhabitants). 

2.  The  kingdom  of  Croatia  (3,674  square  jniles,  and  531,500  inhabitants), 
separated  from  Provincial  Hungary  by  the  Drave,  and  on  the  south-west  bor- 
dering upon  the  Adriatic  Sea.  In  the  days  of  the  ancient  Romans  Croatia 
was  a  constituent  part  of  Pannonia  ;  in  a  later  period  it  was  under  the  sway 
of  the  Frankish  kings,  and  since  867  under  that  of  the  Greek  emperors,  until 
since  the  close  of  the  10th  century  it  was  ruled  by  native  kings,  who  became 
extinct  towards  the  end  of  the  11th  century,  when  Croatia  was  annexed  to 
the  kingdom  of  Hungary.  It  may  still  be  noticed  that  the  inhabitants  of 
Croatia  (with  the  exception  of  comparatively  few  Germans)  belong  thoroughly 
to  the  Slavonic  tribe.  The  country  contains :  Agram,  the  capital  of  Croatia, 
and  residence  of  the  royal  Banus  or  Governor  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  near  the 
Save,  eastward  and  120  miles  distant  from  Trieste,  southward  and  175  miles 
distant  from  Vienna,  and  south-westward  aud  190  miles  distant  fromBuda,  is 
noted  for  its  higher  schools,  its  remarkable  cathedral,  and  considerable  trade, 
and  has  20,000  inhabitants.  Carlstadt,  a  city  on  the  Kulpa  river,  is  noted  for 
its  fortress  and  considerable  trade,  and  has  7,000  inhabitants.  Warasdin,  a 
city  on  the  Drave,  with  vine  culture,  and  9,500  inhabitants.  Szissek,  a  mar- 
ket-town on  the  Drave,  at  its  junction  with  the  Kulpa,  with  considerable 
corn  trade,  and  1,000  inhabitants.  Fiume,  a  commercial  city  on  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  south-eastward  and  38  miles  distant  from  Trieste,  with  notable  manufac- 
tures, and  11,000  inhabitants.  Buccari  and  Porto  Re,  maritime  towns,  with 
respectively  1,700  and  1,200  inhabitants. 

3.  The  kingdom  of  Slavonia  (3,653  square  miles,  and  352,700  inhabitants), 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Drave  and  Danube  rivers,  on  the  west  bor- 
dering upon  Croatia.  In  remote  ages  Slavonia  underwent  the  same  vicissi- 
tudes as  Croatia,  during  the  9th  and  10th  centuries  it  formed  a  constituent 
part  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Servia,  in  1079  it  was  annexed  to  the  king- 
dom of  Hungary,  in  1526  it  was  ceded  to  Turkey,  but  in  1699  restored. 
Among  the  inhabitants  are  but  few  Magyars,  all  the  rest  being  genuine  Sla- 
vonians. The  country  contains :  Essek,  strongly  fortified  capital  of  Slavonia, 
on  the  Drave,  and  at  the  frontier  of  Provincial  Hungary,  eastward  and  12 


580  EUROPE,  TAST  AND  TRESENT. 

Austria. — Slavonia  and  Transylvania. 

miles  distant  from  Agram,  is  especially  noted  for  its  fortress,  but  also  for 
its  considerable  trade,  and  has  12,500  inhabitants.  Verocze  (with  vine  cul- 
ture, and  4,500  inhabitants),  Csepin  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Diakovar 
(with  2,100  inhabitants),  Dalya  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  Valpo  (with 
2,400  inhabitants),  market-towns.  Posega,  a  city  on  a  branch  of  the  Save, 
48  miles  west-south-west  of  Essek,  is  noted  for  its  tobacco  and  wines,  and 
has  5,000  inhabitants.  Pacracz,  a  market-town,  with  vine  culture,  and  1,100 
inhabitants.  Vukovar  and  Jllok,  market-towns,  with  respectively  6,200  and 
3,500  inhabitants. 


IV.— THE  GRAND-DUCHY  OF  TRANSYLVANIA. 

Area:  21,269  square  miles. 
Population:  2,212,400  inhabitants. 

Transylvania  (in  Maygarian  Erdely,  and  in  German  Sieben- 
bilrgen)  is  situated  between  Provincial  Hungary  and  Moldavia, 
bordering  on  the  south  upon  Wallachia.  Transylvania,  anciently 
called  Dacia,  and  in  the  9th  century  conquered  by  the  Magyars, 
was  in  1002  by  King  Stephen  I.  of  Hungary  completely  subdued 
and  annexed  to  this  kingdom.  It  was  since  ruled  by  Hungarian 
governors,  who,  however,  made  themselves  independent  in  the 
beginning  of  the  16th  century.  John  of  Zapolya,  Stephen  Balory, 
RaJcoczy,  and  Bethlen  Gabor  were  the  most  noted  of  the  indepen- 
dent princes  of  Transylvania.  Finally,  in  1687  Emperor  Leo- 
pold I.  subdued  the  country  again,  which  in  1765  was  by  Maria 
Theresa  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  grand-duchy.  The  political 
constitution  of  Transylvania  was  framed  on  the  same  principles 
as  that  of  the  kingdom  of  Hungary,  yet  the  Transylvanian  Diet 
had  for  the  rest  nothing  in  common  with  the  Hungarian. — Tran- 


AUSTRIA.  631 


The  Grand-Duchy  of  Transylvania. 


sylvania  is  inhabited  by  three  distinct  tribes,  or  nations,  viz., 
Magyars,  Szekler  (a  kindred  Magyarian  tribe)  and  Germans  (here, 
by  way  of  eminence,  named  Saxons,  though  they  are  immigrated 
since  the  I Oth  century  from  various  parts  of  Germany),  and  for 
this  reason  is  it  divided  into  the  Country  of  the  Magyars,  the 
Country  of  the,  Szekler,  and  the  Country  of  the  Saxons,  which  are 
subdivided  into  counties. 

1.  The  Country  of  tfie  Magyars  (inhabited  by  about  500,000  Magyars)  con- 
tains :  Klausenburg  (in  Magyarian  Kolosvar),  its  capital,  and  likewise  the 
capital  of  Transylvania,  220  miles  east-south-east  of  Pest,  and  north-westward 
and  220  miles  distant  from  Bukarest  (in  Wallachia),  has  20,000  inhabitants, 
and  is  noted  for  several  churches,  literary  institutions,  and  for  its  horse-marts. 
Szamos  Ujvar  (in  German  Armenierstadt),  with  vine  culture,  trade  in  cattle, 
and  4,000  inhabitants.  Carlsburg,  a  fortified  city  on  the  Maros,  southward  and 
54  miles  distant  from  Klausenburg,  was  anciently  the  capital  of  Transylva- 
nia and  called  Weissenburg,  receiving  its  present  from  Emperor  Charles  VL 
It  is  noted  for  its  remarkable  cathedral,  its  mint  and  wines,  and  has  12,000 
inhabitants.  Gorgeny  Szent  Imreh,  a  market-town,  with  glass  and  paper 
manufactures,  and  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  castle  of  Gorgeny,  once  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Transylvanian  princes.  Other  more  or  less  remarkable  market- 
towns  are :  Dees  or  Des  (with  5,400  inhabitants),  Thorda  (with  noted  rock-salt 
mines,  and  8,000  inhabitants),  Nagy  Enyed,  in  German  Egidstadt  (with  5,500 
inhabitants),  Abrudbanya,  in  German  Gross- Schlatten  (with  important  gold 
mines,  and  4,200  inhabitants),  Zalathna,  in  German  Klein- Schlatten  (with 
productive  gold  and  silver  mines,  and  5,000  inhabitants),  Balasfalva,  in  Ger- 
man Blasendorf  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  JDeva  (with  3,800  inhabitants), 
K'drbsbanya  (with  1,700  inhabitants),  Somlyo  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
Krasna  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Nagy  Falu  (with  1,600  inhabitants),  Zilah, 
in  German  Wallenberg  (with  9,000  inhabitants),  Sibo  (with  1,200  inhabi- 
tants), Tasnad,  in  German  Trestenburg  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  Fagaras 
(with  5,000  inhabitants),  and  Kapnik-Banya  (with  important  gold,  silver, 
and  lead  mines).  Maros  Ujvar,  a  village  on  the  Maros,  is  noted  for  its  rock- 
salt  mines,  producing  500,000  quintals  of  salt  annually.  Vajda  Hunyad,  a 
market-town,  noted  for  its  important  iron-works,  and  for  its  very  ancient  and 
historicallv  renowned  mountain  castle. 


632  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Austria.— The  Grand-Duchy  of  Transylvania. 

2.  The  Country  of  the  Szekler,  whose  counties  are  styled  Stools,  contains: 
Maros  Vasarhely  (or  Szekely  Vasarhely),  its  capital,  on  the  Maros,  54  miles 
east-south-east  of  Klausenburg,  is  noted  for  its  literary  institutions,  its  to- 
bacco and  wines,  and  has  13,000  inhabitants.  Udvarhely,  a  market-town, 
south-eastward  and  38  miles  distant  from  Maros  Vasarhely,  and  northward 
and  54  miles  distant  from  Kronstadt,  with  noted  leather  manufactures,  trade 
in  tobacco  and  honey,  and  6,000  inhabitants.  Other  more  or  less  remarkable 
market-towns  are :  Szekely  Keresstur  (with  4,800  inhabitants),  Sepsi  Szent 
Gyorgy  (with  mineral  waters),  and  Felvincz  (remarkable  for  gypsies,  who 
have  permanently  settled  here,  and  are  engaged  in  various  branches  of  hus- 
bandry). 

3.  The  Country  of  the  Saxons,  whose  counties  are  likewise  styled  Stools, 
contains :  Hermannstadt,  its  capital,  on  the  Zibia,  76  miles  south-south-east 
of  Klausenburg,  is  the  finest  city  in  Transylvania,  noted  for  several  Gothic 
and  in  other  respects  remarkable  churches,  literary  institutions,  for  its  im- 
portant manufactures  and  inland  trade,  and  has  21,000  inhabitants.  The 
neighboring  village  of  Heltau  is  noted  for  its  woollens  and  fruits,  and  has 
3,000  inhabitants.  Schassburg,  a  city  on  the  Great  Kokel,  north-eastward 
and  48  miles  distant  from  Hermannstadt,  with  some  manufactures,  and  6,500 
inhabitants.  Mediasch,  or  Medwisch,  a  city  with  vine  culture,  and  6,200  in- 
habitants. Muhlenbach,  a  city  with  some  manufactures,  vine  culture,  and 
5,000  inhabitants.  Reps  (with  mineral  waters,  and  2,200  inhabitants). 
Lbschkirch  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Broos,  or  Sachsenstadt,  in  Magyarian 
Szassvaros  (with  3,500  inhabitants),  Marienburg,  in  Magyarian  Foldvar 
(with  5,000  inhabitants),  Zeiden  (noted  for  its  fine  flax,  has  3,600  inhabitants), 
and  Rosenau  or  Rosnyo  (with  3,800  inhabitants).  Bistritz,  a  city  on  the 
river  of  the  same  name,  northward  and  120  miles  distant  from  Hermann- 
stadt, is  noted  for  its  Gothic  Lutheran  church  with  high  steeple,  and  for  its 
corn  trade,  and  has  6,600  inhabitants.  Kronstadt,  the  chief  manufacturing 
city  and  emporium  of  Transylvania,  in  a  fertile  valley,  16  miles  east-south- 
east of  Hermannstadt,  and  100  miles  north-north  west  of  Bukarest  (in  Wal- 
lachia),  is,  beside  its  manufactures  and  extensive  inland  trade,  noted  for  its 
handsome  Gothic  Lutheran  church,  its  city-hall,  etc.,  and  has  30,000  inhab- 
itants. 


AUSTRIA.  533 


The  Military  Frontier. 


V.^THE  MILITARY  FRONTIER. 

Area  :  15,208  square  miles. 
Population  :  1,248,100  inhabitants. 

It  extends  along  the  Turkish  frontier  from  the  Adriatic  Sea 
eastward  up  to  Moldavia,  and  consists  of  nothing  else  but  parts 
of  Croatia,  Slavonia,  Provincial  Hungary  and  Transylvania, 
which  since  the  end  of  the  17th,  but  chiefly  in  the  course  of  the 
last  and  present  centuries,  have  been  organized  on  a  thorough 
military  footing.  The  object  of  this  organization  has  been  to  se- 
cure the  Austrian  empire  against  the  inroads  of  the  Turks,  and 
subsequently  against  the  intrusion  of  the  plague.  All  grown 
male  inhabitants  are  bound  to  military  service,  in  lieu  of  taxes, 
and  in  case  of  danger  the  whole  frontier  can,  by  means  of  signal 
poles,  be  alarmed  within  four  hours. — The  Military  Frontier  is 
divided  into  four  principal  sections. 

1.  The  Croatian  Military  Frontier  contains :  Carlopago,  a  maritime  town 
on  the  Adriatic  Sea,  62  miles  south-south-east  of  Fiume,  with  900  inhabitants. 
Gospich,&  market-town,  with  1,100  inhabitants.  Other  more  or  less  notable 
market-towns  are  :  Ogulin  (with  2,300  inhabitants),  Glina  (with  1,600  inhabi- 
tants), Dubitza  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  Jassenovacz  (with  2,600  inhabitants), 
and  St.  Georgen  (with  3,600  inhabitants).  The  maritime  town  of  Zengg,  on  the 
Adriatic,  with  3,100  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  handsome  cathedral.  Petrinia 
and  Kosstainicza  towns  with  respectively  4,200  and  3,200  inhabitants. 

2.  The  Slavonian  Military  Frontier  contains :  Peterwardein,  a  city  noted 
as  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  of  the  Austrian  empire,  on  the  Danube  (right 
bank),  212  miles  east-south-east  of  Agram,  with  remarkable  arsenal,  and 
6,500  inhabitants.  Carlowitz,  a  city  on  the  Danube,  5  miles  below  Peter- 
wardein, is  noted  for  its  wines,  fisheries,  and  inland  trade,  and  has  6,400  in- 
habitants. In  1699  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Turkey  was  concluded  here. 
Semlin,  a  city  on  the  Danube,  at  its  junction  with  the  Save,  opposite  the 


634  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Austria.— The  Military  Frontier  and  Kingdom  of  Dalmatia. 

Turkish  city  of  Belgrad,  south-eastward  and  38  miles  distant  from  Peterwar- 
dein,  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  trade  of  Austria  with  Turkey,  and  has  10,500 
inhabitants.  Mitrovicz,  a  market-town  on  the  Save,  with  Roman  antiquities, 
and  3,500  inhabitants.  Old  Pazna,  a  village  noted  for  its  agricultural  pur- 
suits, has  4,000  inhabitants.  Brood,  a  town  on  the  Save,  is  noted  for  its  for- 
tress, and  has  2,400  inhabitants.  New  Gradisca,  a  market-town,  with  1,600 
inhabitants.  Old  Gradisca,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Save,  with  2,200  inhabi- 
tants. Tittel,  a  market-town  on  the  Theiss,  near  its  junction  with  the  Danube, 
with  2,300  inhabitants. 

3.  The  Hungarian  Military  Frontier  contains :  Pancsova,  a  town  near  the 
Danube,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Semlin,  with  considerable  trade,  and 
10,000  inhabitants.  Karansebes,  a  market-town,  with  vine  culture,  and  3,500 
inhabitants.  Mehadia,  a  market-town  in  a  beautiful  valley,  is  from  old  highly 
famed  as  a  watering  place,  and  has  1,700  inhabitants.  Old  Orsova,  a  fortified 
market-town  on  the  Danube,  with  1,000  inhabitants.  Fejer  Templom  (in  Ger- 
man Weisskirchen),  a  town  eastward  and  40  miles  distant  from  Pancsova, 
with  vine  culture,  considerable  trade,  and  5,600  inhabitants. 

4.  The  Transylvanian  Military  Frontier  contains :  Kezdi  Vasarhely,  a  mar- 
ket-town noted  for  its  numerous  branches  of  national  industry,  has  4,900  in- 
habitants. Gyergyb  Szent  Miklos,  a  market-town  with  considerable  trade, 
and  5,100  inhabitants.  Hatzeg,  a  market-town  westward  and  60  miles  distant 
from  Hermannstadt,  with  vine  culture.  Still  is  to  be  noticed  the  mountain 
pass  known  by  the  name  of  Rother  Thurm  (red  tower),  southward  and  9  miles 
distant  from  Hermannstadt. 


VI— THE  KINGDOM  OF  DALMATIA. 

Area:  4,952  square  miles. 
Population  :  421,300  inhabitants. 

Dalmatia  is  a  strip  of  country,  in  some  places  only  2  or  3 
miles  wide,  extending  along  the  Adriatic,  on  the  north  bordering 


AUSTRIA.  535 


History  and  Geographical  Description  of  Dalmatia. 

upon  the  Croatian  Military  Frontier,  and  for  the  rest  surrounded 
by  Turkish  territories.  The  inhabitants,  mostly  belonging  to  the 
Slavonic  tribe,  speak  a  peculiar  idiom  known  by  the  name  of 
lllyrian  or  Serbian  language.  In  the  days  of  the  ancient  Romans 
Dalmatia  formed  a  constituent  part  of  Illyricum,  subsequently  of 
the  Eastern,  or  Greek  Empire.  In  the  7th  century  Slavonian 
tribes  settled  here,  ruled  by  native  chieftains,  who,  in  the  10th 
century  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  the  Republic  of  Venice, 
though  in  the  period  from  1357  to  1420  the  country  was  under  the 
sway  of  Hungary.  Since  the  last-named  period  Venice  was 
(with  the  exception  of  two  short  intervals)  continually  possessed 
of  Dalmatia  until  1797,  when,  in  conformity  to  the  treaty  of 
Campo  Formio,  it  was  ceded  to  Austria,  that,  in  1805,  ceded  it  to 
Napoleon,  and  became  possessed  of  it  again  in  1814. — Dalmatia 
is  divided  into  4  counties,  styled  circles,  which  are  subdivided  into 
26  districts. 

Zara,  the  fortified  capital  of  Dalmatia,  on  the  Adriatic,  opposite  the  city 
of  Ancona  (in  the  States  of  the  Church),  136  miles  south-south-east  of  Trieste, 
is  noted  for  its  cathedral  (reared  in  the  13th  century),  its  literary  institutions, 
and  its  cordials  (known  by  the  name  of  Rosoglio),  and  has  7,400  inhabitants. 
Pago,  a  town  on  an  isle  of  the  same  name,  with  salt-works,  vine  culture,  and 
2,600  inhabitants.  Sebenico,  a  maritime  town,  with  the  finest  cathedral  in 
Dalmatia,  is  moreover  noted  for  its  wines  and  cordials,  and  has  5,200  inhabi- 
tants. Knin,  a  market-town  with  a  mountain  castle,  and  700  inhabitants. 
Spalato,  or  Spalatro,  a  city  on  the  Adriatic,  south-eastward  and  70  miles 
distant  from  Zara,  is  noted  for  its  remarkable  Roman  antiquities,  mineral 
baths,  commerce,  etc.,  and  has  9,000  inhabitants.  Fort  Opus,  a  market-town 
with  800  inhabitants,  who  are  widely  engaged  in  the  exportation  of  leeches. 
Brazza,  Lesina,  and  Lissa,  islands  near  the  coast,  noted  for  their  wines,  figs, 
oranges,  and  other  similar  fruits.  Cattaro,  a  fortified  town  at  the  south-east- 
ern extremity  of  Dalmatia,  and  on  the  Adriatic,  with  remarkable  cathedral, 
noted  leather  manufactures,  and  2,300  inhabitants.  Ragusa,  until  1807  the 
capital  of  a  republic  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Adriatic,  north-westward  and 
28  miles  distant  from  Cattaro,  is  fortified,  and  noted  for  its  cathedral  and 


536  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Austria.— Dalmatia  and  Kingdom  of  Lombardy  and  Venice. 

other  churches,  its  literary  institutions,  manufactures,  ship-building,  etc.,  and 
6,000  inhabitants.  The  republic  of  Ragusa  originated  in  the  13th  century, 
was  since  1357  under  the  protection  of  Hungary,  subsequently  under  that 
of  Turkey,  was  in  1807  subjected  by  the  French,  and  kept  by  them  until 
1814,  when  Austria  became  possessed  of  it. 


VII— THE  KINGDOM  OF  LOMBARDY  AND  VENICE. 

Area:  17,594  square  miles. 
Population  :  5,068,000  inhabitants. 

It  comprises  nearly  the  whole  eastern  half  of  Upper  Italy  (see 
page  103),  on  the  west  separated  by  the  Ticino  river  from  the 
continental  part  of  Sardinia,  and  on  the  south  separated  by  the 
Po  river  from  Parma,  Modena,  and  the  States  of  the  Church. 
The  name  of  Lombardy,  derived  from  the  Lombards  (see  page 
28),  has  at  present  no  actual  political  meaning,  but  is  a  general 
name  adapted  to  the  ancient  duchies  of  Milan  and  Mantua,  etc. 
Referring  to  the  history  of  Europe,  $§  6,  7,  9  and  14,  and  to  the 
history  of  Italy,  page  102,  with  regard  to  historical  particulars 
of  Lombardy  in  general,  we  shall  simply  premise  here,  that  the 
duchies  of  Milan  and  Mantua,  and  the  principality  of  Castig- 
lione  have  already  since  respectively  1706,  1707  and  1773  be- 
longed to  Austria,  while  former  territories  of  Grisons  (in  Swit- 
zerland), and  those  of  the  ancient  republic  of  Venice,  have  not 
before  the  year  1814  been  permanently  annexed  to  the  Austrian 
empire.  (About  the  historical  particulars  see  below.) — The 
kingdom  is  divided  into  2  governments,  styled  gubernia,  those  of 


AUSTRIA.  537 


Geographical  Description  of  Lombardy  and  Venice. 


Milan  and  Venice,  and  subdivided  into  17  provinces,  styled  dele- 
gations. 

(a.)  The  government  (gubernium)  of  Milan  or  of  Lombardy  comprises,  be- 
side the  above-mentioned  duchies  and  principality  of  Milan,  Mantua  and 
Castiglione,  former  territories  of  the  present  Swiss  canton  of  Grisons,  viz.,  the 
dominions  of  Veltlin,  Bormio,  and  Chiavenna,  and  part  of  the  former  territo- 
ries of  the  republic  of  Venice. — 1.  The  ancient  duchy  of  Milan  took  existence 
in  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century.  The  city  of  Milan  had  until  then  been 
formally  under  the  sway  of  the  German  emperors,  but  actually  been  inde- 
pendent. A  native  nobleman,  Matthew  Visconti,  in  1313  usurped  authority 
in  the  city  and  its  territory,  was  acknowledged  as  its  ruler  by  Emperor 
Henry  VII.,  and  his  grandson,  John  Galeazzo  Visconti,  was  in  1395  by  Empe- 
ror Wenceslaus  raised  to  the  dignity  of  duke.  His  daughter  was  married  to 
the  duke  Louis  of  Orleans,  hence  the  subsequent  claims  of  France  upon  the 
duchy.  About  the  middle  of  the  15th  century  the  male  line  of  the  ducal 
house  became  extinct,  and  now  the  son-in-law  of  the  last  duke,  Francis 
Sforza,  was  elected  duke  of  Milan.  But  in  the  beginning  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury King  Francis  I.  of  France  raised  claims  upon  the  duchy,  while  Emperor 
Charles  V.  reclaimed  it  as  an  escheated  fief  of  the  German  empire.  After  a 
long  contest  the  emperor  prevailed  against  Francis  I.,  and  in  1540  he  in- 
vested his  son  Philip  (subsequently  king  of  Spain)  with  the  duchy  of  Milan, 
which  since  formed  a  constituent  part  of  Spain  until  1706,  when  Austria  took 
possession  of  it,  while  in  1714  it  was  formally  ceded  to  this  power  (see  page 
85).  In  1797  Austria  renounced  it,  after  it  having  been  transformed  into  a  Cis- 
alpinian  republic;  since  1805  it  formed  the  principal  constituent  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  and  in  1815  it  was  restored  to  Austria.  It  contains:  Mi- 
lan (in  German  Mailand,  and  in  Italian  Milano),  its  ancient  capital,  at  present 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Lombardy  and  Venice,  on  the  Olona,  and  in  a 
fertile  and  beautiful  plain,  between  the  Tessino  and  Adda  rivers,  northward 
and  80  miles  distant  from  Genoa,  and  westward  and  160  miles  distant  from 
Venice,  had  in  1845  a  population  of  205,000  inhabitants,  and  is  highly  famed 
for  its  numerous  and  splendid  public  buildings  (of  which  the  cathedral  is  one 
of  the  finest  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture,  and  adorned  with  about  4,000 
statues)  and  private  palaces,  for  its  valuable  public  libraries  and  literary  in- 
stitutions, for  its  charities  for  the  poor  and  sick,  for  its  exceedingly  important 
manufactures,  and  its  considerable  inland  trade.    The  city  was  founded  in 


538  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Austria.— Geographical  Description  of  Lombardy  and  Venice. 

359  B.  C.  by  the  ancient  Gauls,  and  has  since  that  period  been  more  than 
forty  times  besieged,  more  than  twenty  times  taken,  and  four  times  destroyed 
(for  the  last  time  in  1162)  and  rebuilt.  The  neighboring  market-town  of 
Rho  is  noted  for  its  mineral  waters  and  baths.  Monza,  a  city  on  the  Lam- 
bro,  9  miles  north-east  of  Milan,  with  very  ancient  remarkable  church,  a 
splendid  palace  of  the  viceroy  of  Lombardy  and  Venice,  silk  and  cotton  man- 
ufactures, and  17,300  inhabitants.  Marignano,  a  town  on  the  Lambro,  south- 
ward and  9  miles  distant  from  Milan,  has  4,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  in 
history  for  the  battle  on  the  13th  and  14th  September,  1515,  in  which  the 
Swiss  were  defeated  by  the  French.  Pa  via,  a  city  on  the  Ticino,  south- 
ward and  18  miles  distant  from  Milan,  once  the  residence  of  the  Lombardian 
kings  (the  last  of  them,  King  Desiderius,  was  in  774  taken  prisoner  here  by 
Charlemagne),  has  24,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  university  (see 
above,  page  505)  and  other  literary  institutions,  for  its  cathedral  and  other 
remarkable  churches,  and  for  its  considerable  trade.  In  218  B.  C.  Hannibal 
defeated  here  the  Romans;  and  in  1525  King  Francis  L  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  troops  of  Charles  V.  in  a  neighboring  park.  Lodi,  a  city  on  the  Adda 
(crossed  here  by  a  bridge  noted  as  a  central  point  in  the  battle  on  the  10th 
May,  1796),  south-eastward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Milan,  with  numerous 
potteries  and  delf-ware  manufactures,  and  18,000  inhabitants.  Codogno,  a 
market-town  eastward  and  24  miles  distant  from  Milan,  has  8,400  inhabi- 
tants, and  is  noted  for  its  cheese.  Cremona,  a  city  on  the  Po,  south- 
eastward and  48  miles  distant  from  Milan,  has  28,000  inhabitants,  and  is 
noted  for  its  magnificent  Gothic  cathedral,  its  literary  institutions,  charities 
for  the  poor  and  sick,  and  for  its  excellent  violins.  Cased  Maggiore  and  Piz- 
zighettone,  towns  with  respectively  5,000  and  4,000  inhabitants.  Como,  a 
city  on  the  lake  of  the  same  name,  northward  and  28  miles  distant  from  Mi- 
lan, with  beautiful  and  remarkable  cathedral,  numerous  and  important  man- 
ufactures, and  17,000  inhabitants.  The  neighboring  Villa  a"  Este  was  in  the 
year  1816-18  the  residence  of  the  princess  Carolina,  consort  to  King  George 
IV.  of  England.  Varese,  a  town  on  the  Olone,  eastward  and  12  miles  distant 
from  Como,  with  numerous  palaces  and  villas,  silk  manufactures,  and  8,500 
inhabitants.  Lecco,  a  market-town  on  the  lake  of  Como,  with  iron-works, 
and  2,200  inhabitants.  Treviglio,  a  market-town  on  the  Adda,  is  noted  for 
its  silks,  and  has  6,200  inhabitants. — 2.  The  ancient  duchy  of  Mantua  was 
since  the  year  1328  under  the  sway  of  princes  from  the  house  of  Gonzaga, 
who  in  1432  were  by  the  German  emperor  Sigismund  raised  to  the  dignity 


AUSTRIA.  639 


Geographical  Description  of  Lombardy  and  Venice. 


of  margraves,  and  by  Emperor  Charles  V.  to  that  of  dukes.  In  the  war  of 
succession  (see  page  85)  Duke  Charles  IV.  of  Mantua  took  up  arms  against 
the  emperor,  upon  which  he  was  outlawed  for  felony,  while  in  170*7  Austria 
became  possessed  of  this  duchy  and  kept  it  since  (with  the  exception  of  the 
period  from  1796  to  1814).  It  contains:  Mantua,  its  ancient  capital,  on  a 
lake,  80  miles  east-south-east  of  Milan,  with  a  strong  fortress,  a  remarkable 
palace,  a  beautiful  cathedral,  several  literary  institutions,  important  manu- 
factures, considerable  trade,  and  28,000  inhabitants  Gonzaga,  a  market- 
town  noted  for  the  ancestral  castle  of  the  ancient  dukes  of  Mantua,  has 
13,500  inhabitants.  Viadana,  a  market-town  noted  for  its  linens,  with  14,000 
inhabitants. — 3.  The  ancient  principality  of  Castiglione,  which  was  under 
the  sway  of  princes  of  the  house  of  Gonzaga,  until  in  1773  Austria  became 
possessed  of  it,  contains  :  Castiglione,  its  ancient  capital,  at  the  Milan 
and  Venice  railroad,  with  5,500  inhabitants.  Solferino,  a  market-town, 
with  1,300  inhabitants. — 4.  The  former  territories  of  Veltlin,  JBormio,  and 
Chiavenna  (see  above)  were  primitively  under  the  sway  of  the  bishop  of 
Chur  (see  page  161),  who  in  1637  ceded  them  to  the  Swiss  canton  of  Gri- 
sons,  from  which  they  were  wrested  by  the  rulers  of  the  transitory  Cis- 
alpinian  republic  (see  above  under  the  head  of  Milan),  and  subsequently 
annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  In  this  way  Austria  became  possessed  of 
them  in  1814.  They  contain  :  SoNDRio,the  former  capital  of  Veltlin,  on  the 
Adda,  64  miles  north-north-east  of  Milan,  with  4,100  inhabitants.  Tirano 
and  Morbegno,  market-towns,  with  respectively  2,800  and  2,300  inhabitants. 
Bormio,  a  market-town  near  the  head  of  the  Adda,  90  miles  north-north-east 
of  Milan,  with  1,200  inhabitants.  Chiavenna  (in  German  Cleven),  a  town  on 
the  Maira,  north-westward  and  34  miles  distant  from  Sondrio,  with  manufac- 
tures, considerable  trade,  and  3,200  inhabitants.  In  its  neighborhood  was 
situated  the  wealthy  town  of  Plurs,  which  in  1618  was  totally  buried  under 
the  fragments  of  the  adjacent  Mount  Con  to. — 5.  The  former  territories  of 
the  ancient  republic  of  Venice  (see  forward),  within  the  limits  of  this  govern- 
ment, contain :  BaEsciA,  a  city  at  the  Milan  and  Venice  railroad,  eastward 
and  54  miles  distant  from  Milan,  and  110  miles  west-north-west  of  Venice, 
has  28,000  inhabitants,  and  is  highly  famed  for  its  manufactures  of  fire-arms, 
cutleries,  etc.,  and  is  moreover  noted  for  its  architectural  monuments,  pal- 
aces, and  literary  institutions.  Salo,  a  market-town  on  the  Garda  lake,  is 
noted  for  its  silk,  and  has  4,600  inhabitants.  Desenzano,  on  the  Garda  lake, 
is  noted  for  its  excellent  wines,  and  has  3,700  inhabitants.     Other  more  or 


540  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Austria.— Lombardy  and  Venice ;    History  of  Venice. 

less  notable  market-towns  are:  Montechiaro  (with  6,600  inhabitants),  67a- 
ari  (with  9,000  inhabitants),  Toscolano  (with  2,400  inhabitants),  Gargnano 
(with  3,400  inhabitant?),  Verola  Nuova  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Orzi  Nuovi 
(with  4,700  inhabitants),  Pontevico  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Bagolino  (with 
3,700  inhabitants),  Gardone  (with  1,400  inhabitants),  Casienedolo  (with  4,500 
inhabitants),  Lonato  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Iseo  (with  1,800  inhabitants), 
Lovere  (with  4,100  inhabitants),  Martinengo  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Bre  or 
Breno  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  Romano  (with  3,000  inhabitants).  Ber- 
gamo, a  city  between  the  Serio  and  Brembo  rivers,  north-eastward  and  34 
miles  distant  from  Milan,  has  32,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  annual 
fairs,  considerable  tr^de  and  manufactures,  for  several  remarkable  churches, 
literary  institutions,  etc.  Cbema,  a  city  on  the  Serio,  north-eastward  and  9 
miles  distant  from  Lodi,  has  9,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  wines  and  flax, 
and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade. 

(b.)  The  government  (gubernium)  of  Venice  comprises  nothing  but  former 
territories  of  the  ancient  Republic  of  Venice.  Venice  has  derived  its  name 
from  the  ancient  Venetes  (see  page  102),  who  had  their  chief  seat  on  the 
Italian  continent,  but  in  452  when  the  Huns  under  Attila  invaded  Italy,  fled 
to  the  neighboring  islands,  settled  there,  and  supported  themselves  by  fishing, 
making  salt,  and  subsequently  by  commerce.  They  were  joined  by  other 
Italian  tribes,  their  commerce  flourished  more  and  more,  in  697  they  elected 
their  first  duke,  styled  Doge,  as  head  of  their  republic,  which  in  1172  was 
decidedly  founded  on  aristocratic  principles,  and  at  that  period  Venice  had 
already  become  one  of  the  most  powerful  states.  (Some  interesting  particu- 
lars about  its  commerce  and  manufactures  are  given  in  the  History  of  Eu- 
rope.) Its  wealth  and  power  had  attained  the  highest  pitch,  when  suddenly 
the  discovery  of  America  and  of  the  way  to  India  by  sea  (see  pages  56  and 
57)  changed  the  state  of  things  throughout  Europe,  and  soon  proved  to  be  a 
hard  blow  to  the  commerce  of  Venice.  Since  the  republic  was  more  or  less 
in  a  lingering  condition,  and  at  the  first  shock  in  1797,  the  whole  artificial 
political  structure  was  overturned.  At  that  period  its  territories,  comprising 
those  on  the  Italian  continent  (including  the  greatest  part  of  Istria),  the 
Ionian  Islands,  and  Dalmatia,  had  an  extent  of  13,312  square  mile3,  with  a 
population  of  3,000,000  inhabitants.  The  public  revenue  was  estimated  at 
5  J  millions  Venetian  ducats  (about  $3,000,000),  and  the  navy  consisted  in 
1783  of  24  ships  of  the  line  and  56  other  vessels.  It  cannot  be  left  unnoticed, 
that  history  knows  of  but  few  instances  where  a  more  despotic  governmental 


AUSTRIA.  541 


Geographical  Description  of  Lorabardy  and  Venice. 


system  was  established,  than  in  the  mock  republic  of  Venice,  whose  actual 
rulers  were  exclusively  chosen  from  a  body  of  1,500  nobles.  According  to 
the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  at  CampoFormio  in  1797,  Austria 
became  possessed  of  the  Italian  territories  of  the  republic;  in  1805  it  ceded 
them  to  France,  and  in  1814  they  were  restored  to  Austria.  We  now 
describe :  Venice  (in  Italian  Venezia,  and  in  German  Venedig),  ancient  capital 
of  the  former  republic,  built  upon  136  islands  joined  together  by  450  bridges, 
at  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  Venice,  or  Adriatic  Sea,  had  in  1842  94,177  in- 
habitants, but  in  1846,  a  population  of  120,000  inhabitants  (among  them 
were  only  6,380  persons  considered  as  notoriously  poor).  There  are  few 
cities  in  the  world  that  have  so  great  a  number  of  historically  remarkable 
public  and  private  edifices  and  buildings  as  Venice.  St.  Mark's  cathedral, 
the  ancient  palace  of  the  Doge,  the  naval  depots,  the  Ponte  Rialto,  St. 
Mark's  place,  the  Campanile,  etc.,  are  but  few  intimations  of  the  numerous 
remarkable  objects  of  this  city,  which  is  also  still  noted  for  its  various 
important  manufactures  and  commerce.  The  island  of  Murano  is  noted  for 
its  manufactures  of  looking-glasses.  Chioggia,  or  Chiozza,  a  city  on  an  island 
of  the  same  name,  with  salt-works,  and  25,500  inhabitants.  Mestre,  a  mar- 
ket-town on  the  continent,  with  considerable  trade,  and  5,300  inhabitants. 
Padua,  a  city  on  the  Bachiglione,  and  near  the  Brenta  river,  westward  and 
24  miles  distant  from  Venice,  has  52,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  uni- 
versity (see  above,  page  505)  and  other  remarkable  literary  institutions,  its 
cathedral  and  other  churches,  its  manufactures  and  annual  fairs.  Monselice, 
a  market-town  noted  for  its  silk,  quarries,  and  considerable  trade,  has  8,000 
inhabitants.  Abbano  (with  2,600  inhabitants),  and  Battaglia  (with  2,700  inhab- 
itants), market-towns  noted  for  their  mineral  waters  and  baths.  Este,  a  town 
on  a  canal,  14  miles  south-south-west  of  Padua,  is  remarkable  as  the  ances- 
tral place  of  the  renowned  house  of  Este  (see  pages  118  and  433),  and  has  9,000 
inhabitants.  Montagnana,  a  town  on  the  Fiumicello,  is  noted  for  its  hemp, 
and  has  8,700  inhabitants.  Rovigo,  a  city  on  the  Adigetto,  a  branch  of  the 
Adige,  south-westward  and  38  miles  distant  from  Venice,  with  remarkable 
cathedral  and  several  other  handsome  edifices,  and  9,000  inhabitants.  Adria, 
a  city  in  the  neighborhood  of  Rovigo,  on  a  branch  of  the  Po,  14  miles  from 
the  Adriatic  Sea  (whose  name  is  derived  from  that  of  the  city,  which  stood  an- 
ciently close  by  the  sea  and  was  an  emporium),  with  a  remarkable  museum, 
considerable  trade  in  corn,  cattle,  etc.,  vine  culture,  and  10,400  inhabitants. 
Lendinara  and  Badia,  market-towns,  with  respectively  5,000  and  3,600  in- 


542  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Austria. — Geographical  Description  of  Lombardy  and  Venice. 

habitants.  Verona,  a  strongly  fortified  city  on  the  Adige,  half-way  between 
Milan  and  Venice,  has  52,000  inhabitants,  and  is  renowned  for  the  vast  num- 
ber of  well-conserved  remains  of  ancient  Roman  edifices  (among  which  a 
vast  amphitheatre  having  room  for  22,000  spectators,  and  1,331  feet  in  circuit), 
for  its  many  literary  institutions,  scientific  societies,  for  its  important  silk 
manufactures,  annual  fairs,  etc.  Legnago,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Adige,  is 
noted  for  its  rice,  and  has  10,000  inhabitants.  Vicenza,  a  city  on  the  Bacchi- 
glione,  42  miles  west-north-west  of  Venice,  with  numerous  magnificent  public 
edifices,  silk  manufactures,  trade  in  greens  and  cattle,  and  33,500  inhabitants. 
Bassano,  a  city  on  the  Brenta,  north-westward  and  38  miles  distant  from  Ven- 
ice, with  25  churches  and  chapels,  charities  for  the  poor  and  sick,  considerable 
trade  in  wine,  silk,  etc.,  and  13,000  inhabitants.  Schio,  a  market- town,  with 
6,700  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  cloth  manufactures.  Treviso,  a  city  at  the 
high-road  between  Venice  and  Tyrol,  northward  and  18  miles  distant  from 
Venice,  with  several  Gothic  churches,  a  remarkable  city-hall,  a  public  library, 
botanic  garden,  etc.,  various  and  important  manufactures,  annual  fairs,  and 
20,000  inhabitants.  Ceneda,  a  town  with  paper  and  leather  manufactures, 
mineral  waters,  and  5,100  inhabitants.  Serravalle  and  Castelfranco,  market- 
towns,  wiih  respectively  4,800  and  4,000  inhabitants.  Belluno,  a  city  on  the 
Piave,  northward  and  54  miles  distant  from  Venice,  with  remarkable  cathe- 
dral, timber  trade,  and  12,000  inhabitants.  Feltre,  a  city  near  the  frontier 
of  Tyrol,  with  considerable  trade  in  silk,  wine,  and  olive  oil,  and  5,200  in- 
habitants. Cadore,  a  market-town  on  the  Piave,  is  remarkable  as  the  birth- 
place of  the  renowned  painter,  Titian,  and  has  1,600  inhabitants.  Agordo,  a 
market-town  in  the  neighborhood  of  Belluno,  with  important  copper  mines, 
and  2,400  inhabitants.  The  market-town  of  Auronzo  (with  3,100  inhabitants) 
is  noted  for  its  lead  mines. — The  former  Venetian  Friaul  (see  above)  con- 
tains :  Udine,  its  ancient  capital,  on  the  Roja,  north-eastward  and  64  miles 
distant  from  Venice,  with  a  cathedral  and  12  other  churches,  charities  for  the 
poor  and  sick,  silk  manufactures,  and  23,000  inhabitants.  South-westward 
and  5  miles  distant  from  here  is  situated  the  village  of  Campo  Formio, 
with  a  castle,  where  on  the  17th  October,  1797,  the  noted  treaty  of  peace  be- 
tween France  and  Austria  was  concluded.  Palmanova,  a  strongly  fortified 
town  at  the  frontier  of  Illyria,  with  silk  manufactures,  and  2,800  inhabitants. 
Cividale,  a  town  on  the  Natissone,  with  linen  manufactures,  dyeing  in  Turkish 
red,  and  3,600  inhabitants.  Sacile  (with  4,200  inhabitants),  Pordenone  (with 
5,000  inhabitants),  Latisana  (with  3,200  inhabitants)  and  Tolmezzo  (with 
1,200  inhabitants),  market-towns. 


DENMARK. 

Area:  49,927  square  miles. 
Population:  1,800,000  inhabitants. 

This  kingdom  comprises  the  continent  and  islands  between  the 
North  and  Baltic  Seas  to  the  north  of  the  Lower  Elbe  and  its 
mouth  ;  and  beside  them,  the  Faroe  Isles  and  the  island  of  Ice- 
land in  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

The  continental  part  of  the  kingdom  is  on  the  north  separated 
from  Norway  by  the  Skagerrack,  and  on  the  east  from  Sweden  by 
the  Cattegat  (see  page  9) ;  while  the  Sound  separates  Zealand 
from  Sweden,  and  the  Great  and  Litth  Belt  (see  page  9)  separate 
the  two  largest  Danish  islands  from  each  other,  and  from  the 
Danish  peninsula. 

The  above-stated  area  and  population  are  distributed  as  fol- 
lows: 

Danish  Islands,  between  the  )     „  m    .  „  ,  MAlUt,,  ,   ,.L 

v    5,005  square  miles,  and  780,000  inhabitants. 
Cattegat  and  Baltic  Sea,  ) 


Jutland, 

.     9,574 

« 

" 

■ 

570,000 

Sleswick, 

.     3,482 

K 

M 

«( 

370,000 

Iceland, 

.  30,716 

" 

" 

a 

70,500 

Faroe  Isles,  . 

.    1,150 

« 

M 

H 

9,500 

Total,        .        .  49,927       "  "        "    1,800,000 

Adding  3,738  square  miles  and  515,000  inhabitants,  as  the  area 
and  population  of  the  duchies  of  Holstein  and  Lauenburg  (see 
page  413),  the  whole  kingdom  would  have  a  total  area  of  53.665 


544  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Denmark— its  Natural  Features  and  Products. 

square  miles,  and  a  total  population  of  2,315,000  inhabitants. 
(About  the  Danish  Colonies,  see  below  ) 

The  established  church  in  Denmark  is  the  Lutheran,  under  the 
church  authority  of  9  Lutheran  bishops,  viz.,  of  Zealand,  Funen, 
Laaland-Falster,  Aalborg,  Wiborg,  Aarhuus,  Kibe,  Alsen-Aeroe, 
and  Iceland,  beside  2  superintendents-general  (in  Sleswick  and 
Holstein),  &c,  &c.  The  number  of  parishes  (including  Iceland 
and  the  Faroe  Isles)  is  2,156.  On  the  1st  February,  1840,  there 
were  throughout  the  whole  kingdom  only  1,693  Calvinists  and 
2,233  Roman  Catholics,  beside  7,809  Jews.  The  Lutheran  bishops 
in  Denmark  have  about  the  same  authority  as  the  bishops  of  the 
Church  of  England. 

As  the  natural  features  of  Iceland  and  the  Faroe  Isles  have  a 
peculiar  character,  entirely  differing  from  those  of  the  main  body 
of  the  kingdom,  the  following  particulars  have  reference  only  to 
the  latter. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  generally  level,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  range  of  low  hills  in  the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  with  the 
Himmelsberg,  only  536  feet  in  height.  The  coast  of  Jutland  and 
the  Danish  Islands  is  indented  with  numerous  bays,  styled  Fjords, 
the  widest  and  most  remarkable  of  which  are  the  Lymfjord  in 
Jutland,  and  the  Isefjord  in  Zealand. 

The  climate  is  moderate,  and  generally  wholesome,  and  the 
soil  is,  upon  the  whole,  exceedingly  fertile  in  grain  and  pasturage. 
Corn  is  raised  in  such  quantities  that  the  annual  exports  of  it 
are  very  considerable.  The  rearing  of  cattle  and  horses  is  at  the 
same  high  pitch  of  improvement  as  agriculture.  The  Danish 
breed  of  horses  (about  700,000  in  the  kingdom)  is  widely  famed 
for  its  excellence,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  breed  of  black 
cattle  (more  than  1,500,000  heads  in  aggregate  number), 
especially  in  Jutland.  There  are  about  2,000,000  sheep,  but  only 
part  of  them  is  of  improved  breed.     Vast  numbers  of  hogs  and 


DENMARK  545 


Commerce,  Means  of  Education,  Government. 


geese  are  both  in  the  continental  part  and  the  islands.  Beside 
coal  on  the  island  of  Bornholm,  the  mineral  kingdom  yields  in 
Denmark  almost  nothing  but  peat,  which  is  generally  the  only 
fuel  used  here. 

While  the  manufactures  consist  chiefly  of  lace  and  gloves  (for 
which  Denmark  is  noted),  of  linen  and  canvass,  and  are  almost 
restricted  to  Copenhagen,  and  a  few  other  cities,  the  commerce  is  the 
more  considerable  and  important,  and  extends  to  the  West  Indies 
and  Africa,  as  well  as  to  India  and  China.  The  chief  exports 
are  corn,  black  cattle,  horses,  beef,  butter,  etc.  About  10,000 
horses  are  annually  exported.  Of  fattened  black  cattle  were  in 
1845  exported  45,000  heads  of  oxen,  calves  and  cows  (in  1840 
alone  33,500  heads  of  fattened  oxen) ;  of  salted  and  smoked  beef 
250.000  quintals,  of  butter  190,000  quintals,  of  sheep,  etc.  14,000 
heads,  of  wool  16,000  quintals,  of  hogs,  17,000  heads,  of  bacon 
60,000  quintals,  and  of  wax  about  80,000  pounds. 

The  means  of  education  are  in  the  best  order,  and  very  properly 
arranged.  In  1837  the  number  of  common  schools  was  3,644,  of 
which  697  were  in  Sleswick,  and  the  remainder  in  Jutland  and 
the  Danish  Islands.  (About  the  schools  in  Holstein  and  Lauen- 
burg,  see  page  413.)  Beside  these  there  are  6  seminaries  for 
school-teachers  (the  seventh  is  in  Holstein),  27  gymnasiums  (4  of 
them  in  Sleswick),  26  Latin  schools,  7  academies  and  similar  other 
higher  schools,  and  one  university  at  Copenhagen  (founded  in 
1479,  and  in  1841  frequented  by  1,260  students:  its  valuable 
library  contains  more  than  100,000  volumes).  About  the  univer- 
sity at  Kiel,  see  page  413. 

The  government  was  since  1660.  and  until  recent  times,  an  un- 
limited monarchy,  that,  however,  had  not  the  slightest  infusion  of 
that  despotic  character,  as,  for  instance,  the  French  government 
had  in  the  days  of  Louis  XIV.  Since  the  years  1831  and  34 
the  government  was  somewhat  limited  by  provincial  diets  with 


516  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Denmark — its  Finances,  Army  and  Navy. 

deliberative  votes.  But  at  present  the  government  is  limited  by 
a  constitution  like  those  in  other  states  of  western  Europe. 

According  to  the  budget  of  1846,  the  public  revenue  amounted 
to  16,008,440  Riksbankdollars  (or  about  $8,000,000,  one  Riks- 
bankdollar  being  equal  to  50  cents),  and  the  public  expenditure  to 
15,935,053  Riksbankdollars.  The  toll  levied  at  Elsinore  (on 
the  Sound)  from  the  ships  which  trade  to  the  Baltic  Sea,  yields 
annually  about  2  million  of  Riksbankdollars  (or  $1,000,000). 
The  public  debt,  amounting  to  1 14,194,806  Riksbankdollars  on  the 
1st  January  1843,  was  in  the  following  year  reduced  to  112,619,- 
154  by  paying  off;  but  has  of  course  since,  on  account  of  the  in- 
tervening unprovoked  war  (see  page  415),  considerably  increased 
again. 

The  regular  army  consisted  hitherto  of  24,823  men  on  the 
peace  footing,  and  of  about  100,000  men  on  the  war  footing. 
Formerly  Denmark  ranked  high  as  a  maritime  power,  and  even 
so  late  as  in  1806  her  navy  consisted  of  20  ships  of  the  line,  16 
frigates,  9  brigs,  1  schooner,  and  52  gun-boats  and  other  vessels. 
Most  of  them  were  first  rate  men-of-war,  and  England  had  long 
since  had  an  appetite  for  them.  Suddenly  in  1807,  towards  fall, 
the  English  surprised  Denmark — which  was  then  in  peace  with  Eng- 
land, and  all  other  nations — with  a  powerful  fleet  and  a  numerous 
body  of  landing  troops,  bombarded  Copenhagen  in  a  frightful 
manner  during  four  days  (on  which  occasion  2,400  dwelling- 
houses  were  destroyed,  400  of  which  totally,  and  more  than  2,000 
inoffensive  inhabitants  killed),  and  simultaneously  attacked  the 
Danish  navy  with  far  superior  forces  ;  and  in  this  way  indeed 
they  finally  succeeded  in  enforcing  a  capitulation,  signed  on  the 
7th  September.  By  this  convention  it  was  stipulated,  that  Den- 
mark should  surrender  her  navy  to  the  English,  who  on  their 
part  engaged  themselves,  according  to  the  terms  of  this  very 
convention,  to  restore  it  immediately  after  the  conclusion  of  a  gen- 


DENMARK.  547 


History  of  Denmark. 


eral  peace.  The  latter  was  concluded  in  1814 — but  England  did 
never  restore  even  so  much  as  a  single  ship  to  Denmark  !  In 
1846  the  Danish  navy  consisted  of  7  ships  of  the  line,  8  frigates, 
5  sloops  of  war,  4  brigs,  4  steamers,  and  6  other  vessels,  beside 
82  gun-boats,  etc. 

There  are  the  following  Orders  of  honor :  1.  The  Elephant 
order,  instituted  so  early  as  in  the  12th  century,  and  renewed  in 
1458  :  it  is  only  conferred  on  princes  or  persons  of  the  highest 
rank;  2.  the Danebrog order, instituted  in  1219, renewed  in  1671, 
and  in  4  classes. 

History. — That  Denmark  was,  simultaneously  with  the  other  Scandinavian 
countries,  chiefly  peopled  by  the  German  tribe  of  the  Goths,  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Christian  era,  has  already  been  alluded  to,  page  30.  Accord- 
ing to  an  ancient  tale,  a  Gothic  prince,  named  Odin,  or  Oden,  founded  in 
that  period  the  city  of  Odense  on  the  island  of  Funen,  and  then  removing  to 
Sweden,  left  behind  his  son  Skjold,  who  thus  became  the  ancestor  of  the  first 
reigning  dynasty  in  Denmark,  known  in  history  by  the  name  of  Skjoldunger. 
The  country  was,  however,  for  centuries  not  under  the  sway  of  one  single 
king,  but  under  that  of  several  princes,  until  in  883  Gorm,  surnamed  the  Old, 
united  the  different  parts  into  one  kingdom.  That  prior  to  this  period  the 
war  against  Charlemagne  had  in  810  been  terminated  by  a  treaty  of  peace, 
which  fixed  the  Eider  river  as  the  boundary  between  the  Danes  and  Franks 
(subsequently  between  Denmark  and  the  German  empire),  has  already  been 
related,  page  31.  During  the  reign  of  Harald  VIII.  (931-981),  surnamed 
Blaatand  (literally,  blue  tooth),  Christianity  began  to  be  propagated  in  Den- 
mark ;  and  his  grandson  Sven  conquered  both  England  (see  page  32)  and 
Norway.  With  King  Hardicanute,  who  died  in  1041,  the  male  line  of  the 
Skjoldunger  became  extinct,  and  now  Sven  Estridson  (son  of  Hardicanute's 
aunt)  succeeded,  but  also  his  male  line  became  extinct  in  1376  with  king 
Waldemar  III.  Waldemar's  only  daughter  Margareth  (married  to  a  Nor- 
wegian prince)  succeeded  him,  and  was  in  1397  acknowledged  as  reigning 
queen  of  all  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms  (Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden). 
With  Christoph  III.,  who  died  in  1448,  the  race  of  the  Skjoldunger  became 
totally  extinct,  and  now  the  earl  Christian  of  Oldenburg  was  elected  heredi- 
tary king  of  Denmark,  and  mounted  the  Danish  throne  as  Christian  1.  (see 


548  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Denmark— its  History  and  Geographical  Divisions. 

History  of  Holstein,  page  414).  He  died  in  1481,  and  had  the  following  suc- 
cessors :  John  (1481-1513),  Christian  II.  (1513-1523),  Frederic  I.  (1523-1533), 
Christian  III.  (1533-1559),  Frederic  II.  (1559-1588),  Christian  IV.  (1588- 
1648),  Frederic  III.  (1648-1670),  Christian  V.  (16*70-1699),  Frederic  IV. 
(1699-1730),  Christian  VI.  (1730-1746),  Frederic  V.  (1746-1766),  Christian 
VIL  (1766-1808),  and  Frederic  VI.  (1808-1839).  That  in  1807  Denmark  was 
deprived  of  its  navy  by  the  English,  has  already  been  mentioned  above,  and 
that  in  181 3  Norway  was  wrested  from  the  kingdom  by  Sweden,  and  that  final- 
ly it  was  indemnified  by  the  duchy  of  Lauenburg,  has  been  related,  page  419  ; 
while  in  the  History  of  Holstein  the  real  motives  of  the  endeavors  to  wrest 
also  the  duchies  of  Sleswick,  Holstein,  and  Lauenburg  from  Denmark  have 
been  fully  explained.  (The  historical  particulars  with  reference  to  Sleswick 
see  below.)  King  Frederic  VI.  died  in  1839,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  cousin, 
Christian  VIII,  who  died  on  the  20th  January,  1848,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  the  present  reigning  king,  Frederic  VIL,  born  on  the  6th  October, 
1808.  In  case  the  latter  should  die  childless,  his  next  heir  and  successor 
would  be  his  uncle,  Prince  Ferdinand  (born  in  1792,  and  childless),  and  then 
first  would  succeed  Prince  Frederic  of  Hesse-Cassel,  whose  mother  Char- 
lotte is  sister  of  Ferdinand  and  the  late  king  Christian  VIII. 

The  Danish  Islands  (between  the  Cattegat  and  the  Baltic  Sea) 
and  Jutland  are  divided  in  19  bailiwicks,  while  Sleswick  is  di- 
vided into  15  bailiwicks  and  40  privileged  districts,  cities,  etc., 
in  a  similar  manner  as  Holstein.  In  the  following  topography 
we  shall,  however,  describe  these  islands  separately,  under  one 
single  head,  only  denoting  the  capitals  of  the  bailiwicks  with 
this  sign,  +.  The  remaining  sections  to  be  described  separately 
are  :  Jutland,  Sleswick,  Faroe  Isles,  and  Iceland. 


DENMARK.  549 


Danish  Islands. 


1.— THE  DANISH  ISLANDS. 

Area  :  5,005  square  miles. 
Population:  780,000  inhabitants. 

Under  this  head  are  comprised  the  islands  situated  between 
the  Cattegat  and  the  Baltic  Sea,  excluding  the  few  that  are  con- 
sidered as  annexed  to  Jutland  and  Sleswick. 

The  island  of  Zealand  (2,705  square  miles,  and  480,000  inhabitants),  sep- 
arated from  Sweden  by  the  Sound,  contains :    -[-Copenhagen   (in   Danish 
Kjbbenhavn),  the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  and  royal  residence,  is  one  of  the 
most  handsome  cities  in  Europe,  and  strongly  fortified,  has  125,000  inhabi- 
tants, a  good  harbor,  with  considerable  commerce,  and  is  noted  for  many 
magnificent  public  edifices  and  private  buildings,  its  university  (see  above), 
and  numerous  literary  institutions,  its  vast  docks,  and  important  manufac- 
tures.    The  royal  library  here  (which  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  that  of 
the  university)  contains  500,000  volumes.     Roeskilde,  a  city  near  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  the  above-mentioned  Isefjord,  18  miles  west-south-west  of 
Copenhagen,  has  at  present  only  3,000  inhabitants,  but  was  in  the  middle 
ages  a  renowned  city  (see  page  38).     The  neighboring  village  of  Leire  was 
until  the   10th  century  the  principal  seat  of  the  Danish  kings.     Kjoge,  a 
maritime  town  on  the  eastern  coast,  with  remarkable  town-hall,  and  2,000 
inhabitants.     -|-Hiller6d,  a  town  on  an  inland  lake,  21  miles  north-north- 
west of  Copenhagen,  has  1,800  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  the  extensive 
and  magnificent  Gothic  castle  of  Frederiksbcrrg,  in  whose  church  the  kings 
of  Denmark  use  to  be  crowned.     The  neighboring  royal  palace  of  Fredens- 
borg  is  remarkable  in  history  for  the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  here  on  the 
3d  July,  1720.     Frederikswerk,  a  market-town  on  a  lake,  with  600  inhabi- 
tants, is  noted  for  its  cannon-foundry.     Helsingor,  or  Flsenor,  a  maritime 
:own  on  the  Sound,  with  some  manufactures,  commerce,  sea-bathing,  and  7,500 
nhabitants.     The  toll  levied  here  (see  above),  yielded  in  1840  the  sum  of 
i,140,360  Riksbankdollars   ($1,070,180),   paid   by    17,332   passing   vessels. 
Jlose  by  the  town  is  situated  the  citadel  or  fortified  castle  of  Kronborg, 
eared  in  the  years  1577-85.     The  Sound  is  here  only  4,443  yards  wide. 


550  EUROPE,   PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

Denmark— Islands  of  Zealand,  Bornholm,  etc. 

The  neighboring  village  of  Hellebeck  is  noted  for  a  fire-arms  manufactory. 
Frederikssund,  a  maritime  town,  with  corn  trade,  and  1,800  inhabitants. 
-fHoLBEK,  a  maritime  town,  on  the  Isefjord,  with  corn  trade,  and  2,000  in- 
habitants. Nykjbbing,  a  town  on  the  Isefjord,  with  some  woollen  manufac- 
tures, and  950  inhabitants.  Kallundborg,  a  rather  important  maritime  and 
commercial  town  at  the  northern  entrance  into  the  Great  Belt,  with  2,500  in- 
habitants. -(-Soroe,  a  town  on  ar  lake  of  the  same  name,  south-westward  and 
44  miles  distant  from  Copenhagen,  has  900  inhabitants,  and  is  renowned  for  its 
academy  founded  in  1586.  The  neighboring  and  very  ancient  town  of  Ring- 
sled  (with  1,100  inhabitants)  is  noted  for  its  church,  reared  in  the  11th  cen- 
tury, and  containing  the  sepulchres  of  Waldemar  L  and  II.  and  other  Skjol- 
dungers.  Slagelse,  Skjelskoer,  and  Korsoer,  more  or  less  remarkable  towns 
near  and  on  the  Great  Belt,  with  respectively  3,000,  1,000,  and  1,500  inhabi- 
tants. -j-Praestoe,  a  maritime  town  in  the  southern  extremity  of  Zealand, 
48  miles  south-south-west  of  Copenhagen,  with  fine  harbor,  corn  trade,  and 
900  inhabitants.  Nestved,  a  town  romantically  situated,  is  noted  for  its  con- 
siderable corn  trade,  and  has  2,500  inhabitants.  Wordingborg,  a  maritime 
town,  with  1,600  inhabitants. 

The  island  of  Samsoe,  between  Jutland  and  Zealand,  at  the  northern  en- 
trance into  the  Great  Belt,  has  a  very  fertile  soil,  42  square  miles  in  extent, 
and  6,000  inhabitants,  who  are  noted  for  their  wealth. 

The  island  of  Moen  (85  square  miles,  and  12,000  inhabitants),  near  the 
south-eastern  extremity  of  Zealand,  is  noted  for  the  fertility  of  its  soil  in 
grain,  for  its  valuable  forests,  and  the  wealth  of  its  population,  and  contains 
the  town  of  Stege,  with  light- house,  and  1,700  inhabitants. 

The  island  of  Bornholm  (213  square  miles,  and  25,000  inhabitants),  situa- 
ted in  the  Baltic  Sea,  about  80  miles  east  of  Zealand,  is  in  the  interior  fertile 
in  grazing,  and  noted  for  its  quarries  and  coal  mines.  It  contains :  Bonne,  or 
fiottum,  a  town  on  the  western  coast,  with  rather  considerable  commerce, 
manufactures  of  clocks,  numerous  potteries,  and  4,000  inhabitants.  Aakirke, 
a  town  towards  the  centre  of  the  island,  has  800  inhabitants,  and  is  noted 
for  its  fine  church,  built  of  black  marble.  Other  towns  are  Nexbe  (with  1,600 
inhabitants),  Svanike  (with  1,100  inhabitants),  and  Hasle  (with  700  inhabi- 
tants). 

The  island  of  Laaland  (458  square  miles,  and  50,000  inhabitants),  situated 
between  Zealand  and  Holstein,  has  an  exceedingly  fertile  soil,  and  its  in- 
habitants are  generally  very  wealthy.     It  contains :  Mariboe,  a  town  on  a 


DENMARK.  551 


Islands  of  Fulster,  Funen,  Thaasinge,  and  Langeland. 


lake  of  the  same  name,  with  corn  trade,  and  1,400  inhabitants,  Nysted  (with 
1,000  inhabitants),  Saxkjobing  (with  800  inhabitants),  Nakskop  (with  2,500 
inhabitants),  and  R'ddby  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  maritime  towns  more  or 
less  noted  for  their  corn  trade. 

The  island  of  Falster  (181  square  miles,  and  21,000  inhabitants),  situated 
close  by  the  former  island,  is  noted  for  its  fruits,  and  in  common  life  fre- 
quently called  the  orchard  of  Denmark.  Much  grain  is  likewise  raised,  and 
the  forests  here  yield  valuable  timber.  It  contains  :  Nykjobing,  a  very  ancient 
chief  town,  on  the  Strait  that  separates  the  island  from  Laaland,  with  ancient 
royal  palace,  considerable  corn  trade,  and  2,000  inhabitants.  Stubbekjbbing, 
a  town  with  900  inhabitants. 

The  island  of  Funen  (in  Danish  Fyen)  is  next  to  Zealand  the  largest 
among  the  Danish  islands,  having  an  area  of  1,193  square  miles,  with 
154,000  inhabitants,  and  is  by  the  Great  Belt  separated  from  Zealand,  and 
by  the  Little  Belt  from  Sleswick.  The  soil  is  thoroughly  very  fertile  in 
grain  and  grazing,  and  not  only  the  black  cattle,  but  especially  the  horses 
are  of  excellent  breed.  There  are  more  than  100  large  and  wealthy  estates 
on  the  island,  which  contains :  -j-Odense,  its  very  ancient  capital  (see  above 
in  the  History  of  Denmark),  on  a  bay  of  the  northern  coast,  with  9,000  in- 
habitants, 4  churches  (among  them  the  remarkable  cathedral  reared  in  the 
11th  century),  a  notable  public  library,  manufactures  of  gloves,  and  consider- 
able commerce.  Middelfart,  a  town  on  the  Little  Belt,  is  noted  for  its  fishe- 
ries, and  has  1,600  inhabitants.  Other  more  or  less  remarkable  maritime  towns 
ire  :  Bogense  (with  1,250  inhabitants),  Assens  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  and 
Kjerteminde  (with  1,700  inhabitants).  -(-Svendborg,  a  maritime  and  com- 
nercial  town  on  the  southern  coast,  with  remarkable  church,  various  manu- 
actures,  and  3,800  inhabitants.  Nyborg,  a  fortified  town  and  naval  station, 
m  the  Great  Belt,  with  remarkable  town-hall,  rather  considerable  commerce, 
nd  3,200  inhabitants.  Faaborg,  a  maritime  and  commercial  town  on  the 
outhern  coast,  with  1,800  inhabitants. 

The  island  of  Taasinge  (also  named  Thorsenge),  only  28  square  miles  in 
xtent,  with  4,000  inhabitants,  is  situated  near  the  southern  coast  of  Funen, 
nd  contains :  Troense,  a  market-town  with  harbor,  some  commerce,  and 
00  inhabitants. 

The  island  of  Langeland  (106  square  miles,  and  16,000  inhabitants),  near 
le  former  island,  is  noted  fo  the  fertility  of  its  soil,  and  contains  Rudkjobing, 
town  with  corn  trade,  and  1,800  inhabitants. 


552  EUROPE,  PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

Denmark— Province  of  Jutland. 


2._^JUTLAND. 

Area  :  9,5*74  square  miles. 
Population:  5*70,000  inhabitants. 

It  comprises  the  northern  and  larger  part  of  the  Danish  pen- 
insula, and  is  by  the  Danes  themselves  generally  called  North 
Jutland^  to  distinguish  it  from  Sleswick,  for  which  they  have  re- 
tained its  primitive  name  of  South  Jutland. — Jutland  contains  : 

-{-Aalboeg,  a  city  on  the  Lymfjord  (see  above),  southward  and  58  miles 
distant  from  the  promontory  of  Skagen  (the  northern  extremity  of  the  pen- 
insula), with  8,000  inhabitants,  considerable  commerce,  leather  and  other 
manufactures,  a  noted  nautical  school,  and  an  ancient  royal  castle,  remarkable 
in  history,  by  the  name  of  Aalborghuus.  The  town  of  Nibe,  on  the  Lymfjord, 
•with  1,500  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  fisheries.  -|-Hjorring,  a  town  north- 
ward and  30  miles  distant  from  Aalborg,  with  1,200  inhabitants.  Skagen,  a 
town  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  peninsula,  on  the  Skagerrack,  with 
light-house  (reared  in  1*751,  and  64  feet  high),  and  1,500  inhabitants.  Freder- 
ikshavn,  a  town  on  the  Cattegat,  is  commonly  called  Fladstrand  (which  is  the 
name  of  its  citadel),  and  has  1,300  inhabitants.  Saby,  a  town  on  the  Catte- 
gat. with  trade  in  chalk  of  very  good  description,  and  850  inhabitants.  Lasoe, 
au  isle  in  the  Cattegat,  46  square  miles  in  extent,  with  2,300  inhabitants,  sub- 
sisting on  fishing  and  agriculture.  -J-Thisted,  a  town  on  the  Lymfjord,  west- 
ward and  46  miles  distant  from  Aalborg,  with  corn  trade,  and  1,750  inhabi- 
tants. The  island  of  Mors,  in  the  Lymfjord,  has  128  square  miles  in  extent, 
and  12,000  inhabitants,  with  a  generally  fertile  soil,  and  containing  the  town 
of  Nykjbbing,  with  1,150  inhabitants.  -j-Wiborg,  a  city  south-westward  and 
44  miles  distant  from  Aalborg,  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  in  the  king- 
dom, and  in  some  respects  considered  as  the  capital  of  Jutland,  is  noted  for 
its  remarkable  cathedral  (reared  in  1169)  and  its  annual  fairs,  and  has  3,700 
inhabitants.  Skive,  a  very  ancient  town,  on  the  Lymfjord,  with  considerable 
cattle-marts,  fishery  and  corn  trade,  and  1,100  inhabitants.     -4-Aarhuus,  a 


DENMARK  653 


Geographical  Description  of  Jutland. 


city  on  the  Cattegat,  south-eastward  and  38  miles  distant  from  Wiborg,  with 
3  churches  (among  them  the  remarkable  cathedral  reared  in  1201),  a  tract 
society  and  foreign  missions,  important  manufactures,  and  annual  fairs,  con- 
siderable commerce,  and  7,000  inhabitants.  -j-Randers,  a  city  on  the  river 
Guden,  northward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Aarhuus,  with  various  and  im- 
portant branches  of  industry,  commerce,  and  6,500  inhabitants.  Mariager 
(with  900  inhabitants),  Hobro  (with  800  inhabitants),  Grenaa  (with  1,500  in- 
habitants), and  Ebeltoft  (with  950  inhabitants),  more  or  less  remarkable 
towns.  The  isle  of  Anholt,  in  the  Cattegat,  has  only  21  square  miles  in  ex- 
tent, and  200  inhabitants,  who  subsist  entirely  on  fishing.  -J-Skanderborg,  a 
town  romantically  situated  on  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  south-westward  and 
16  miles  distant  from  Aarhuus,  with  1,000  inhabitants.  Horsens,  a  maritime 
town  on  a  bay,  and  in  a  fertile  district,  with  considerable  commerce,  iron- 
works, and  5,000  inhabitants.  -f~^IBE  (m  German  Ripen),  a  city  in  a  dis- 
trict surrounded  by  territories  of  Sleswick,  at  5  miles  distance  from  the  North 
Sea,  south-westward  and  86  miles  distant  from  Aarhuus,  with  a  very  remark- 
able cathedral,  considerable  trade  in  corn,  fattened  black  cattle,  etc.,  and 
3,000  inhabitants.  'Warde,  a  town  with  noted  potteries,  corn  trade,  and  1,500 
inhabitants.  Fande  and  Amrum  are  isles  in  the  North  Sea,  near  the  coast 
of  Jutland,  with  respectively  2,500  and  450  inhabitants.  -j-Ringkjobing,  a 
maritime  town  on  the  North  Sea,  westward  and  85  miles  distant  from 
Aarhuus,  with  manufactures,  considerable  commerce,  and  1,600  inhabitants. 
Holstebro  and  Letnvig,  towns  with  respectively  1,250  and  800  inhabitants. 
-[-Weile,  a  maritime  town  on  a  bay  of  the  Cattegat,  44  miles  south-south- 
west of  Aarhuus,  with  remarkable  ancient  town-hall,  considerable  commerce, 
and  2,500  inhabitants.  Fridericia,  a  fortified  city  at  the  northern  entrance 
into  the  Little  Belt,  south-eastward  and  12  miles  distant  from  Weile,  with  2 
Lutheran  churches,  1  Reformist  church,  and  1  Roman  Catholic  chapel,  cloth 
manufactures,  cattle-marts,  and  4,500  inhabitants.  Fridericia  was  founded  in 
1615  by  King  Frederic  III.,  and  named  after  him.  Kolding,  a  town  on  a 
bay  of  the  same  name,  which  separates  it  from  Sleswick,  with  2  churches, 
cloth  manufactures,  corn  and  cattle  trade,  and  2,500  inhabitants. 

24 


554  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Denmark. — Duchy  of  Sleswick. 


3.— THE  DUCHY  OF   SLESWICK. 

Area  :  3,482  square  miles. 
Population  :  370,000  inhabitants. 

Sleswick  (in  German  Schleswig)  comprises  the  southern  part 
of  the  Danish  peninsula,  and  has,  for  this  reason,  from  old  been 
called  South  Jutland  (until  the  middle  of  the  15th  century  this 
name  was  exclusively,  and  since  at  least  very  frequently  used). 
On  the  south  it  is  separated  from  Holstein  by  the  Eider  river 
(see  above,  and  page  31).  It  has  ever  formed  a  constituent 
part  of  the  Danish  kingdom,  and  would  never  have  been  named 
Sleswick  or  South  Jutland,  nor  styled  a  duchy,  but,  together 
with  the  northern  part  of  the  peninsula,  would  have  been  com- 
prised under  the  general  name  of  Jutland,  if  the  political  blunder 
had  not  been  made  by  Queen  Margaret,  in  1386  (see  History 
of.Denmark),  of  investing  the  earl  Gerhard  VI.  of  Holstein  with 
South  Jutland.  She  had  not  the  slightest  political  ground  to 
make  any  difference  between  North  and  South  Jutland,  which 
latter  could  quite  as  well  as  other  provinces  of  the  kingdom  have 
been  ruled  by  a  governor  appointed  by  the  Danish  government, 
and  did  not  want  an  extraordinary  ruler  in  the  person  of  a  vassal 
of  the  Danish  crown,  as  Gerhard  VI.  now  became.  It  was  this 
earl,  who,  assuming  the  title  of  a  duke,  of  Sleswick,  arbitrarily 
altered  the  name  of  South  Jutland.  When  the  male  line  of  the 
earls  of  Schaumburg  in  Holstein  became  extinct,  in  1459  (see 
History  of  Holstein),  the  duchy  of  Sleswick,  as  it  now  was  styled, 
escheated,  of  course,  to  the  Danish  crown  as  a  now  vacant  fee,  while 
this  same  crown  became  possessed  of  the  earldom  (since  1474 
duchy)  of  Holstein  by  way  of  inheritance.     This  occurred  during 


DENMARK.  655 


History  of  Sleswick. 


the  reign  of  Christian  I.,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  History  of 
Holstein  ;  and  to  this  king  was  thus  afforded  the  best  opportunity 
not  only  to  redress  the  blunder  committed  by  Queen  Margaret, 
but  also  to  increase  the  actual  power  and  authority  of  the  reign- 
ing house  of  Denmark,  by  retaining  the  direct  government  of 
Holstein  j  as  for  instance,  King  George  I.  of  England  and  his 
successors  did  with  regard  to  Hanover.  But  Christian  I.  and 
his  successors  were  prepossessed  with  the  then  prevailing  wrong 
principles  of  dividing  territories  among  brothers  of  the  reigning 
sovereign,  instead  of  endowing  them  with  appanages,  as  is  now  long 
since  the  custom.  Thus,  while  Christian  I.  invested  his  second 
son,  Frederic,  with  Sleswick  and  Holstein  as  fees  of  the  Danish 
crown,  his  grandson  Christian  III.  (see  History  of  Denmark)  in- 
vested with  them  partly  his  own  son,  John  (who  thus  became  the 
ancestor  of  the  collateral  line  of  Sonderburg),  partly  his  brother 
Adolphus  (the  ancestor  of  the  house  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  men- 
tioned in  the  History  of  Holstein).  The  reigning  sovereign  had, 
however,  retained  some  territories  both  in  Sleswick  and  Holstein, 
and,  as  in  the  so-called  northern  war,  between  Sweden  and  Den- 
mark (Russia  and  Poland  were  likewise  engaged  in  it),  the  dukes 
of  Sleswick  made  common  cause  with  the  enemy  of  Denmark, 
and  surrendered  spontaneously  the  fortress  of  Tondern  to  the 
Swedes,  thus  committing  an  evident  act  of  felony ',  and  forfeiting 
their  territories  in  the  duchy  (see  page  36),  these  latter  were,  of 
course,  withdrawn  from  them  by  the  Danish  crown,  in  1713.  In 
the  treaty  of  peace  concluded  at  Fredensborg  on  the  5th  of  July, 
1720,  Sweden,  England,  and  France  recognized  explicitly  this  act 
as  a  just  one.  Since  that  period  (i.  e.  since  1713)  Sleswick  has 
ever  continued  to  form  an  actual  constituent  part  of  the  Danish 
kingdom,  as  it  did  primitively,  and  for  centuries  in  the  middle 
ages.  The  only  mistake  with  regard  to  it  has  been,  that  Sleswick 
was  by  the  Danish  crown  placed  under  one  and  the  same  provin- 


556  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Denmark.— Historical  and  Geographical  Description  of  Sleswick. 

cial  government  with  Holstein,  this  being  the  surest  way  to  extend 
the  plots  generated  in  Holstein  and  Germany  also  to  Sleswick. 
(About  other  historical  particulars,  see  History  of  Holstein.)  The 
soil  of  Sleswick  is  quite  as  rich  and  fertile  as  in  Holstein,  and 
like  the  latter  country,  Sleswick  was,  prior  to  the  war  with  Den- 
mark, highly  noted  for  its  wealth  and  prosperity.  Its  adminis- 
trative division  has  already  been  noticed.     It  contains : 

Sleswick  (in  German  Schleswig),  its  capital,  on  a  bay  of  the  Baltic  Sea, 
(known  by  the  name  of  Schlei),  north-westward  and  24  miles  distant  from 
Kiel,  with  11,700  inhabitants,  3  churches  (among  them  the  remarkable  St. 
Peter's  church,  reared  in  1260),  considerable  fisheries,  and  the  extensive  and 
magnificent  castle  of  Gottorp,  once  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Sleswick. 
The  city  of  Sleswick  was  in  the  earlier  period  of  the  middle  ages  an  empo- 
rium in  this  quarter.  Flensburg,  a  noted  commercial  city,  on  a  bay  of  the 
Baltic  Sea,  northward  and  18  miles  distant  from  the  city  of  Sleswick,  with 
important  manufactures,  and  15,700  inhabitants.  Apenrade,  a  city  on  a 
bay  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  northward  and  16  miles  distant  from  Flensburg,  with 
a  spacious  harbor,  considerable  commerce  (at  least  before  the  war  with  Den- 
mark), and  4,200  inhabitants.  Hadersleben.  the  most  northerly  city  of 
Sleswick,  romantically  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  Little  Belt,  northward  and 
18  miles  distant  from  Apenrade,  with  manufactures,  commerce,  and  6,400 
inhabitants.  Tondern,  a  city  on  the  Widaae,  7  miles  from  the  North  Sea, 
north-westward  and  24  miles  distant  from  Flensburg,  has  3,000  inhabitants, 
and  was  until  1750  noted  for  its  fortress.  Husum,  a  maritime  town  on  a 
bay  of  the  North  Sea,  westward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Sleswick,  with  a 
remarkable  ancient  castle,  and  4,200  inhabitants.  Frederikstad,  a  maritime 
town  on  the  Treene,  at  its  junction  with  the  Eider,  has  a  spacious  harbor, 
and  2,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  mustard.  Tonning,  a  mari- 
time and  commercial  town  on  the  Eider,  2  miles  from  the  North  Sea,  with 
2,500  inhabitants.  Gar  ding,  a  town  with  corn  and  wool  trade,  and  1,500 
inhabitants.  Eckernforde,  a  city  on  a  bay  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  14  miles  east- 
south-east  of  Sleswick,  and  north-westward  and  15  miles  distant  from  Kiel, 
with  commerce,  and  4,300  inhabitants.  Frederiksort,  a  little  fortress  at  the 
entrance  of  the  bay  of  Kiel,  northward  and  7  miles  distant  from  this  city. 
Gravenstein,  a  market-town  on  the  bay  of  Flensburg,  with  500  inhabitants, 


DENMARK.  557 


Geographical  Description  of  Sleswick. 


and  a  palace  of  the  duke  of  Angustenburg.  Aaroe,  a  fertile  little  island  in 
the  Little  Belt.  Lygumkloster,  a  market-town,  northward  and  9  miles  dis- 
tant from  Tondern,  with  noted  cattle  and  horse-marts,  and  1,400  inhabitants. 
Fohr,  an  island  in  the  North  Sea,  near  the  coast  of  Sleswick,  with  4,500  in- 
habitants, considerable  fowling,  and  the  market-town  of  Wyk,  noted  for  sea- 
bathing. Numerous  other  isles  in  the  neighborhood  of  Fohr  are  known  by 
the  general  name  of  Halligen.  Gluecksburg,  a  market-town  near  the  bay 
of  Flensburg,  has  850  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  castle  or  palace,  which 
was  in  the  period  of  1622-1778  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Holstein- 
Glucksburg. — The  island  of  Alsen  (128  square  miles,  and  22,000  inhabi- 
tants), situated  in  the  Little  Belt,  and  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  fertile 
islands  in  the  Baltic,  contains:  Sonderburg,  its  capital,  on  the  strait  that 
separates  the  island  from  continental  Sleswick,  with  3,500  inhabitants,  a 
fine  harbor,  commerce,  and  an  ancient  castle,  formerly  the  residence  of  the 
duke  of  Angustenburg.  Norburg,  a  market-town,  with  1,200  inhabitants. 
Augustenburg,  a  market-town,  5  miles  east  north-east  of  Sonderburg,  has 
800  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  stud  and  a  magnificent  palace,  formerly 
the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Holstein-Sonderburg-Angustenburg. — The 
island  of  Aeroe  or  Arr'de  (32  square  miles,  and  9,500  inhabitants),  situated 
at  the  southern  entrance  of  the  Little  Belt,  eastward  and  9  miles  distant 
from  Alsen,  is  noted  for  its  fowl,  and  contains  the  town  of  Aeroeskjbbing 
(with  1,600  inhabitants),  and  the  market-town  of  Mar  stall  (with  2,300  inhab- 
itants).— The  island  of  Femern  (64  square  miles,  and  9,000  inhabitants),  sit- 
uated in  the  Baltic,  opposite  the  coast  of  Holstein,  with  a  rather  sterile  soil, 
containing  the  town  of  Burg  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  the  village  of  Pe- 
tersdorf  (with  750  inhabitants),  beside  some  other  places. 


4.— THE  FAROE  ISLES. 

Area:  1,150  square  miles. 
Population  :  9,500  inhabitants. 


This  group,  consisting  of  17  inhabited  and  8  uninhabited  isles, 
is  situated  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  in  about  the  60th  degree 


558  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Denmark.— Faroe  Isles. 

of  north  latitude,  west  by  south  and  550  miles  distant  from 
Drontheim,  in  Norway.  They  are  generally  rocky,  and,  upon  the 
whole,  barren,  yet  the  inhabited  isles  are  here  and  there  covered 
with  mould  fertile  in  grazing,  and  even  in  grain,  that  is  raised 
here  at  a  rather  considerable  amount.  The  climate  of  the 
isles  is  in  general  mild.  Black  cattle,  sheep  with  coarse  wool, 
and  horses,  are  likewise  reared ;  yet  the  inhabitants  subsist 
chiefly  on  fishing  and  catching  of  sea-fowl,  vast  numbers  of  which 
have  their  resort  here.  Knitted  stockings  and  other  woollen 
articles,  eider-down,  goose-feathers,  salted  mutton,  tallow,  etc.,  are 
largely  exported  from  the  isles.  The  inhabitants  are  of  Norwe- 
gian origin,  and  King  Harald  Haarfager  of  Norway  it  was  who, 
towards  the  end  of  the  9th  century,  took  possession  of  the  Faroe 
Isles,  at  the  same  time  when  the  Hebrides  and  Shetland  Islands 
were  conquered.  Since  the  year  1026  the  Faroe  Isles  formed 
permanently  a  constituent  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Norway  and 
consequently  of  the  kingdom  of  Denmark,  which  retained  them 
in  1814,  when  Norway  was  ceded  to  Sweden. 

The  principal  island  is  Stromoe  (138  square  miles,  and  2,500  inhabitants), 
containing  the  highest  mountain  of  the  group,  named  Skiellingsfield,  and 
2,400  feet  high,  and  moreover  the  little  town  of  Thorshavn,  the  seat  of  the 
Danish  governor,  with  a  Latin  school,  a  hospital,  and  1,000  inhabitants,  being 
at  the  same  time  the  principal  mart  of  the  isles. — The  island  of  Oesteroe 
has  85  square  miles  in  extent,  and  1,600  inhabitants,  and  a  good  harbor  at 
Kongshavn. — The  island  of  Soderoe  (42  square  miles,  and  1,000  inhabitants), 
is  the  most  southern  of  the  inhabited  isles. 


DENMARK.  559 


Geographical  Description  of  Iceland. 


6.— ICELAND. 

Area:  30,716  square  miles. 
Population  :  70,500  inhabitants. 

This  island  is  situated  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  borders 
of  the  frigid  zone,  between  63°  21'  and  66°  34'  north  latitude, 
at  160  miles  distance  from  Greenland,  and  at  700  miles  distance 
from  Norway.  On  account  of  the  prevailing  wild  and  barren 
rocky  character  of  its  surface,  only  about  4,200  square  miles  of 
the  whole  island  are  inhabited,  and  the  main  body  of  the  popula- 
tion is  settled  in  the  south-western  coasting  tract.  About  the 
most  remarkable  mountains  of  Iceland  see  page  8,  and  beside  the 
Hecla  noticed  there,  1 8  other  volcanoes  are  constantly  burning, 
among  them  the  Krabla.  The  so-called  Geisers  are  hot  springs, 
which  throw  up  large  columns  of  boiling  water,  to  the  height  of 
50  or  60  to  100  feet.  It  has  already  been  noticed,  page  56,  that 
in  the  middle  ages  not  only  the  spirit  of  poetry  was  most  success- 
fully improved  with  the  Icelanders,  but  that  also  the  island  itself 
was  then  a  fertile  and  well-cultivated  country.  The  subterra- 
nean fire  having  since  burst  forth  in  devastating  lava-streams, 
and  at  the  same  time  immense  masses  of  ice  from  the  North  Pole 
accumulated  at  Iceland's  shores,  the  vegetation  of  this  island  has 
substantially  degenerated.  Iceland  is,  however,  yet  noted  for  the 
exceedingly  beautiful  green  of  its  pastures  and  meadows,  which 
afford  to  the  inhabitants  ample  means  for  rearing  both  cattle 
and  horses.  The  branches  of  industry  are  in  general  the  same 
as  on  the  Faroe  Isles. — A  Norwegian  pirate,  named  Naddok,  is 
said  to  have  discovered  Iceland  in  861,  which,  however,  was 
already  inhabited  by  tribes  perhaps  from  Ireland  ;  while  on  the 


560  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Denmark.— Geographical  Description  of  Iceland. 


other  hand,  the  island  of  Thule,  mentioned  by  ancient  Roman 
authors,  was  probably  identical  with  Iceland.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
in  short,  the  aborigines  were  gradually  supplanted  by  Norwe- 
gians, who  settled  here  since  the  year  874  or  875,  established  a 
kind  of  republic,  but  were  in  1261  subjected  to  the  sovereignty 
of  Norway,  and  in  this  manner  Denmark  became  possessed  of 
the  island. — The  Icelanders,  who  consequently  are  of  Norwegian 
origin,  are  noted  not  only  for  their  fine  shape  and  features,  but 
also  for  their  rigid  morality  and  piety,  and  for  love  of  learning. 
It  is  a  fact,  first  that  crimes  are  never  heard  of  as  committed  by 
any  Icelander,  and  secondly  that  even  the  peasantry  frequently 
spend  the  longer  winter  evenings  by  reading  ancient  Roman  au- 
thors in  the  original.  In  point  of  religion,  the  Icelanders  are 
Lutherans,  under  the  church  authority  of  a  bishop  residing  in 
Reikiavik.  The  aggregate  number  of  churches  in  Iceland  is 
321,  with  154  ministers. — The  island,  divided  into  21  districts, 
contains : 

Reikiavik,  the  capital  of  Iceland,  on  a  bay  of  the  south-western  coast,  is 
the  seat  of  the  Danish  governor,  of  the  bishop,  of  a  scientific,  a  bible,  and  a 
tract  society,  and  has  700  inhabitants,  a  cathedral  built  of  stone,  a  gymnasium, 
an  observatory,  a  public  library  containing  6,000  volumes,  and  an  apothecary's 
shop.  Bessestad,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Reikiavik,  was  once  the  dwelling- 
place  of  the  renowned  poet  Snorre  Sturleson  (who  lived  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  13th  century),  and  has  a  gymnasium,  where,  among  others,  the  Hebrew, 
Greek,  Latin,  and  mathematics  are  taught.  In  Leiria  is  a  printing-office. 
East  of  Reikiavik  is  situated  Skalholt,  with  the  largest  church  on  the  island. 
Hraundalur,  Skagastrand,  and  Husavik  are  trading  places.  Holum,  at  pres- 
ent only  with  rather  few  dwelling-houses,  and  a  church,  was  in  the  period 
from  1106  to  1797  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  so  early  as  in  1530  endowed 
with  a  printing-office  and  a  gymnasium. 

About  the  duchies  of  Holstein  and  Lauenburg,  see  page  412. 
The  Danish  Colonies  are  the  following : 


DENMARK.  561 


The  Danish  Colonies. 


1.  In  America  :  settlements  on  the  western  coast  of  Greenland^ 
and  the  West  Indian  islands  of  St.  Thomas,  Santa  Cruz,  and  St. 
Johns. 

2.  In  Africa  :  settlements  in  Upper  Guinea. 

3.  In  Asia  :  presently  only  the  Nicobar  Islands,  as  the  colonies 
of  Tranquebar  and  Serampore  have  been  sold  in  1845  to  the 
British  East  India  Company. 

The  total  area  of  these  colonies  is  estimated  at  4,686  square 
miles  (inclusive  3,962  square  miles  in  Greenland),  with  a  popula- 
tion of  110,000  inhabitants. 


24* 


SWEDEN    AND   NORWAY. 

Akea  :  293,280  square  miles. 
Population  :  4,650,000  inhabitants. 

These  two  countries,  frequently  mentioned  under  the  general 
name  of  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  and  at  the  same  time  politically 
united  in  so  far  as  they  are  under  the  sway  of  one  and  the  same 
sovereign,  extend  from  55°  20'  to  71°  11'  north  latitude,  and  are 
situated  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Baltic  Sea,  at  the 
north-eastern  extremity  bordering  upon  Russia. — From  Denmark 
they  are  separated  by  the  Skagerrak,  the  Cattegat,  and  Sound,  and 
from  Russia  by  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  (see  page  9). — About  the 
Scandinavian  Mountains,  see  pages  5  and  6  ;  about  the  lakes  see 
page  11,  and  about  the  principal  rivers  see  pages  13  and  14. — 
Sweden  is  noted  for  the  Gota-  Canal  that  crosses  the  country  in  a 
westerly  direction,  thus  connecting  the  Cattegat  with  the  Baltic. 
— The  climate,  though  severe  in  winter,  is  in  general  very  whole- 
some.    Both  countries  abound  in  sublime  and  romantic  scenery. 

The  northern  provinces  are  either  mostly  barren,  as  in  Norway, 
or  covered  with  extensive  forests,  as  in  Sweden,  and  in  both  coun- 
tries thinly  covered ;  while  the  southern  are  much  more  fertile, 
and  in  Sweden  both  well-cultivated  and  thickly  settled.  Sufficient 
corn  is  raised  in  Sweden  for  home  consumption,  but  not  in  Nor- 
way, where,  in  1838,  more  than  1,500,000  bushels  of  grain  were 
to  be  imported.  The  surplus  products  of  both  countries  are  iron, 
copper,  limber,  and  fish.     The  Swedish  iron  mines  yield,  upon  an 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY.  568 

Natural  Products  and  Manufactures. 

average,  more  than  1,600,000  quintals  of  iron,  in  some  respects 
of  the  best  quality  in  the  world.  Those  of  Norway  are  not  so 
productive,  yielding  about  150,000  quintals  annually.  The  an- 
nual produce  of  the  copper  mines  in  Sweden  is  about  18,300  quin- 
tals, and  in  Norway,  upon  an  average,  9,000  quintals  of  copper. 
On  the  other  hand,  Norway  is  noted  for  its  silver  mines  at  Kongs- 
berg,  which,  in  1842,  produced  21,088,  and  in  1834  more  than 
27,000  marks  of  silver.  Beside  these  metals,  are  to  be  noticed 
alum,  porphyry,  and  coal  (the  latter  in  the  Swedish  province  of 
Skone).  Sweden  is  noted  for  its  mineral  waters,  and  its  water- 
ing-places of  Medewi,  Ramlosa,  Loka,  etc.,  are  in  the  summer 
season  crowded  with  strangers.  Salt  is  totally  wanting  in  both 
countries,  and  thus  to  be  imported. — As  both  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way have  extensive  forests,  which,  in  Sweden  alone,  cover  nearly 
16,700,000  acres,  the  exports  of  timber  (moreover,  of  tar,  pitch, 
and  smoke  black)  are  very  considerable. —  Cattle  are  reared  at  a 
rather  great  extent,  though  their  breed  is  but  middle-sized.  In 
1830  both  countries  numbered  about  2,000,000  heads  of  black  cattle, 
1,500.000  sheep,  600.000  hogs,  170,000  goats,  and  600,000  horses. 
The  latter,  in  so  far  as  they  belong  to  the  original  breed  of  the 
countries,  are  but  small,  yet  swift  runners,  and  exceedingly  en- 
during. The  deer  and  other  game  abound ;  and  even  the  elk  is 
still  to  be  found.  The  Laplanders  keep  considerable  herds  of 
reindeer.  Of  wild  animals,  the  bear,  wolf,  lynx,  and  glutton 
are  to  be  noticed. 

The  manufactures  of  Norway  are  of  no  great  importance,  but 
the  more  considerable  in  Sweden,  which  is  distinguished  for  its 
hardware,  cutleries,  fire-arms  and  porphyry  vessels ;  and  whose 
cloth,  glass,  and  delf  manufactures  are  likewise  noted,  while  its 
silks  and  cotton  goods  want  still  some  more  improvement  in  colors 
and  patterns.  At  Motala  is  a  renowned  manufactory  of  steam- 
engines  ;  and  in  ship-building  and  mining  the  Swedes  are  sur- 


564  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Sweden  and  Norway — their  Commerce,  etc. 

passed  by  no  other  nation.  The  only  reason  that  Norway  has 
but  few  manufactures  is  the  fact,  that  this  country  is,  upon  the 
whole,  not  qualified  for  them,  on  account  of  its  peculiar  local  and 
social  condition.  For  the  rest,  all  farming  utensils,  tools,  furni- 
ture, etc.,  are  made  by  the  peasantry  themselves,  both  in  Norway 
and  Sweden  ;  and  linen,  for  instance,  is  made  in  almost  every  vil- 
lage and  family ;  and  some  descriptions  of  this  linen  are  not  only 
distinguished  for  their  fineness,  but  are  also  widely  exported. 

The  commerce  is  very  considerable,  and  in  general  the  exports 
surpass  the  imports  in  value.  In  1842  the  exports  of  Sweden 
amounted  to  23,373,550  Bankrixdollars  (one  Swedish  Bankdollar 
is  equal  to  about  40  cents),  and  the  imports  only  to  19,511,800 
Bankrixdollars  in  value.  In  Norway  the  annual  exports  may  be 
estimated  at  7  millions,  and  the  imports  at  6  millions  in  value. 
The  chief  exports  of  both  countries  are  iron  and  steel,  timber, 
pitch,  tar,  cordage,  canvass,  anchors,  etc.,  dried  and  pickled  fish, 
furs,  copper,  alum,  potash,  etc.  In  the  Swedish  and  Norwegian 
docks  are  numerous  vessels  and  steamers  built  for  foreign  ac- 
count. The  merchant  vessels  belonging  to  Sweden  amounted  in 
1839  to  994,  of  the  burthen  of  109,314  tons,  exclusive  of  36 
steamers  ;  and  the  Norwegian  merchant  vessels  amounted  in 
1837  to  2,373,  of  the  burthen  of  158,556  tons. 

Both  the  Swedes  and  Norwegians  belong  to  the  Germanic 
tribe  (see  pages  18  and  19),  with  the  exception  of  about  7,000 
Finlanders  and  9,100  Laplanders,  that  belong  to  a  peculiar  or 
mixed  tribe  commonly  comprised  by  the  general  name  of  Finnish 
tribe.  Jews  are  not  allowed  to  dwell  in  Norway,  while  in 
Sweden  they  are  not  permitted  to  settle  elsewhere  than  in  the 
cities  of  Stockholm,  Gottenburg  and  Norrkoping. — In  point  of 
religion,  the  established  church  in  Sweden  and  Norway  is  the 
Lutheran,  arranged  and  founded  on  similar  principles  as  the 
church  of  England.     In  Sweden  are  12  bishops  (including  the 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY.  565 

Means  of  Education,  Government,  Army  and  Navy. 

archbishop  of  Upsala)  and  2,400  parishes,  and  in  Norway  5 
bishops  and  342  parishes. 

There  are  3  universities,  viz.,  two  in  Sweden  (at  Upsala, 
founded  in  1476,  and  in  1845  frequented  by  1,367  students;  and 
at  Lund,  founded  in  1668,  and  in  1845  with  645  students),  and 
one  in  Norway,  at  Christiania  (founded  in  1811,  and  in  1841 
with  693  students).  Beside  these,  there  are  18  gymnasiums  (14 
in  Sweden  and  4  in  Norway),  23  seminaries,  148  secondary,  and 
2,994  primary  schools.  Only  few  of  the  peasantry  are  unable  to 
read,  as  education  is  general. 

The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy,  both  in  Sweden  and 
Norway.  Each  kingdom  has  its  particular  constitution,  its  own 
laws,  and  a  national  legislature ;  and  yet  with  reference  to  the 
executive  power  both  are  under  the  control  of  the  same  sove- 
reign. The  public  finances  are  in  good  order.  In  Sweden  the 
amount  of  the  public  revenue,  and  of  the  expenditure,  for  several 
years  has  been  about  11  millions  Bankrixdollars  (or  about 
$4,400,000) ;— in  Norway  about  $3,000,000.  Sweden  has  no 
public  debt,  while  that  of  Norway  on  the  1st  January,  1839, 
amounted  only  to  $1,163,000. 

The  regular  army  consists  in  Sweden  of  nearly  40,000,  and  in 
Norway  of  12,000  men,  and  can  in  time  of  war  be  reinforced  by 
80,000  men  of  militia  and  troops  of  reserve. 

The  Swedish  navy  consists  of  10  ships  of  the  line,  14  frigates 
and  sloops  of  war,  10  brigs,  several  steamers,  and  more  than  300 
gun-boats.  Norway  had  in  1835  a  little  navy  of  1  frigate,  1 
sloop  of  war,  2  brigs,  and  43  gun-boats. 

There  are  the  following  Swedish  (for  Norway  has  none)  orders 
of  honor  :  1.  The  Seraphim  order,  the  highest,  and  in  one  class ; 
instituted  in  1333,  and  renewed  in  1748.  2.  The  Sword  order, 
instituted  in  1523,  and  renewed  in  1748,  in  3  classes.  3.  The 
North-star  order,  instituted  in  1748,  and  in  2  classes.     4.  The 


566  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Sweden  and  Norway— their  History. 

Warn  order,  in  3  classes,  and  instituted  in  1772,  and  5.  The 
order  of  Charles  XIII.,  instituted  by  this  king  in  1811,  and  only 
conferred  on  free-masons. 

History. — Sweden,  as  whose  aborigines  may  be  considered  the  Finlanders 
and  Laplanders,  was  at  an  early  period  occupied  by  the  Germanic  tribes  of 
the  Goths  and  Sueones,  who  were  under  the  native  chieftains  or  petty  kings. 
It  was  the  same  case  with  Norway.  Odin  (see  History  of  Denmark)  having 
returned  to  Sweden,  became  here  the  ancestor  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Ynglingar,  who  were  succeeded  by  the  Ifwarian  race,  that  reigned  until  the 
middle  of  the  11th  century.  In  Norway  had  meantime  the  valiant  king 
Harald  Horfagar  (the  latter  surname  means  "  handsome  hair,"  for  which  he 
was  distinguished)  put  an  end  to  the  petty  kingdoms,  and  in  875  subjected 
them  to  his  sway,  thus  transforming  Norway  into  one  single  kingdom,  which, 
however,  did  not  keep  its  independence,  but  continued  to  be  annexed  to 
Denmark  since  the  days  of  Queen  Margareth  (see  History  of  Denmark),  or 
since  the  year  139*7.  In  Sweden  the  Ifwarian  race  was  since  1053  succeeded 
by  several  other  dynasties,  until  finally  the  kingdom  was  in  1397,  together 
with  Norway  and  Denmark,  united  under  the  sway  of  the  just-named  queen. 
The  Danish  sway  lasted  in  substance  until  1521,  when  Gustavus,  belonging 
to  the  renowned  noble  family  of  Wasa,  ascended  the  Swedish  throne.  His 
youngest  son,  Charles  IX.,  reigning  from  1599  to  1611,  was  the  father  of  the 
celebrated  Gustavus  Adolphus,  whose  sister  Catherine  was  married  to  the 
palatine  John  Kasimir  of  Zweibrucken  (see  page  327),  whose  son  mounted 
the  Swedish  throne  in  1654  by  the  name  of  Charles  X.  Gustavus,  his  cousin, 
Queen  Christiana  (only  daughter  of  Gustavus  Adolphus)  having  abdicated. 
The  son  and  successor  of  Charles  X.  Gustavus,  King  Charles  XL  (1660-1697), 
left  behind  the  great  warrior  Charles  XII.  and  two  daughters,  who  were 
married,  the  one  to  a  prince  of  Hesse-Cassel,  and  the  other  to  a  duke  of  Hol- 
stein-Gottorp.  Thus,  when  Charles  XII.  died  in  1718  (he  was  insidiously 
shot  from  behind  by  his  own  aid-de-camp,  a  Frenchman  named  Siquier),  he 
was  succeeded  first  by  his  brother-in-law,  Frederic  L  (see  History  of  Hesse- 
Cassel),  and  next  to  him  by  a  prince  from  the  house  of  Holstein-Gottorp, 
Adolphus  Frederic  (1751-1771).  The  latter  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Gus- 
tavus III,  who  was  shot  at  a  masquerade,  in  1792,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Gustavus  IV.  Adolphus.  This  king  committed  so  many  political  blun- 
ders, that  some  contemporaries  have  thought  proper  to  impute  them  to  a 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY.  567 

History  of  both  Countries,  and  Geographical  Description  of  Sweden. 


disorder  in  his  brains ;  in  short,  lie  behaved  in  such  a  manner  that  at  last  his 
subjects  were  compelled  to  dethrone  him.  This  took  place  in  1809,  when 
the  king's  uncle,  Charles  XIII.,  succeeded  him ;  but  as  the  latter  was  child- 
less, first  the  Danish  prince  Christian  Augustus  of  Holstein-Sonderburg-Au- 
gustenburg  (related  to  the  royal  Swedish  family),  and  then  (as  this  prince 
died  suddenly  in  1810)  the  French  marshal  Bernadotte  was  declared  crown- 
prince  of  Sweden.  In  1818,  when  Charles  XIII.  died,  Bernadotte  succeeded 
him  by*  the  name  of  Charles  XIV.  John.  He  died  in  1844,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  the  present  reigning  king  Oscar,  born  on  the  4th  of  July, 
1799.  That  in  1814  Norway  was  annexed  to  Sweden,  has  already  been 
stated  in  the  History  of  Denmark,  and  page  419.  On  the  other  hand,  Fin- 
land was  in  1809  wrested  from  Sweden  by  Russia,  which  had  unprovokedly 
been  challenged  by  King  Gustavus  IV.  Adolphus  in  an  inexcusable  manner. 

We  shall  now  give  a  topographical  description  of  each  kingdom 
separately. 


A.— THE  KINGDOM  OF  SWEDEN. 

Area:  170,528  square  miles. 
Population  :  3,300,000  inhabitants. 

It  embraces  the  eastern  and  larger  half  of  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula,  and  is  officially  divided  into  24  counties,  styled  Lane. 
Yet  as  the  ancient  historical  division  into  as  many  provinces  is  in 
substance  left  unaltered,  and  moreover  the  names  of  these  prov- 
inces occur  continually  in  common  life,  history  and  other  read- 
ing, we  shall  in  the  ensuing  description  follow  a  similar  course  as 
in  France,  Spain,  and  other  countries. 

The  following  5  provinces  are  comprised  by  the  general  name  of  Svea- 
rike,  because  they  were  anciently  the  chief  seat  of  the  Sueones  (see  above  in 
history) : 


568  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Sweden  and  Norway.— Geographical  Description  of  Sweden. 


1.  Upland,  containing :  Stockholm,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  and  royal 
residence,  built  on  several  small  islands  and  peninsulas,  near  the  entrance  of 
Lake  Malar  into  the  Baltic  Sea,  has  88,000  inhabitants,  and  is  a  handsome 
city,  noted  for  its  magnificent  royal  palace  and  architectural  monuments,  its 
literary  institutions,  manufactures,  extensive  commerce,  and  safe  and  commo- 
dious harbor.  The  great  iron  warehouse,  is  remarkable  for  the  immense 
quantity  of  that  article  deposited  in  it.  The  most  notable  of  the  churches 
(22  in  number)  is  that  of  Riddarholm,  containing  the  sepulchres  of  nearly 
all  the  kings  of  the  house  of  "Wasa.  Drottningholm,  Haga,  Rosendal,  and  Ul- 
riksdal,  are  romantically  situated  royal  palaces  and  parks,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Stockholm.  Waxholm,  a.  town  on  an  isle  of  the  same  name,  at  the 
entrance  into  the  harbor  of  Stockholm,  is  noted  for  its  citadel,  and  has  1,200 
inhabitants.  Norrtelge,  a  maritime  town  on  the  Baltic,  northward  and  46 
miles  distant  from  Stockholm,  with  1,500  inhabitants,  and  manufactures  of 
fire-arms  and  cloth  Oeregrund,  a  maritime  town  on  the  Baltic,  with  good 
harbor,  and  900  inhabitants.  Bjork'6,  an* island  in  the  lake  Malar,  westward 
and  18  miles  distant  from  Stockholm,  is  remarkable  for  its  having  once  been 
the  seat  of  the  emporium  of  the  same  name  (see  page  38).  Sigtuna,  on  the 
lake  Malar,  at  present  a  town  with  only  600  inhabitants,  but  in  the  middle 
ages  the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  with  magnificent  churches  and  convents. 
Rosersberg,  a  stately  royal  palace  on  the  lake  Malar,  with  beautiful  park. 
Upsala,  a  city  on  the  river  Fyris,  northward  and  54  miles  distant  from 
Stockholm,  has  5,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  university  (see  above), 
to  which  belong  a  library  containing  more  than  100,000  volumes,  a  remark- 
able botanic  garden,  a  valuable  collection  of  coins,  an  observatory,  etc. ;  for 
its  cathedral,  reared  in  the  13th  century,  and  for  its  magnificent  royal  pal- 
ace, reared  in  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  by  King  Gustavus  I.  Skoklos- 
ter,  an  estate  of  the  count  of  Brahe,  romantically  situated  on  the  lake 
Malar,  with  an  extensive  and  splendid  Gothic  palace,  anciently  a  convent, 
reared  in  the  13th  century.  Dannemora,  at  about  28  miles  distance  from 
Upsala,  is  famed  for  its  higly  important  iron  mines,  and  the  neighboring  places 
of  Oesterby,  Lofsta,  and  Soderfors,  are  noted  for  their  iron- works.  JEJnkdping, 
a  town  on  the  lake  Malar,  north-westward  and  56  miles  distant  from  Stock- 
holm, with  1,500  inhabitants. 

2.  Sodermanland  contains :  Nykoping,  its  capital,  on  a  bay  of  the  Baltic 
Sea,  south-westward  and  88  miles  distant  from  Stockholm,  with  3  churches, 
important  manufactures  of  cloth,  cotton  goods,  etc.,  iron-works,  and  3,200  in- 


SWEDEN   AND  NORWAY.  569 

Geographical  Description  of  Sweden. 

habitants.  Trosa,  a  maritime  town  on  the  Baltic,  with  considerable  corn  trade, 
fisheries,  and  800  inhabitants.  Tullgarn,  a  valuable  royal  private  domain, 
with  stately  palace.  Marie/red,  a  town  on  the  lake  Malar,  westward  and  44 
miles  distant  from  Stockholm,  with  800  inhabitants.  In  its  neighborhood  is 
situated,  on  two  isles  of  the  lake,  the  highly  remarkable  Gothic  royal  castle 
of  Grips/tolm,  reared  in  the  13th  century,  and  containing  splendidly  fur- 
nished apartments.  Strengnas,  a  town  on  the  lake  Malar,  with  Gothic  cathe- 
dral (reared  in  1291),  corn  trade,  and  1,500  inhabitants.  Eskilstuna,  the 
chief  manufacturing  town  in  Sweden,  near  the  Hjelmar  lake,  westward  and 
86  miles  distant  from  Stockholm,  is  noted  especially  for  its  cutleries,  sword- 
blades,  and  fire-arms,  and  has  2,600  inhabitanta  Thorshalla,  a  very  ancient 
town,  near  Lake  Malar,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Eskilstuna,  has  800  inhabi- 
tants, and  is  noted  for  its  Gothic  church,  whose  steeple  is  306  feet  high. 
Sodertelge,  a  maritime  town  on  a  bay  of  the  Baltic,  with  hosieries,  and  1,200 
inhabitants.  In  its  neighborhood  is  the  little  seaport  of  Elfsnabben,  or 
Hjelmsnabben,  where  Gustavus  Adolphus  embarked  in  1630  with  his  army 
for  Germany. 

3.  Nerike,  between  the  Malar  and  Wener  lakes,  contains :  Oerebbo,  its 
capital,  near  the  Hjelmar  lake,  westward  and  146  miles  distant  from  Stock- 
holm, with  an  ancient,  historically  remarkable  castle,  a  Gothic  church,  a  no- 
table town-hall,  various  and  important  manufactures,  and  4,600  inhabitants. 
The  neighboring  ancient  castle  of  Goksholm,  on  the  Hjelmar  lake,  is  highly 
remarkable.  Askersund,  a  mining  town  on  the  Wetter  lake,  with  literary 
institutions,  iron  trade,  and  1,000  inhabitants. 

4.  Westmanland,  between  Upland  and  Nerike,  contains :  Westeroas,  its 
capital,  on  the  Malar  lake,  64  miles  west-north-west  of  Stockholm,  with  re- 
markable ancient  castle,  notable  cathedral,  a  renowned  gymnasium,  and  va- 
rious other  schools,  considerable  inland  trade,  and  4,000  inhabitants.  Sala, 
a  mining  town,  north-westward  and  86  miles  distant  from  Stockholm,  has 
3,400  inhabitants,  and  was  formerly  noted  for  its  silver  mines,  which,  how- 
ever, are  at  present  rather  unproductive.  Arboga  (with  2,000  inhabitants), 
Koping  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Lindesberg  (with  800  inhabitants),  and  Nora 
(with  900  inhabitants),  more  or  less  remarkable  towns.  Loka  is  a  watering- 
place  much  resorted  to. 

5.  Dalarne,  or  DcUekarlien,  whose  inhabitants  have  from  old  been  distin- 
guished for  their  uprightness  and  loyalty,  contains :  Falun,  its  capital,  and 
the  chief  mining  town  in  Sweden,  176  miles  east-north-east  of  Christiania 


570  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Sweden  and  Norway.— Geographical  Description  of  Sweden. 

(in  Norway),  and  north-westward  and  166  miles  distant  from  Stockholm,  has 
5,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  especially  for  its  valuable  copper  mines  (see 
above),  but  moreover  for  its  distinguished  mining  academy,  and  its  various 
and  important  manufactures.  Sdter,  Hedemora,  and  Avesta,  towns  with  re- 
spectively 700,  1,100,  and  800  inhabitants. 

The  following  11  provinces  are  comprised  by  the  general  name  of  Gotha- 
rike,  because  they  were  anciently  the  chief  seat  of  the  immigrated  Goths 
(see  past,  in  History) : 

1.  Oester-  Gothland,  between  the  Wetter  lake,  and  the  Baltic  Sea,  con- 
tains :  Norrkoping,  its  capital,  on  a  bay  of  the  Baltic,  south-westward  and 
130  miles  distant  from  Stockholm,  with  3  churches,  several  schools  and  char- 
ities for  the  poor  and  sick,  a  noted  iron  foundry,  important  manufactures  of 
cloth,  linen,  etc.,  considerable  commerce,  and  13,000  inhabitants.  Soderkop- 
ing,  a  town  near  the  Baltic  Sea,  with  stately  town-house,  mineral  waters,  and 
1,100  inhabitants.  Linkoping,  a  city  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  province, 
has  4,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  cathedral  (reared  in  1138-51),  its 
ancient  castle,  its  gymnasium,  and  city-hall.  Wadstena,  a  town  romantically 
situated  on  the  Wetter  lake,  south-westward  and  140  miles  distant  from 
Stockholm,  with  an  ancient,  and  once  highly  renowned  nunnery  (whose 
building  was  reared  in  the  middle  of  the  13  th  century),  linen  manufactures, 
and  2,500  inhabitants.  Medewi,  the  most  frequented  watering-place  in  Sweden, 
is  very  romantically  situated  on  the  Wetter  lake.  Finspong  is  noted  for  its 
iron-works,  and  Motala  (on  the  Wetter  lake)  for  its  manufactory  of  steam- 
engines.     Skeninge,  a  town,  with  1,100  inhabitants. 

2.  Smoaland,  along  the  Baltic  coast,  contains :  Calmar,  its  capital,  on  the 
Calmar  Sound  (that  separates  the  island  of  Oeland  from  the  Swedish  conti- 
nent), 280  miles  south-south-west  of  Stockholm,  and  46  miles  north-north-east 
of  Carlskrona,  with  an  ancient  castle  (where,  in  1397,  the  convention  was 
signed,  according  to  which  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark  were  united  under 
the  sway  of  Queen  Margaret),  a  handsome  cathedral,  important  manufac- 
tures, considerable  commerce,  and  6,000  inhabitants.  The  little  place  of 
Brbmsebro,  at  the  frontier  of  Bleking,  southward  and  33  miles  distant  from 
Calmar,  is  noted  in  history  for  a  treaty  of  peace  concluded  here  in  1645,  be- 
tween Sweden  and  Denmark.  Wimmerby  and  Ekesj'6,  towns  with  respectively 
1,500  and  1,800  inhabitants.  Wexio,  a  town  on  a  lake,  westward  and  56 
miles  distant  from  Calmar,  is  noted  for  its  gymnasium,  and  has  2,000  inhabi- 
tants.    Westervik,  a  maritime  town,  on  a  bay  of  the  Baltic,  with  rather  con- 


SWEDEN   AND   NORWAY.  671 


Geographical  Description  of  Sweden. 


tiderable  commerce,  and  3,600  inhabitants.  Jonkoping,  a  city  on  the  Wetter 
lake,  north-westward  and  146  miles  distant  from  Calmar,  with  3  churches, 
fire-arms,  and  other  manufactures,  and  5,500  inhabitants.  Grenna,  a  town 
on  the  Wetter  lake,  with  a  celebrated  church,  considerable  trade  in  cattle,  and 
1,200  inhabitants. 

3.  The  island  of  Oeland  (596  square  miles,  and  35,000  inhabitants),  situ- 
ated in  the  Baltic  Sea,  opposite  the  city  of  Calmar  (see  above),  is  noted  for 
its  cattle,  and  alum  mines,  and  contains,  among  other  places,  the  town  of 
Borgholm,  with  700  inhabitants. 

4.  The  island  of  Gottland  (895  square  miles,  and  42,000  inhabitants), 
situated  in  the  Baltic  Sea,  north-eastward  from  the  former,  and  southward 
and  about  100  miles  distant  from  Stockholm,  is  upon  the  whole  fertile,  was, 
in  the  period  from  1448  to  1645,  possessed  by  the  Danes,  and  contains: 
Wisby,  its  capital,  on  the  western  shore,  with  a  Gothic  cathedral  (reared  in 
the  beginning  of  the  13th  century),  leather  and  other  manufactures,  consider- 
able trade,  and  4,600  inhabitants.  That  Wisby  was,  in  the  middle  ages,  a 
renowned  emporium,  has  already  been  stated,  page  50.  Jlosendal,  a  hand- 
some estate,  with  beautiful  park  and  gardens. 

5.  Bleking,  a  province  along  the  southern  coast  of  the  Swedish  continent, 
contains:  Carlskrona,  fortified  capital,  and  chief  station  of  the  Swedish 
navy,  on  the  Baltic  Sea,  46  miles  west-south-west  of  Calmar,  has  14,000  in- 
habitants, and  is  noted  for  its  vast  docks,  its  naval  depots  and  arsenal,  and  its 
extensive  fortifications.  The  neighboring  market-town  of  Rbnneby  is  noted  for 
its  wealth  and  industry.  Carlshamn,  a  maritime  town  on  the  Baltic,  west- 
ward and  28  miles  distant  from,  Carlskrona,  with  canvass  and  leather  manu- 
factures, commerce,  and  4,500  inhabitants.  Christianopel  and  Sblvitsborg, 
maritime  towns,  with  respectively  950  and  1,600  inhabitants. 

6.  Skane  (to  be  pronounced  Scoane),  the  most  level  and  fertile  province, 
on  the  Sound  and  Baltic  Sea,  contains :  Malmo,  its  capital,  on  the  Souud, 
opposite  Copenhagen,  is  a  well-built  city,  has  9,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted 
for  several  handsome  public  edifices  and  private  buildings,  its  numerous 
manufactures,  and  corn  trade.  Lund,  a  very  ancient  city,  situated  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  province,  at  14  miles  distance  from  Malmo,  has  4,500  inhabitants, 
and  is  noted  both  for  its  university  (see  above)  and  its  highly  remarkable 
cathedral  (reared  in  the  middle  ages)  and  other  architectural  monuments. 
In  the  middle  ages  this  city  was  densely  peopled,  and  had  not  less  than  22 
churches.     Ystad,  a  maritime  town  on  the  Baltic,  is  the  station  of  packets  for 


572  EUROPE,  PAST   AND   PRESENT. 


Sweden  and  Norway. — Geographical  Description  of  Sweden. 


Stralsund  (in  Prussia),  and  has  4,400  inhabitants.  Landskrona,  a  maritime 
town  on  the  Sound,  between  Malmo  and  Helsingborg,  with  a  good  harbor, 
various  manufactures,  and  4,000  inhabitants.  Opposite  the  town,  in  the 
Sound,  is  situated  the  little  island  of  liven,  with  500  inhabitants,  and  histori- 
cally remarkable  for  that  the  noted  astronomer  Tycho  de  Brahe  (-fin  1601) 
dwelt  here  for  several  years,  until  1597.  He  had  here  two  observatories. 
Helsingborg,  a  maritime  town  on  the  Sound,  right  opposite  Elsenor  (in 
Zealand),  with  noted  potteries,  sea-bathing,  and  3,000  inhabitants.  In  its 
neighborhood  is  the  watering-place  of  Ramlosa,  much  resorted  to.  Near 
Kvllen,  northward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Helsingborg,  are  important  coal 
mines.  Christianstad,  a  fortified  city  on  the  river  Helge,  with  manufactures 
of  woollens  and  gloves,  a  handsome  church,  and  4,500  inhabitants.  Cimbris- 
hamn,  a  maritime  town  on  the  Baltic,  with  850  inhabitants.  JSngelholm,  a 
maritime  town  on  the  Cattegat,  with  coal  trade,  and  900  inhabitants. 

7.  Holland,  along  the  Cattegat,  contains :  Halmstad,  its  capital,  on  the  Cat- 
tegat, with  noted  salmon-fishery,  woollen  manufactures,  sea-bathing,  com- 
merce, and  2,000  inhabitants.  Other  maritime  towns  on  the  Cattegat  are : 
Laholm  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Falkenberg  (with  1,200  inhabitants),  Warberg 
(with  2,000  inhabitants),  and  Kongsbacka  (with  1,000  inhabitants). 

8.  Wester- Gothland,  between  the  "Wetter  lake  and  the  Cattegat,  contains: 
Gottenburg  (in  Swedish  Gotheborg),  the  first  commercial  city  in  Sweden 
next  to  Stockholm,  on  the  Gotha  river  (left  bank),  about  9  miles  from  the 
Cattegat,  has  30,000  inhabitants,  is  handsomely  built,  and  abounds  in  magnifi- 
cent dwelling-houses,  and  is  noted  for  its  extensive  commerce,  various  and 
important  manufactures,  its  schools,  splendid  cathedral,  and  its  Gothic  Ger- 
man church,  with  high  steeple.  Opposite  the  city,  on  the  other  side  of  the 
named  river,  is  the  island  of  Hisingen,  of  30  miles  in  circuit,  and  with  10 
parishes.  The  very  strong  little  fortress  of  Nya  (New)  Mfsborg,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Gotha  river,  was  reared  in  1644.  Wenersborg,  a  town  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  Wener  lake,  northward  and  58  miles  distant  from 
Gottenburg,  with  considerable  transit  trade,  and  3,000  inhabitants.  The 
neighboring  village  of  Trollhatta  is  noted  for  the  Falls  of  the  Gotha  river. 
Ailing sos,  a  town  on  the  river  Safve,  about  half-way  between  Wenersborg 
and  Gottenburg,  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  cloth  and  silk  stockings,  and 
has  1,000  inhabitants.  Boros  and  Ulricehamn,  towns  with  respectively  2,500 
and  1,800  inhabitants.  Skara,  a  town  in  a  well-cultivated  plain,  north-east- 
ward and  72  miles  distant  from  Gottenburg,  with  remarkable  Gothic  cathe- 


SWEDEN   AND  NORWAY.  673 

Geographical  Description  of  Sweden. 

dral,  reared  in  the  11th  century,  a  noted  gymnasium,  and  1,800  inhabitants. 
Skofde  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Hjo  (pronounced  like  you,  has  700  inhabi- 
tants), Falkoping  (with  800  inhabitants),  Lidkoping  (with  3,000  inhabitants), 
and  Mariestad  (with  2,600  inhabitants),  more  or  less  remarkable  towns. 
Carlsborg,  a  strong  fortress  on  the  Wetter  lake,  reared  in  1809. 

9.  Wermland,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Weuer  lake,  contains :  Carlstad,  its 
capital,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Clara  river  into  the  Wener  lake,  with  a  hand- 
some cathedral,  a  famed  gymnasium,  extensive  iron  and  copper  trade,  noted 
fairs,  and  3,400  inhabitants.  Christinehamn,  an  important  trading  town  on 
the  Wener  lake,  with  considerable  iron  trade,  noted  annual  fairs,  and  2,000 
inhabitants.  Philipstad,  a  mining  town,  with  iron  trade,  and  1,000  inhabi- 
tants. 

10.  Dalsland,  between  the  Wener  lake  and  Norway,  contains  :  Amoal,  its 
capital,  on  the  Wener  lake,  northward  and  100  miles  distant  from  Gottenburg, 
with  considerable  trade  in  iron,  timber,  and  tar,  and  1,600  inhabitants.  Bil- 
lingfors  and  Kollero  are  noted  for  their  iron-works. 

11.  Boh  us,  between  Gottenburg  and  Norway,  on  the  Cat tegat,  contains : 
Kongelf,  its  capital,  on  the  Gotha  river,  northward  and  14  miles  distant 
from  Gottenburg,  has  at  present  only  850  inhabitants,  but  was  in  the  middle 
ages  a  considerable  city,  and  the  residence  of  several  kings  of  Norway,  to 
which  Bohus  then  belonged.  Marstrand,  a  very  ancient  town  on  an  island 
in  the  Cattegat,  has  1,400  inhabitants,  and  a  fine  harbor,  and  is  noted  for  its 
strong  fortress  of  Carlsten.  Uddewalla,  a  maritime  town  on  the  bay  of  the 
Cattegat,  with  some  manufactures,  considerable  commerce,  and  4,000  inhabi- 
tants. Stromstad,  a  maritime  town  near  the  frontier  of  Norway,  with  con- 
siderable fishery,  and  1,800  inhabitants. 

The  following  7  provinces  are  comprised  by  the  general  name  of  Norr- 
land,  because  they  are  situated  to  the  north  of  Svearike  and  Gotharike : 

1.  Gestrikland,  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  contains:  Gefle,  its  capital,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  capital  of  Norrland,  on  a  bay  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  north- 
ward and  96  miles  distant  from  Stockholm,  has  9,000  inhabitants,  and  is 
noted  for  its  extensive  trade  in  iron,  timber,  etc.,  and  commerce,  its  impor- 
tant manufactures,  considerable  fisheries,  and  its  very  handsome  city-halL 
In  the  neighborhood  is  the  watering-place  of  Hillehrunn. 

2.  Helsingland,  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  on  the  south  bounded  by 
Gestrikland,  is  famed  for  its  excellent  linens,  and  noted  for  its  vast  number 
of  mountain-cocks  and  grouses,  of  which  in  winter  whole  sled-loads  are  sent 


5H  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Sweden  and  Norway.— Geographical  Description  of  Sweden. 


to  Stockholm.  It  contains :  Hudirswall,  its  capital,  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia, 
with  considerable  linen  manufactures,  extensive  trade  in  timber,  flax  (100,000 
pounds  of  which  are  annually  exported),  linen  (200,000  yards  exported  an- 
nually), butter,  fowl,  etc.,  good  harbor,  and  2,000  inhabitants.  Soderhamn,  a 
maritime  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  is  likewise  noted  for  its  linen  manu- 
factures and  linen  trade,  moreover  for  the  finest  church  in  Norrland,  and 
1,800  inhabitants. 

3.  Herjedalen,  between  Helsingland  and  Norway,  contains :  Ljusnedal,  its 
capital,  has  only  350  inhabitants,  but  is  noted,  for  its  iron  and  copper  mines, 
and  iron-works. 

4.  Medelpad,  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  bounded  on  the  south  by  Hel- 
singland, is  noted  for  its  extensive  forests,  which  harbor  the  elk,  reindeer, 
lynx,  beaver,  and  vast  numbers  of  wild  fowl,  and  contains :  Sundswall,  its 
capital,  on  the  named  gulf,  with  some  woollen  manufactures,  considerable 
trade  in  timber,  tar,  hides,  etc.,  and  2,000  inhabitants. 

5.  Jemtland,  at  the  frontier  of  Norway,  contains :  Oestersund,  its  capital, 
on  the  Stor  lake,  with  considerable  inland  trade,  and  100  inhabitants. 

6.  Angermanland,  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  bounded  on  the  south  by  Me- 
delpad, contains :  Hernosand,  its  capital,  on  the  named  gulf,  northward  and 
230  miles  distant  from  Stockholm,  with  2,500  inhabitants,  a  noted  gymna- 
sium, considerable  linen  trade  and  fairs,  fishery,  and  a  printing-office,  where 
books  are  printed  in  the  language  of  the  Laplanders. 

*l.  Westerbottn,  comprising  the  most  northerly  Swedish  coasting  tract  along 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  containing:  Umea,  its  capital,  on  the  named  gulf, 
140  miles  north-north-east  of  Hernosand,  is  regularly  laid  out^and  has  1,500 
inhabitants,  engaged  in  trading  and  fishing  business.  Pitea  and  Lulea,  mari- 
time towns,  each  with  1,200  inhabitants. 

Lapland  in  general  belongs  partly  to  Sweden,  partly  to  Norway,  and 
partly  to  Russia,  is  a  cold,  desolate  region,  and  lying  north  of  the  Arctic 
circle,  extends  eastward  to  the  White  Sea,  and  westward  to  the  Ocean.  The 
Swedish  Lapland  is,  however,  situated  in  the  interior  of  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula,  and  separated  by  Norway  from  the  ocean,  and  by  the  Tor- 
nea  river  from  Russian  Lapland,  Its  area  is  estimated  at  about  40,000 
square  miles,  and  its  population  at  12,000  inhabitants,  among  them  only 
4,000  Laplanders,  while  the  remainder  consists  of  Swedish,  Finlandish,  and 
even  German  settlers.  For  the  rest,  the  Swedish  Lapland  is  noted  for  the 
immense  quantities  of  iron  ores,  and  many  districts  there  are  distinguished 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY.  575 

Geographical  Description  of  Sweden. 

for  the  wild  and  sublime  character  of  the  scenery.  The  Laplanders  have 
been  nearly  all  converted  to  Christianity,  and  are,  generally,  attached  to  its 
duties.  Great  crimes  are  unknown  among  them.  In  short,  they  are  a  simple, 
harmless  people,  greatly  attached  to  their  native  country.  They  are  of  short 
stature,  being  generally  under  five  feet  in  height.  Their  chief  wealth  is  in 
the  reindeer,  which  yields  them  food  and  clothing,  and  transports  them  in 
sledges  over  the  snow.  The  Laplanders  move  about  from  place  to  place, 
with  their  herds  of  reindeer,  and  seldom  reside  in  towns.  In  summer  they 
live  in  tents,  and  in  winter  in  rude  huts,  formed  of  stones  and  earth,  and 
covered  with  turf.  The  villages  are  very  small  seldom  containing  more  than 
100  or  200  inhabitants.  The  most  remarkable  among  them  (but  not  exclu- 
sively inhabited  by  Laplanders)  are :  Juckasjarwi,  a  village  on  the  Tornea 
river,  in  67°  51'  north  latitude,  with  the  most  northerly  church  in  Europe; 
Kengis,  with  the  most  northerly  iron- works  existing ;  Jochnioch,  with  church, 
school,  and  1,400  inhabitants,  and  Asele,  a  village  on  the  Angerman  river, 
with  church  and  school. 

The  only  foreign  colony  Sweden  is  possessed  of,  is  the  island  of 
St.  Bartholomew,  in  the  West  Indies,  which  was  ceded  to  Swe- 
den in  1784,  by  France. 


B.— THE  KINGDOM  OF  NORWAY. 

Area:  122,752  square  miles. 
Population  :  1,350,000  inhabitants. 

It  embraces  the  western,  and  smaller  half  of  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula,  and  is  divided  into  1 7  bailiwicks,  that  are  subdivided 
in  45  smaller  districts,  and  66  townships,  or  Sorenskriverier,  as 
they  are  styled.     The  ancient  and  historical  division  into  4  sec- 


576  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Sweden  and  Norway.— Geographical  Description  of  Norway. 

tions,  styled  stifter  (chapters),  being  at  the  same  time  the  dioceses 
of  as  many  bishops,  is  in  common  life  still  frequently  alluded  to ; 
and  for  this  reason  we  shall,  in  the  following  topographical  de- 
scription of  Norway,  denote  the  capitals  of  sections  (bearing  the 
same  names)  thus  :  +. 

-f-CHRisTiANiA,  the  capital  of  Norway,  and  residence  of  the  royal  governor, 
on  a  bay  of  the  Cattegat,  known  by  the  name  of  Christianiafjord,  northward 
and  172  miles  distant  from  Gottenburg,  is  regularly  laid  out,  while  most  of 
the  dwelling-houses  and  all  public  edifices  are  built  of  free-stone,  has  27,000 
inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  university  (see  back ;  the  library  contains 
112,000  volumes),  and  several  other  higher  schools  and  literary  institutions, 
its  remarkable  cathedral,  its  important  manufactures,  and  considerable  com- 
merce. After  the  ancient  mountain  castle  of  Aggerhuus,  the  section,  or 
"  stift"  (see  above)  of  Christiania  is  sometimes  named.  Moss,  a  maritime 
town  on  the  Christianiafjord  (see  above),  is  noted  for  its  iron-works  and  saw- 
mills, and  has  3,000  inhabitants.  Drammen,  a  city  on  a  bay,  connected  with 
that  of  Christiania,  south-westward  and  30  miles  distant  from  Christiania,  is 
the  centre  for  the  Norwegian  timber  and  lumber  trade,  is  moreover  noted 
for  its  iron-works,  and  has  8,000  inhabitants.  Laurvig,  a  maritime  town  at 
the  entrance  into  Christianiafjord  (see  above),  72  miles  south-south-west  of 
Christiania,  is  noted  for  its  considerable  iron  trade,  and  has  3,600  inhabitants. 
Close  by  stands  the  fortress  of  Frederiksvarn.  The  maritime  town  of 
Tonsberg  (with  timber  trade,  and  2,200  inhabitants)  was,  in  the  middle  ages, 
a  densely  populated  city,  containing,  among  others,  9  churches.  The  neigh- 
boring ancient  castle  of  Jarlsberg  is  noted  in  history.  Skeen,  a  town  on  a 
river  of  the  samo  name,  with  numerous  saw-mills,  timber  trade,  and  2,000 
inhabitants.  Frederiksstad  and  Frederikshald  are  fortified  and  remarkable 
maritime  towns  near  the  Swedish  frontier,  with  respectively  3,000  and 
6,300  inhabitants.  Near  the  latter  stands,  on  a  steep  rock,  350  feet  high,  the 
strong  fortress  of  Frederikssteen,  which,  in  1718,  was  besieged  by  the  Swedes, 
on  which  occasion  Charles  XII.  was  assassinated  (see  History  of  Sweden). 
In  the  valley,  known  by  the  name  of  Nummedalen,  is  situated  the  important 
mining  town  of  Kongsberg,  with  4,400  inhabitants,  and  noted  not  only  for  its 
silver  mines  (see  above),  but  also  for  its  mining  academy,  and  various  manu- 
factures.  (-Chrtstiansand,  a  city  on  a  very  spacious  bay  of  the  Skagerrak, 

with  a  cathedral  vast  docks,  considerable  trade  in  timber  and  corn,  and 


SWEDEN   AND  NORWAY.  57*7 

Geographical  Description  of  Norway. 

8,300  inhabitants.  Mandal,  a  maritime  town  with  2,400  inhabitants,  is  noted 
for  its  pickled  and  smoked  salmon,  of  which  considerable  quantities  are  ex- 
ported. Arendal,  a  town  romantically  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  Skagerrak, 
is  noted  for  its  iron  mines,  and  has  2,300  inhabitants.  Oesteriisber  and  Stavan- 
ger,  noted  maritime  and  commercial  towns,  with  respectively  2,000  and  4,300 

inhabitants. (-Bergen,  a  commercial  city  on  a  bay  of  the  North  Sea,  166 

miles  west-north-west  of  Christiania,  with  a  spacious  and  commodious  har- 
bor, 7  churches  (among  which  one  is  for  Germans),  vast  docks,  the  most  con- 
siderable commerce  in  Norway,  various  manufactures,  and  23,000  inhabitants. 
Bergen,  founded  in  1069,  was,  in  the  middle  ages,  a  city  with  more  than  30 
churches  and  convents,  and  for  a  long  period  the  centre  of  the  commerce  car- 
ried on  by  the  Hanseatic  League  in  the  northern  countries  of  Europe. — 
-j-Drontheim  (in  Norwegian  Trondhiem),  a  city  on  a  bay  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  northward  and  250  miles  distant  from  Christiania,  with  a  scientific 
society,  a  remarkable  cathedral  (where  the  kings  of  Norway  are  crowned), 
a  gymnasium,  seminary  for  Laplanders,  various  manufactures,  considerable 
commerce,  and  14,000  inhabitants,  who  are  distinguished  for  their  hospitality 
and  polite  manners.  Drontheim  was,  in  the  middle  ages,  a  famous  city,  with 
10  churches,  5  convents,  etc.  In  its  neighborhood  are  many  iron- works, 
among  them  those  of  Leerfoss  deserve  to  be  noticed.  Roeraas,  a  mining 
town  in  a  very  desolate  mountainous  district,  60  miles  south-south-east  of 
Drontheim,  is  famed  for  its  considerable  copper  mines  (see  back),  and  has 
3,200  inhabitants.  Christiansund  and  Molle,  maritime  towns  on  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  with  respectively  2,500  and  1,800  inhabitants. — The  section,  or  chap- 
ter (stift;  see  back)  of  Nordland,  embracing  the  most  northern  part  of 
Norway,  comprises  Nordland  proper,  and  the  Norwegian  Lapland.  To  the 
former  belongs  the  group  of  the  Lofoden  isles,  near  the  western  coast,  among 
which  are  to  be  noticed  the  isle  of  Rost  (the  most  southern,  in  about  66°  15' 
north  latitude),  anol  the  isle  of  Mosken,  noted  for  the  Moskenas-Strommen, 
as  the  Norwegians  name  the  Mahlstrom,  of  which  formerly,  in  other  European 
countries,  the  opinion  was  entertained,  as  if  it  was  a  terrific  whirlpool,  draw- 
ing in  sometimes  ships,  as  well  as  whales,  and  other  animals,  and  dash- 
ing them  on  the  rocks  beneath.  That  is,  however,  not  at  all  the  case ;  on 
the  contrary,  the  Mahlstrom  is  annually  in  the  months  of  February  and  March 
the  meeting-place  of  3,000  or  4,000  fishing-boats,  and  at  that  period  some- 
times 16  million  cod-fishes,  haddocks,  etc.,  are  caught  here.  Bodoe,  a  town  on 
a  bay,  named  Sattenfjord,  in  66°  15'  north  latitude,  is  noted  for  its  seaport 

25 


618  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Sweden  and  Norway. — Geographical  Description  of  Norway. 

of  Hundholm,  where  a  considerable  barter  is  kept  up  with  the  neighboring 
fishermen.  Altstahaug  is  the  seat  of  the  bishop  of  Nordland. — The  Norwe- 
gian Lapland,  styled  Finmarken  (about  the  Laplanders,  see  under  the  head 
of  Sweden),  contains  Hammer f est,  a  town  on  an  island  in  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
in  70°  38'  north  latitude,  has  400  inhabitants,  and  is  much  resorted  to  for 
trade  and  barter,  especially  by  Russians.  In  the  neighborhood  are  rich  cop- 
per mines,  at  which  1,100  workmen  are  employed.  About  the  North  Cape, 
see  page  3.  Tromsoe,  a  town  on  an  island  of  the  same  name  (north  latitude 
68°  36'),  with  a  church,  and  800  inhabitants. 


RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE. 

Area  :  2,099,903  square  miles. 
Population:  62,000,000  inhabitants. 

It  is  almost  universally  known,  that  Russia  is  by  no  means  re- 
stricted to  Europe,  but  that  it  comprises  also  a  considerable  part 
of  Asia,  and  even  part  of  North  America.  Considered  in  this 
view  it  is  styled  the  Russian  empire,  whose  total  area  is  estimated 
at  not  less  than  8,552,700  square  miles,  with  a  total  population 
of  67,000,000  inhabitants. 

As  this  hook  treats  only  of  Europe,  we  must  in  substance  re- 
strict ourselves  to  the  description  of  European  Russia,  though  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  avoid  frequent  digressions  into  Asiatic 
Russia,  which  contains  several  of  the  chief  sources  of  the  public 
revenues  of  the  Russian  empire. 

European  Russia,  on  the  north  bounded  by  the  Arctic  Ocean 
(with  the  White  Sea,  see  page  9),  and  on  the  south  by  the  Black 
Sea,  etc.  (see  page  10),  is  on  the  east  by  the  Ural  Mountains  (and 
Ural  river),  and  on  the  south  by  the  Caucasus  Mountains  (see 
page  8)  separated  from  Asiatic  Russia,  and  borders  on  the  south- 
west and  west  upon  European  Turkey,  the  Austrian  empire,  and 
the  kingdom  of  Prussia. — Its  principal  lakes  and  rivers  are  noticed 
on  pages  10,  11,12,  and  13  j  and  about  the  Tauric  Mountains  and 
Wolchonsky  Forest,  see  page  8. 

The  great  majority  of  the  population,  or  more  than  sixty  mil- 
lion inhabitants  belong  to  the  Caucasian  race  ;  while  the  Lap- 


680  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Russia— its  Population  in  point  of  Origin,  Religion,  etc. 

landers,  the  aboriginal  Finns  (not  to  be  confounded  with  the  pre- 
dominant inhabitants  of  Finland,  who  are  of  Swedish  origin),  the 
Samojedes,  Kalmucks,  and  partly  the  Baschhirs  belong  to  the  Mon- 
golian race. 

As  to  their  origin,  the  Russians  proper  and  the  Poles  belong 
to  the  great  tribe  of  Slavonians  (see  pages  18  and  19),  whose 
total  number  in  the  Russian  empire  amounted  in  1837  to 
48,000.000,  including  4  millions  Lettonians,  Bulgarians,  etc. 
The  number  of  Germans  in  Russia  (whose  chief  seat  is  in  the 
Baltic  provinces),  is  estimated  at  800,000  ;  that  of  Jews  at 
1,600,000  (chiefly  in  the  Polish  provinces).  More  than  6  mil- 
lions are  of  Tartarian  origin  (not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Mon- 
golian race,  as  all  genuine  Tartarian  tribes,  for  instance,  the 
Turks,  Magyars,  etc.,  belong  decidedly  to  the  Caucasian  race) ; 
and  the  remainder  consists  of  Greek,  Persian,  and  other  oriental 
tribes,  Gypsies,  and  the  above-mentioned  people  :  Laplanders, 
Samojedes,  Kalmucks,  etc.* 

In  regard  to  religion,  the  established  church  is  the  Greek,  and 
generally  all  Russians  are  Greek  Christians  ;  while  nearly  all 
Poles  are  Roman  Catholics,  and  most  of  the  Germans  Lutherans. 
The  Tartarian  and  other  kindred  tribes  in  the  southern  and 
south-eastern  provinces  of  European  Russia  are  for  the  most 
part  Mohammedans.     About  the  Jews,  see  above. 

The  Russian  nation  is  divided  into  three  classes,  the  nobility, 
citizens,  and  peasantry.  (About  the  same  distinction  is  estab- 
lished in  Poland,  while  in  the  Baltic  provinces  the  social  condi- 
tion of  the  population  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  that  of  Ger- 
many.)    There  is  an  essential  distinction  between  hereditary  and 

*  The  Cossacks  are  not  peradvcnture  a  separate  tribe,  but  genuine  Rus- 
sians, with  the  only  difference,  tliat  since  the  17th  century  they  are  endowed 
with  various  privileges,  and  (on  the  other  hand)  in  lieu  of  paying  taxes,  are 
required  to  act  as  soldiers  in  time  of  war. 


RUSSIA   IN  EUROPE.  581 


The  Russian  Nobility,  Peasantry,  etc. 


personal  nobility.  The  number  of  nobles  by  birth  (or  of  those 
who  belong  to  the  hereditary  nobility)  in  the  whole  Russian  em- 
fire  (thus  including  the  Polish,  Bulgarian,  Tartarian  and  other 
nobles),  was  some  years  ago  about  551,000 ;  while  the  personal 
nobility  (i.  e.  for  lifetime  only)  is  conferred  upon  the  higher 
classes  of  the  clergy  and  citizens,  and  upon  the  civil  and  military 
public  officers  (provided  that  they  are  not  already  nobles  by 
birth).  The  nobles,  as  well  as  the  commoners,  are  exempted 
from  the  poll-tax  (land-taxes,  excises,  and  other  similar  taxes  they 
have  to  pay),  and  cannot  be  compelled  to  enter  the  army,  though 
a  great  many  of  them  enter  it  voluntarily.  By  the  term  of  cit- 
izens is  to  be  understood  all  free  inhabitants  of  cities  and  towns, 
who  are  engaged  in  commerce,  trade,  manufacturing,  and  other 
branches  of  industry.  They  are  divided  into  6  classes,  styled 
guilds  (compare  pages  52  and  53),  and  about  4,500,000  in  num- 
ber. The  peasantry  comprises  freeholders  (about  700,000), 
peasants  of  the  crown  (more  than  17,500,000),  who  at  present  are  to 
be  considered  as  personally  free  men,  and  thirdly,  bondsmen  (com- 
pare page  36),  about  21,000,000  in  number,  and  for  the  most  part 
on  the  estates  of  the  nobility.  Thus  two  thirds  of  the  population 
are  free  men,  and  moreover  the  emperor,  Nicholas,  has  in  recent 
times  provided  by  the  law  for  the  gradual  emancipation  of  the 
remaining  third  also.  To  emancipate  them  at  once,  would  have 
been  a  hard  blow  to  the  bondsmen  themselves,  for  it  is  a  fact,  that 
they  generally  are  in  a  better  and  more  comfortable  condition 
than  many  free  men,  at  least  among  the  lower  classes,  who  not 
seldom  endure  great  distress,  while  the  bondsmen,  so  to  say,  are 
never  suffered  to  starve,  their  masters  being  compelled  by  the 
law  to  provide  for  their  wants,  in  cases  of  necessity  (sickness, 
weakness  from  age,  etc.).  It  has  frequently  occurred,  that 
bondsmen,  emancipated  by  their  masters,  have  spontaneously  re- 
turned into  their  former  condition  of  servitude.      They  not  only 


EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Russia— its  Soil  aud  Natural  Products. 


till  the  ground  (two  days  in  the  week  for  their  own  account),  but 
are  employed  in  various  other  manners :  as  mechanics,  operatives, 
servants,  coachmen,  etc.,  and  have  ample  opportunity  to  earn  suf- 
ficient money  for  their  redemption  from  bondage.  Hundreds  of 
them  are  annually  levied  as  recruits,  and  they  are  at  once  free, 
for  themselves  and  their  descendants,  as  soon  as  they  enter  the 
army. 

The  surface  of  European  Russia  is  generally  level ;  its  chief 
features  being  vast  plains  and  large  rivers,  with  numerous  lakes 
in  the  north-western  quarter.  In  the  northern  provinces,  it  is 
intensely  cold  in  winter,  while  in  the  southern,  the  climate  is 
mild  and  pleasant. 

The  soil  is,  in  general,  highly  productive,  though  in  the  most 
northern  provinces  the  cold  climate  and  the  short  summer  pre- 
vent the  full  development  of  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil.  In 
the  southern  and  some  other  parts  of  the  country  more  or  less  ex- 
tensive steppes  are  to  be  found,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  are 
those  of  the  Kirgises,  in  Bessarabia,  near  the  Don  and  Dnieper,  the 
Nogaian,  of  Azow,  etc.  Nearly  300  millions  of  acres  are  appro- 
priated to  agriculture,  yielding  annually  about  1 52,750,000  quarters 
of  wheat,  rye,  and  other  descriptions  of  grain,  of  which  more  than 
9,500,000  are  exported.  In  1841  corn  was  exported  to  the 
value  of  10,382,509  rubles  in  silver;  in  1842  to  the  value  of 
12,191,529  rubles;  and  in  1843  to  the  value  of  12,899,911  ru- 
bles in  silver.  Of  flax  were,  in  1843,  exported  965,953  quintals, 
and  of  hemp  739,324  quintals.  In  Bessarabia,  Tauria,  Crimea, 
and  on  the  banks  of  the  Don  even  the  vine  is  cultivated,  and  the 
annual  produce  of  very  good  wines  is  estimated  at  about  2,200,- 
000  gallons.  Vast  forests  abound  in  various  parts  of  Russia,  and 
they  furnish  the  seaports  with  large  supplies  of  timber,  pitch,  tar, 
etc.,  for  exportation.  Black  cattle  are  reared  in  immense  num- 
bers ;  the  finest  breed  is  to  be  found  in  Podolia,  Volhynia,  and 


RUSSIA   IN  EUROPE.  588 


Natural  Products  and  Manufactures. 


Ukraine,  from  which  provinces  thousands  of  heads  are  annually 
exported.  Horses  are  likewise  reared  in  vast  numbers,  and  of 
various  breed  ;  they  are  in  general  distinguished  for  their  swift- 
ness and  endurance.  The  total  number  of  sheep  in  the  Russian 
empire  is  estimated  at  60,000,000  ;  they  are  of  different  breed. 
European  Russia  numbered  4,000,000  of  improved  breed  in  1843, 
when  169,491  quintals  of  their  wool  was  exported.  The  above- 
mentioned  extensive  forests  (i.  e.  those  in  the  northern  provinces, 
and  especially  in  Siberia)  abound  in  wild  animals  that  are  eagerly 
hunted  for  their  valuable  furs,  as  the  sable,  ermine,  black  fox,  etc. 
Yet  the  bear,  wolf,  and  other  beasts  of  prey  are  likewise  very 
common.  The  sturgeon,  etc.  fisheries  of  the  river  Volga,  and  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  are  extensive  and  very  productive.  Upwards 
of  10,000  fishing^ooats  are  employed  on  the  Volga  alone.  Rus- 
sia is  noted  for  its  precious  metals,  of  which  gold  and  platina  are 
found  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  also  in  the  Siberian  province  of 
Jeniseisk,  and  silver  in  Siberia,  while  copper,  iron,  and  lead  are 
met  with  in  various  quarters.  In  the  five  years'  period  of  1842- 
1846,  the  Russian  gold  mines  in  the  Ural  Mountains  yielded  a 
total  produce  of  gold,  which  was,  in  England,  estimated  at  £12,- 
784,808.  In  the  one  year  of  1843,  they  produced  724,640  ounces 
of  gold.  Of  platina  were,  in  the  same  year,  71,680  ounces  pro- 
duced. The  annual  produce  in  silver  is,  upon  an  average,  esti- 
mated at  84,000  marks  ;  of  copper,  at  86,000  quintals ;  of  lead,  at 
14,350  quintals,  and  of  iron,  at  3,500.000  quintals.  The  Ural 
Mountains  contain  also  diamonds,  emeralds,  and  other  precious 
stones. — Salt  is  extensively  made,  especially  in  the  southern 
provinces. 

The  manufactures,  which,  during  the  greater  part  of  the  last 
century  almost  restricted  to  those  of  the  noted  Russia  leather, 
have,  since  the  reign  of  the  empress  Katharine  II.,  and  especially 
since  that  of  the  emperors  Alexander  and  Nicholas,  made  aston- 


584  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Russia— its  Manufactures  and  Commerce. 


ishing  progress.  In  1812  the  Russian  empire  numbered  2,332 
manufactories,  with  119,093  operatives  ;  in  1835,  6,045  manufac- 
tories, with  279,673  operatives  ;  in  1839  the  former  had  increased 
to  6,855,  and  the  latter  to  412,931  ;  and  since  the  manufactures 
have  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  they  furnish  the  country 
with  almost  sufficient  supplies,  of  which  only  about  one  sixth  is 
imported  from  foreign  countries.  The  various  articles  manufac- 
tured in  1843  had  a  value  of  nearly  103  millions  of  rubles  in  sil- 
ver, while  those  which  were  imported  in  the  same  year,  had  only 
the  value  of  18  millions.  The  chief  manufacturiDg  district  is  in 
and  around  Moscow,  where  in  the  just-named  year  cotton  goods 
were  manufactured  to  the  value  of  20,163,174,  and  silks  to  the 
value  of  1,367,331  rubles  in  silver.  Of  other  articles  are  to  be 
noticed  cloth,  canvass,  cutleries  and  harduMre,  leather,  glass- 
ware, etc. 

The  commerce  is  very  extensive,  and  increasing  almost  every 
year.  In  1843  the  exports  were  to  the  value  of  82,565,600,  and 
the  imports  to  the  value  of  75,028,399  rubles  in  silver  ;  thus,  the 
former  surpassing  the  latter  by  7,537,201  rubles  in  value.  The 
exports  consist  chiefly  of  tallow,  corn,  hemp,  flax,  linseed,  hemp-seed, 
timber,  wool,  canvass,  iron,  copper,  Russian  leather,  furs  (in  1843 
exported  to  the  amount  of  2,205,000  silver  rubles  in  value),  wax, 
hog's  bristles,  candles,  soap,  etc.  Great  fairs  are  held  in  different 
places,  which  attract  vast  crowds  of  merchants  and  traders  from 
all  parts.  The  inland  commerce  is  much  facilitated  by  the  nu- 
merous rivers,  canals,  and  lakes  ;  and  by  the  snow,  in  the  winter 
season,  over  which  sleighs  travel  with  great  rapidity.  The  chief 
internal  trade  is  with  China,  Independent  Tartary,  Persia,  and 
Germany.  With  regard  to  the  canals  in  European  Russia,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  they,  in  general,  do  not  afford  more  practical  ad- 
vantages than  those  in  Great  Britain.  At  least,  it  is  a  fact,  that 
by  these  canals  the  White,  Black,  Caspian,  and  Baltic  Seas  have 


RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  585 


The  Russian  Commerce,  Schools  and  Government. 


been  brought  into  connection  with  each  other,  and  thus  navigable 
internal  lines,  of  enormous  length,  been  established.  The  canals 
of  Wisnei-  Wolotsschok,  Tichwin,  Ladoga,  and  Nowgorod  unite 
the  Caspian  Sea  with  the  Baltic ;  the  canals  of  Kubenski  and 
Katharine,  unite  the  Caspian  with  the  White  Sea ;  and  the  canals 
of  Beresina,  Oginski,  and  Machawez  unite  the  Black  Sea  with  the 
Baltic,  while  on  the  other  hand,  a  direct  connection  between  these 
canals  themselves  is  established  likewise. 

With  regard  to  general  diffusion  of  knowledge,  and  to  common- 
school  education,  Russia  has  hitherto  been  greatly  behind  other 
European  countries,  yet  is  at  present  advancing  in  this  particular, 
as  well  as  in  others.  Considerable  exertions  are  made  by  the 
government  to  introduce  schools  and  instruct  the  lower  classes  of 
the  people.  In  the  period  from  1837  to  1845  not  less  than  4,924 
common  schools  have  been  founded  among  the  peasantry  of  the 
crown.  They  were  in  the  last-named  year  frequented  by  271,262 
children.  In  the  higher  branches  of  knowledge  Russia  rivals  the 
rest  of  Europe.  Beside  several  scientific  societies,  and  public  and 
private  libraries,  each  of  which  contains  from  100,000  to  450,000 
volumes,  there  are  7  universities  (those  of  Warsaw  and  Wilna  have 
been  abolished  in  1832),  viz.,  at  Dorpat  (founded  in  1632,  and  in 
1844  frequented  by  484  students),  at  Moscow  (founded  in  1705  and 
in  1844  with  836  students),  at  Kasan  (founded  in  1803,  and  in  1844 
with  359  students),  at  Charkow  (founded  in  1803,  and  in  1844 
with  410  students),  at  St.  Petersburg  (founded  in  1819,  and  in 
1844  with  557  students),  at  Helsingfors  (founded  in  1640  by 
Queen  Christiana  of  Sweden,  in  Abo,  in  1827  transferred  to  Hel- 
singfors, and  in  1843  with  463  students),  and  at  Kiew  (founded 
in  1833,  and  in  1844  with  320  students).  Every  governmental  or 
provincial  capital  contains  a  gymnasium  ;  in  those  of  Irkutsk 
and  Kiachta  the  Japan  and  Chinese  languages  are  taught. 

The  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy.     All  power  emanates 


586  EUROPE,   PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Russia— its  Finances  and  Army. 


from  the  Emperor,  who  is  the  head  of  the  state  and  (Greek) 
church,  and  styled  the  Autocrat  of  all  the  Russias. 

The  amount  of  the  revenue,  and  of  the  expenditure,  for  several 
years  has  been  about  $81,000,000.  One  of  the  chief  sources  of 
the  revenues  are  the  customs,  or  duties,  on  goods  imported  from 
foreign  countries.  The  public  debt  amounted  in  1843  to  290,- 
434,155  rubles  in  silver,  thus  being  far  less  than  that  not  only 
of  Great  Britain,  but  also  of  France  or  Spain. 

The  Russian  army  numbers  at  present  not  less  than  1,000,000 
men  in  the  war  department,  and  is  arranged  into  six  main  bodies, 
the  general  reserve,  and  the  several  corps  of  Cossacks.  The  six 
main  bodies  of  the  army  are  the  following  :  1.  The  great  movable 
European  army  of  operation,  consisting  of  465,720  men,  with  1.200 
pieces  of  ordnance.  2.  The  European  army  of  reserve,  numbering 
202,480  men,  with  472  pieces  of  artillery.  3.  The  Caucasian 
army,  consisting  of  150,167  men,  with  302  pieces.  4.  The  main 
body  of  the  army  in  Finland,  numbering  16,000  men,  with  16 
cannons.  5.  That  of  Orenburg,  consisting  of  64,000  men,  with 
16  pieces  ;  and  6.  The  main  body  of  the  army  in  Siberia,  con- 
sisting of  16,000  men,  with  16  pieces  of  artillery.  The  several 
regular  corps  of  Cossacks  (see  note  back)  amount  to  50,000 
men.  Other  Cossacks,  generally  forming  irregular  troops,  have 
to  guard  the  frontiers  of  the  empire  from  inroads,  etc.  Thus 
the  disposable  forces  Russia  is  entitled  to  send  in  the  field  in 
time  of  war,  amount  to  about  800,000  men.  Of  course  they  con- 
sist only  of  the  European  armies  of  operation  and  reserve,  and 
of  the  regiments  of  Cossacks ;  because  the  main  bodies  of  army 
in  Caucasian  Russia,  in  the  province  of  Orenburg,  etc.,  must  keep 
their  stations  for  the  maintaining  of  internal  peace  and  order 
there,  and  for  the  safety  of  the  frontiers.  As  for  the  garrisons 
in  other  parts  of  the  interior,  and  especially  in  the  Polish  prov- 
inces, they  are  easily  provided  for  by  the  general  reserve,  whose 


RUSSIA.  IN   EUROPE.  587 


The  Russian  Army  and  Navy. 


amount  depends  on  the  urgency  of  the  circumstances,  and  for  the 
most  part  comprise  the  troops  trained  up  in  the  military  colonies. 
The  latter  were  established  in  1 820  with  the  view  partly  to  save  a 
large  amount  of  the  expenses  for  the  army,  and  partly  to  allevi- 
ate the  burden  of  the  recruiting.  They  number  about  400,000 
soldiers.  In  1831  they  underwent  some  reforms,  and  are  now 
styled  districts  of  farmer-soldiers.  Since  that  period  the  system 
of  recruiting  the  army  by  the  conscription  or  a  general  levy  pre- 
vails again.  Liable  to  conscription  are  particularly  the  sons  of 
tradesmen  and  peasantry,  and  usually  two  out  of  one  hun- 
dred are  levied.  The  merchants,  professors,  artists,  physicians, 
civil  officers,  lawyers,  etc.,  are  not  liable  to  the  duty  of  military 
service ;  and  that  bondsmen  become  free  men  as  soon  as  they 
enter  the  army,  is  already  noticed  above. 

The  navy  consisted  in  1840  of  56  ships  of  the  line,  carrying 
from  74  to  1 20  guns,  48  frigates,  carrying  from  44  to  60  guns, 
and  an  adequate  number  of  sloops  of  war,  brigs,  and  steamers. 
Of  the  ships  of  the  line  31,  and  of  the  frigates  30,  were  stationed 
in  the  Baltic  Sea  (where  Kronstadt  and  Reval  are  the  chief  sta- 
tions), and  the  remainder  in  the  Black  Sea,  where  the  chief  sta- 
tions of  the  navy  are  Sevastopol,  Cherson,  and  Nicolajew.  Ships  of 
war  of  smaller  size  are  stationed  in  the  Caspian  and  White  Seas. 

There  are  the  following  Orders  of  honor:  1.  The  order  of  St. 
Andrew,  in  one  class,  and  instituted  in  1698.  2.  The  Alexan- 
der Newsky  order,  in  one  class,  and  instituted  in  1722.  3.  The 
White  Eagle  order,  primitively  a  Polish  order,  instituted  in  1335, 
and  renewed  in  1705,  in  one  class.  4.  The  St.  Ann  order,  primi- 
tively a  Holsteinian  order,  instituted  in  1735,  and  in  4  classes. 
5.  The  St.  Stanislaus  order,  primitively  a  Polish  order,  instituted 
in  1765,  and  in  3  classes.  6.  The  order  of  St.  George,  a  military 
order  of  merit,  instituted  in  1769,  and  in  4  classes.  7.  The 
order  of  St.  Wladimir,  in  4  classes,  and  instituted  in  1782;  and 


588  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Russia— its  History. 


8.  The  St.  Katharine  order,  only  for  ladies,  in  2  classes,  and  in- 
stituted  in  1714. 

History. — The  ancient  inhabitants  of  European  Russia  were  but  very  little 
known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  comprised  either  by  the  general  name 
Scythians,  or  by  that  of  Sarmatians.  They  belonged  to  the  Slavonic  tribe 
as  well  as  those  who  settled  in  the  country  at  a  later  period  (see  page  29). 
They  founded  two  subsequently  renowned  states  of  Novgorod  (compare 
page  52)  and  Kiew ;  yet  for  the  rest,  they  were  almost  constantly  engaged 
in  civil  wars.  To  put  an  end  to  them,  the  people  of  Novgorod  and  other  pow- 
erful tribes  sent  in  862  of  the  Christian  era,  an  embassy  to  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula,  which  then  already  was  noted  for  valiant  and  prudent  men,  and 
asked  for  one  of  them  to  become  their  sovereign.  Three  brothers,  named 
Rurik,  Snio  and  Truvor,  and  belonging  to  the  family  of  Russ  (hence  subse- 
quently the  name  of  Russia),  followed  the  invitation,  and  Rurik,  the  eldest 
of  them,  became  thus  the  ancestor  of  the  still  reigning  dynasty  of  Russia. 
He  founded  the  grand-duchy  of  Great  Russia,  whose  capital  was  first  Nov- 
gorod, but  then  Kiew.  One  of  Rurik's  descendants  and  successors,  "Wladimir, 
surnamed  the  Great,  married  a  daughter  of  the  Greek  emperor  in  988,  and 
as  she  was  a  Christian,  he  not  only  himself,  but  also  his  people,  were  con- 
verted to  Christianity.  In  the  course  of  time  not  less  than  400  churches 
were  built  in  Kiew,  which  at  the  same  time  became  a  city  of  such  extent 
and  splendor,  that  it  used  to  be  called  a  second  Constantinople.  At  a  later 
period  a  second  grand-duchy  took  existence,  viz.,  that  of  Wladimir ;  and  be- 
side it  there  were  50  principalities,  which  indeed  nominally,  yet  for  the  most 
part  not  actually,  were  subjected  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  grand  dukes. 
This  being  the  state  of  things,  Russia  was  an  easy  prey  to  the  Mongolians, 
who  in  1238  invaded  the  country  and  conquered  it,  with  the  exception  of  the 
city  and  republic  of  Novgorod.  They  suffered,  however,  the  Russian  grand 
dukes  to  continue  reigning,  though  they  were  considered  as  their  vassals  and 
had  to  pay  tribute  to  them ;  and  restricted  their  immediate  authority  and 
government  to  the  kingdoms  of  Kasan  and  Astrachan,  at  that  time  com- 
prised by  the  name  of  Kaptshak.  In  1328  the  grand-duchy  of  Wladimir 
was  united  with  that  of  Moscow,  in  1480  the  yoke  of  the  Mongolians  thrown 
off,  and  in  the  years  1552  and  54  their  last  possessions  in  Russia,  Kaptshak, 
re-conquered.  Meanwhile,  the  grand  duke  Ivan,  surnamed  the  Great,  and 
reigning  from  1462  to  1505,  had  subjected  all  dependent  principalities  to  his 


RUSSIA   IN  EUROPE.  589 


History  of  Russia. 


authority,  and  thus  established  one  single  and  united  empire,  upon  which  he 
assumed  the  title  of  Czar  (which  means  nothing  else  but  king).  In  1598  the 
male  line  of  the  house  of  Rurik  became  extinct,  and  now  a  period  of  fifteen 
years  ensued,  during  which  both  the  Poles  and  Swedes  wrested  several  prov- 
inces from  the  empire,  which  at  that  time  was  the  scene  of  civil  wars. 
At  last  the  Russians  regained  strength,  and  driving  away  the  enemies  from 
abroad,  elected  Michael  Romanow  (whose  mother  belonged  to  the  house  of 
Rurik)  their  king,  in  1613.  King  Michael  died  in  1645,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Alexei  (1645-1676),  who  was  succeeded  by  Ins  grandson,  Feodor 
IIL  (1676-1682).  All  three  were  distinguished  for  their  governmental  skill 
and  virtues.  When  Feodor  IIL  died  in  1682,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  two 
sons,  Ivan  and  Peter,  at  once.  Yet  the  latter  (born  on  the  20th  June,  1672), 
leaving  to  his  brother  only  the  title  of  Czar,  ascended  in  1689  the  throne  as 
autocrat,  by  the  name  of  Peter  I,  and  was  subsequently  surnamed  the  Great. 
In  the  so-called  Northern  war  (1700-1721),  he  wrested  the  provinces  of 
Ingria,  Esthnia,  and  Livonia  from  Sweden,  and  in  the  wars  with  the  Turks 
he  extended  the  Russian  boundaries  to  the  Sea  of  Azof.  In  1722  he  assumed 
the  title  of  Emperor  of  all  the  Russias.  He  died  in  1725,  and  was  succeeded 
first  by  his  consort,  the  empress  Katharine  L,  then  by  his  grandson,  Peter 
IL,  with  whom  the  male  line  of  the  house  of  Romanow  became  extinc£,  in 
1730.  Yet  Peter  L  had  left  behind  two  daughters,  Ann  (married  to  the 
duke  Charles  Frederic  of  Holstein-Gottorp),  and  Elizabeth ;  and  his  brother 
Ivan  (4-  in  1696)  had  likewise  left  behind  two  daughters,  Katharine  (duchess 
of  Mecklenburg),  and  Ann  (duchess  of  Kurland).  The  latter  ascended  first 
the  throne  as  reigning  empress,  and  was  in  1740  succeeded  by  her  niece 
(daughter  of  her  sister  Katharine),  who,  however,  was  removed  in  1741, 
and  succeeded  by  the  reigning  empress  Elizabeth  (daughter  of  Peter  I.),  who 
died  in  1762,  and  was  succeeded  by  her  nephew,  Peter  III.  (son  of  her  sister 
Ann,  duchess  of  Holstein-Gottorp;  see  History  of  Holstein),  whose  reign, 
however,  did  not  last  longer  than  six  months,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
consort,  the  empress  Katharine  II.  (1762-1796).  The  latter  was  succeeded 
by  her  son,  Paul  I.  (1796-1801),  who  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Alexander  I. 
The  present  reigning  emperor,  since  1825,  is  Alexander's  brother,  Nicholas 
Z,  born  on  the  7th  July,  1796 

The  Russian  empire  is  divided  into  about  60  counties,  styled 
governments,  which  are  subdivided  into   districts,  styled  circles. 


590  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Russia  in  Europe.— Geographical  Description  of  Great  Russia. 


Into  50  of  these  governments  is  European  Russia  divided  ;  but 
as  it  embraces,  beside  Russia  proper,  various  constituent  parts, 
whose  names  continually  occur  in  history  and  other  reading,  and 
which  therefore  require  to  be  described  separately,  we  shall 
give  the  topographical  description  of  European  Russia  in  the  fol- 
lowing order  of  succession  :  I.  Great  Russia ;  II.  Little  Russia ; 
III.  The  Baltic  Provinces ;  IV.  The  Grand-duchy  of  Finland ; 
V.  West  or  Polish  Russia  ;  VI.  The  Kingdom  of  Poland ;  VII. 
The  Kingdom  of  Kasan ;  VIII.  The  Kingdom  of  Astrachaii, 
and  IX.  South  Russia. — The  governmental  capitals  will  be  found 
denoted  thus,  +. 


L— GREAT  RUSSIA. 

Area  :  852,000  square  miles. 
Population  :  24,000,000  inhabitants. 

It  comprises  the  centre  of  European  Russia,  extending  north- 
ward to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  has  from  old  retained  the  above-stated 
name,  and  contains : 

-f-Moscow,  the  old  capital,  by  eminence,  of  the  Russian  empire,  and  until 
1720  the  imperial  residence  (the  emperors  are,  for  the  rest,  yet  crowned 
here),  in  a  beautiful  and  fertile  plain,  on  the  Moskwa  (a  branch  of  the  Oka, 
which  is  a  tributary  of  the  Volga),  south-eastward  and  500  miles  distant  from 
St.  Petersburg,  and  about  1,000  miles  east-north-east  of  Berlin ;  had,  in  1840, 
15,275  dwelling-houses,  and  in  1843  a  population  of  375,200  inhabitants.  In 
the  great  conflagration  in  1812,  which  lasted  from  the  14th  to  the  21st  Sep- 
tember, 6,500  buildings  were  destroyed.  The  long  since  rebuilt  city  contains 
a  vast  number  of  highly  remarkable,  and  partly  very  magnificent  public  and 


RUSSIA   IN   EUROPE.  591 

Geographical  Description  of  Great  Russia. 

private  edifices  and  palaces ;  for  it  is  in  the  winter  season  the  chief  residence 
of  the  Russian  nobles.  Among  the  public  edifices  ranks  first  the  Kremlin,  a 
very  extensive  castle,  being  5  or  7  miles  in  circuit,  and  surrounded  by  a  wall 
60  feet  in  height,  and  with  numerous  Gothic  towers.  The  Kremlin  comprises, 
beside  the  Gothic  ancient  palace  of  the  Russian  Czars,  several  convents,  and 
not  less  than  32  churches,  among  which  are  to  be  noticed  St.  Mary's  Ascen- 
sion's church  (where  the  emperors  are  crowned),  St  Michael's  cathedral,  with 
the  sepulchres  of  Ivan  the  Great,  and  the  church  steeple,  named  Ivan  Veliki, 
containing  22  bells,  the  largest  of  which  weighs  1,400  quintals  (not  to  be  con- 
founded with  another  bell,  founded  in  1734,  which  is  67  feet  round,  19  feet 
high,  weighs  2,250  quintals,  and  is  to  be  considered  as  the  largest  bell  in 
the  world).  The  aggregate  number  of  churches  in  Moscow  is  400,  beside 
637  chapels.  The  church  of  St.  Basil  is  remarkable  for  the  peculiar  style  of 
its  architecture.  Moscow  is  not  only  the  centre  of  the  inland  trade  of  Rus- 
sia, but  at  the  same  time  noted  for  its  exceedingly  great  wealth.  Its  mer- 
chants and  tradesmen  display  much  luxury,  and  rival,  in  this  point,  the  rich 
nobles ;  except  they  are  on  business  tours,  they  are  seldom  seen  in  the  streets 
but  in  coach-and-four  or  six  horses.  About  the  important  manufactures  of 
Moscow  see  above,  and  about  its  history,  see  page  38.  Troizkoi  Sergiev,  a 
market-town  noted  for  its  wealthy  convent  and  remarkable  cathedral,  is  situ- 
ated south-eastward  and  44  miles  distant  from  Moscow.  Mosaisk,  a  town 
on  the  Moskwa,  westward  and  60  miles  distant  from  Moscow,  has  4,500  in- 
habitants, and  is  remarkable  for  the  battle  on  the  7th  September,  1812. 
-{-Smolensk,  a  city  on  the  Dnieper,  240  miles  west-south-west  of  Moscow, 
with  silk,  linen,  and  leather  manufactures,  noted  horse-marts,  considerable 
trade,  and  14,700  inhabitants.  -{-Kaluga,  a  city  on  the  Oka,  south-westward 
and  106  miles  distant  from  Moscow,  with  numerous  and  important  manufac- 
tures, considerable  trade,  and  35,500  inhabitants.  Borowsk,  a  town  on  the 
Protwa,  is  noted  for  its  greens,  and  has  8,200  inhabitants.  -{-Tula,  an  impor- 
tant manufacturing  city,  on  the  Upa  (a  branch  of  the  Volga),  southward  and 
120  miles  distant  from  Moscow,  has  52,400  inhabitants,  and  is  especially  noted 
for  its  great  manufactory  of  fire-arms  and  hardware,  its  numerous  cloth  and 
other  manufactures,  and  its  extensive  trade.  Bjelew,  a  town  on  the  Oka,  is 
likewise  noted  for  hardware,  etc.,  manufactures,  and  has  8,900  inhabitants. 
-{-Orel,  a  city  on  the  Oka,  220  miles  south-south-west  of  Moscow,  has  32,800 
inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  hemp,  considerable  trade  and  manufactures 
of  silk,  linens,  and  leather.    Brjansk,  a  town  on  the  Desna,  with  a  great  can- 


592  EUROPE,   PAST   AND  PRESENT. 


Russia  in  Europe.— Geographical  Description  of  Great  Russia. 

non-foundry,  extensive  trade  in  timber,  and  8,550  inhabitants.  -{-Kursk,  a  city 
on  the  Kura  and  Tuskara,  southward  and  300  miles  distant  from  Moscow, 
has  24,300  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  distinguished  theological  seminary, 
its  leather  manufactures,  and  annual  fairs  in  its  immediate  neighborhood. 
Belgorod  and  Michaelovka,  towns  with  respectively  11,100  and  6,000  inhabi- 
tants. -{-Woronesh,  a  city  near  the  Don,  312  miles  south-south-east  of  Mos- 
cow, with  considerable  cloth  manufactures,  extensive  trade  and  commerce, 
and  45,000  inhabitants.  Pawlovsk,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Don,  is  noted  for 
its  garden  fruits,  and  has  3,500  inhabitants.  -|-Tambow,  a  city  near  the  Oka, 
south-eastward  and  300  miles  distant  from  Moscow,  is  noted  for  its  cloth  and 
canvass  manufactures,  and  has  21,000  inhabitants.  Jelatma,  a  town  on  the 
Oka,  with  trade  in  corn  and  hemp,  and  6,500  inhabitants.  In  its  neighbor- 
hood are  considerable  iron-works,  especially  at  Ujensk.  -j-Rjaesan,  a  city 
on  the  Trubesh,  south-eastward  and  113  miles  distant  from  Moscow,  with 
cloth,  canvass,  linen,  and  other  manufactures,  and  20,000  inhabitants.  Kasi- 
mov,  a  city  on  the  Oka,  is  noted  for  its  considerable  fur  trade,  and  has  10,000 
inhabitants,  among  whom  are  many  Mohammedan  Tartars.  -|-Nishnei-Nov- 
gorod,  a  city  on  the  Volga,  at  its  junction  with  the  Oka,  and  at  the  high- 
road between  Moscow  and  Siberia,  is  highly  famed  for  its  annual  fair  (at  all 
events,  the  most  important  throughout  Europe),  and  has  28,000  inhabitants. 
It  lies  580  miles  east-south-east  of  Novgorod,  noticed  above  in  History,  with 
which  it  is  not  to  be  confounded.  Liscowo,  a  market- town  on  the  Volga,  is 
famed  for  its  linens  and  horse-marts,  and  has  4,000  inhabitants.  -{-"Wladimir, 
a  city  on  the  Kljasma,  eastward  and  116  miles  distant  from  Moscow,  with 
a  noted  theological  seminary  and  gymnasium,  considerable  culture  of  garden 
and  other  fruits,  with  silk  manufactures,  and  12,000  inhabitants.  Wladimir 
was,  in  the  period  from  1157  to  1328,  the  capital  of  a  Russian  grand-duchy 
(see  above,  in  History).  Ivanovo,  an  extensive  village,  noted  for  its  consider- 
able manufactures,  especially  of  cotton  goods,  with  6,000  inhabitants.  -{-Kos- 
troma, a  city  on  the  Volga,  north-eastward  and  180  miles  distant  from 
Moscow,  with  considerable  leather  and  other  manufactures,  and  14,000  inhabi- 
tants. -4-Jaroslav,  a  city  on  tHe  Volga,  170  miles  north-north-east  of  Moscow, 
is  noted  for  its  academy,  and  considerable  manufactures,  and  has  33,200  in- 
habitants. Rostow,  a  very  ancient  city,  on  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  with  a 
remarkable  ancient  cathedral,  considerable  inland  trade,  noted  fairs,  and 
7,800  inhabitants.  Rybinsk,  a  town  on  the  Volga,  46  miles  above  Jaroslav, 
is  an  emporium  of  the  Russian  bland  trade,  and  the  centre  for  the  inland 


RUSSIA   IN  EUROPE.  693 


Geographical  Description  of  Great  Russia. 


navigation,  is  moreover  noted  for  its  linen  manufactures,  and  has  7,500  in- 
habitants. -j-Twer,  a  city  on  the  Volga,  north-westward  and  94  miles  dis- 
tant from  Moscow,  with  considerable  trade,  and  24,000  inhabitants.  -j-Ples- 
kow,  or  Pskow,  a  city  near  the  Peipus  lake,  south-westward  and  156  miles 
distant  from  St  Petersburg,  was,  in  the  middle  ages, 'an  emporium  (see  page 
50),  is  at  present  noted  for  its  Russian  leather  manufactures  and  annual  fair, 
and  has  1 2,000  inhabitants.  -{-Novgorod,  a  city  on  the  Hmen  lake,  south- 
ward and  about  100  miles  distant  from  St.  Petersburg,  has  at  present  only 
15,000  inhabitants,  but  was,  in  the  middle  ages,  a  renowned  commercial  city 
and  republic  (see  above,  in  History,  and  page  50).  -j-Petrosawodsk,  a  city 
on  the  lake  Onega,  north-eastward  and  190  miles  distant  from  St.  Peters- 
burg, is  noted  for  its  cannon-foundry,  copper  and  iron- works,  and  has  7,000 
inhabitants.  Olonetz,  a  town  on  the  Ladoga  lake,  with  iron  and  copper 
mines,  and  3,000  inhabitants.  -f-WoLOGDA,  a  city  on  a  river  of  the  same 
name,  eastward  and  360  miles  distant  from  St.  Petersburg,  with  numerous 
manufactures,  extensive  inland  trade,  and  16,400  inhabitants.  Ustjug-  Weliki, 
a  city  at  the  high-road  between  Archangel  and  Siberia,  with  numerous  and 
noted  manufactures,  extensive  inland  trade,  and  14,000  inhabitants.  +  Arch- 
angel, an  important  commercial  city,  on  the  Dwina,  38  miles  from  the  White 
Sea,  north-eastward  and  nearly  300  miles  distant  from  St.  Petersburg,  with 
numerous  manufactures,  docks,  etc.,  and  22,000  inhabitants.  Archangel  was 
founded  in  1584.  Kola,  the  most  northern  town  in  European  Russia,  near 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  380  miles  north-north-west  of  Archangel,  with  considerable 
fisheries,  and  1,500  inhabitants.  The  island  of  Nova  Zembla,  the  largest  in 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  having  nearly  95,000  square  miles  in  extent,  is  situated 
near  the  northern  extremity  of  European  Russia,  yet  northward  of  the  Arctic 
circle,  in  about  72°  north  latitude.  Being  dreary  and  mostly  covered  with 
masses  of  snow  and  ice,  it  has  no  permanent  inhabitants,  yet  is  in  the  sum- 
mer season  resorted  to  by  a  great  many  Russian  hunters  and  fishermen,  for 
the  island  abounds  with  white  bears,  white  foxes,  reindeer,  seals,  etc.  The 
group  of  the  Spitzbergen  islands  belongs  likewise  to  Russia,  lies  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  between  76°  80'  and  80°  40'  north  latitude,  and  between  70° 
and  24°  longitude  east  from  Greenwich,  is  resorted  to  by  whalers  and  Rus- 
sian hunters,  and  has  in  recent  times  become  the  seat  of  a  hunting  and  fish- 
ing settlement^  consisting  of  about  25  Norwegians  and  Laplanders. 


594  EUROPE,  PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

Russia  in  Europe. — Geographical  Description  of  Little  Russia. 


IL— LITTLE  RUSSIA. 

Area  :  76,680  square  miles. 

Population  :  6,500,000  inhabitants. 

t 
It  is  situated  on  the  south-west  side  of  Great  Russia,  and  both 
in  history  and  common  life  usually  named  Ukraine ;  is,  in  some 
respect,  to  be  considered  as  the  basis  of  the  Russian  empire  (as 
may  be  derived  from  the  History  above),  and  was  until  1674  the 
chief  seat  of  those  warlike  Russians,  who  since  have,  by  way  of 
eminence,  been  called  Cossacks  (see  the  note  back).  It  con- 
tains : 

-4-Kiew,  or  Kiev,  its  former  capital,  and  in  the  period  of  SSO-llSY  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Russian  grand  dukes  (see  History,  above),  on  the  Dnieper,  south- 
ward and  336  miles  distant  from  Smolensk,  and  south-eastward  and  450  miles 
distant  from  Warsaw,  with  1  Roman  Catholic,  1  Lutheran,  and  25  Greek 
churches  (among  the  latter  are  the  cathedral  and  St.  Andrew's  church  highly 
remarkable),  9  convents  (among  which  that  of  Petscheri  is  noted  for  its  ex- 
tensive vaults  and  sepulchres),  a  university  (see  above),  important  annual 
fairs,  and  48,000  inhabitants.  Uman,  a  city  on  the  Umanka,  with  consider- 
able trade  in  cattle,  and  10,000  inhabitants.  The  neighboring  estate  of  Sofi- 
ovka  is  famed  for  its  extensive  and  handsome  gardens  and  park  Lisianka, 
a  town  noted  as  a  watering-place,  has  3,000  inhabitants.  -{-Czernigow,  a  city 
on  the  Desna,  with  various  branches  of  industry,  and  11,100  inhabitants. 
Krolewetz,  a  town  noted  for  its  important  annual  fairs,  has  6,200  inhabitants. 
4-Pultawa,  or  Poltawa,  a  city  on  the  Pultawka,  south-eastward  and  200 
miles  distant  from  Kiew,  has  15,600  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  extensive  in- 
land trade,  and  remarkable  in  history  for  the  battle  in  1709,  in  which 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  was  defeated  by  the  Russians.  The  neighboring 
former  village  of  Retshitilova  is  at  present  a  city,  with  11,000  inhabitants. 
-|-Charkow,  a  city  on  the  Donetz,  86  miles  east-north-east  of  Pultawa,  is 
noted  for  its  university  (see  back),  its  important  annual  fairs,  and  consider- 
able inland  trade,  and  has  34,000  inhabitants.  Achtyrka,  a  city  on  a  river 
of  the  same  name,  is  noted  for  its  fruits,  and  has  1 6,000  inhabitants. 


RUSSIA   IN  EUROPE.  695 


Geographical  Description  of  the  Baltic  Provinces. 


III.— THE  BALTIC  PROVINCES. 

Abba  :  55,380  square  miles. 
Population  :  3,000,000  inhabitants. 

They  comprise  the  four  provinces  of  Ingria,  Esthnia,  Livonia, 
and  Curlandj  the  three  first-named  of  which  were  conquered  and 
wrested  from  Sweden  in  the  so-called  Northern  war  (1700-1721), 
while  Curland  was  not  before  the  year  1795  annexed  to  the  Rus- 
sian empire.  The  majority  of  the  population  are  Germans,  or  of 
German  origin,  beside  aboriginal  tribes,  while  but  rather  few 
Russians  proper  are  to  be  met  with  here. 

1.  Ingria  (18,531  square  miles,  and  1,350,000  inhabitants),  situated  at  the 
head  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  on  the  Ladoga  lake,  already  in  the  13th 
century  belonged  to  Russia,  but  was  in  1617  ceded  to  Sweden,  and  occupied 
again  in  1703,  contains:  +St.  Petersburg,  imperial  residence,  and  officially 
second  capital  of  the  Russian  empire,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Newa  (which  river 
is  1.200  feet  wide  here),  north-westward  and  500  miles  distant  from  Moscow, 
with  (in  1843)  8,956,  and  (in  1846)  473,000  inhabitants.  St.  Petersburg  is 
the  most  regularly-built  and  splendid  city  in  the  world,  and  is  highly  famed 
for  its  vast  number  of  magnificent  palaces  and  public  edifices.  It  is  at  the 
same  time  the  principal  place  of  commerce  for  the  empire,  and  the  seat  of 
its  learning  and  science.  (Concerning  its  university,  see  back.)  The  imperial 
public  library  contains  450,000,  and  that  of  the  university  100,000  volumes. 
The  imperial  winter  palace  has  721  feet  in  front,  and  contains  in  its  first  floor 
alone  about  1 00  saloons  and  apartments.  St.  Isaac's  cathedral  is  one  of  the 
finest  churches  in  the  world,  and  with  its  handsome  cupola,  317  feet  in  height. 
The  annual  traffic  of  the  principal  mercantile  houses  of  St.  Petersburg  (Stieg- 
litz  &  Co.,  I.  Thomas  &  Co.,  G.  Loder  <fe  Co.,  etc.),  may  be  estimated  at  30, 
25,  and  20  millions  rubles.  Zarskqje-Selo,  a  city  connected  by  a  railroad  with 
St.  Petersburg,  has  10,400  inhabitants,  and  is  famed  for  its  magnificent  impe- 
rial palace  (1,200  feet  in  front)  and  very  extensive  and  remarkable  park. 


596  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Russia  in  Europe. — Geographical  Description  of  the  Baltic  Provinces. 

Gatachina,  a  town  southward  and  28  miles  distant  from  St.  Petersburg,  has 
5,600  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  handsome  imperial  palace,  where  Em- 
peror Paul  resided  before  his  accession  to  the  throne.  Kronstadt,  a  strongly 
fortified  city  on  an  island  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  westward  and  28  miles  dis- 
tant from  St.  Petersburg,  is  the  chief  station  of  the  Russian  navy  in  the  Bal- 
tic, and  has  three  distinct  harbors,  vast  docks,  considerable  naval  depots, 
arsenal,  etc.,  and  55,000  inhabitants.  Narva,  the  ancient  capital  of  Ingria, 
near  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  has  5,000  inhabitants,  is  fortified,  and  noted  in  his- 
tory for  the  victory  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  obtained  here  over  the  Russians 
on  the  30th  November,  1700. 

2.  Esthnia,  (7,242  square  miles,  and  350,000  inhabitants),  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  on  the  west  bounded  by  the  Baltic  Sea,  was  in 
1217  conquered  by  the  Knights  of  the  order  of  the  Sword  (instituted  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  12th  century,  having  the  same  aim  in  view  as  the  Teutonic 
order,  and  joining  the  latter  in  1237),  in  the  16th  century  annexed  to  the 
kingdom  of  Sweden,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  conquered  by 
the  Russians.  It  contains  :  -}-Reval,  its  ancient  capital,  on  a  bay  of  the  Gulf 
of  Finland,  westward  and  220  miles  distant  from  St.  Petersburg,  has  30,000 
inhabitants  (for  the  most  part  Germans),  a  spacious  and  commodious  harbor, 
where  part  of  the  Russian  navy  is  stationed,  21  churches  of  several  denomi- 
nations, a  noted  gymnasium,  and  other  higher  schools  and  literary  institu- 
tions, and  considerable  commerce.  Reval,  founded  in  the  13th  century,  was 
subsequently  a  very  active  member  of  the  Hanseatic  League.  Habsal,  Weis- 
senstein,  and  Wesenberg,  towns  with  respectively  1,600,  3,100,  and  1,300 
inhabitants.  Near  the  coast  of  Esthnia  is  situated  the  island  of  Dago  (309 
square  miles,  and  10,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  sheep  of  improved  breed, 
and  for  cloth  manufactures),  and  the  isles  of  Worms  and  JV^ucko. 

3.  Livonia  (18,744  square  miles,  and  800,000  inhabitants),  between  Esthnia 
and  Curland,  on  the  Gulf  of  Riga  (see  page  9).  It  was  conquered  about  the  close 
of  the  12th  century  by  the  above-mentioned  knights  of  the  order  of  the  Sword, 
who  since  retained  it,  until  in  the  16th  century  their  grand-master,  Gotthard 
Kettler,  ceded  it  to  the  king  of  Poland,  who,  in  compensation  for  it,  invested 
him  with  Curland  as  a  duchy.  In  1660  Poland  was  compelled  by  the  Swedes, 
to  cede  Livonia  to  them,  which  in  the  Northern  war  (1700-21)  was  con- 
quered by  Russia  and  annexed  to  it.  It  contains :  -|-Riga,  its  ancient  capi- 
tal, on  the  Duna,  7  miles  from  the  sea,  south-west  and  340  miles  distant  from 
St.  Petersburg,  is  next  to  this  latter  city  the  most  important  commercial 


RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  697 

Geographical  Description  of  the  Baltic  Provinces. 

place  and  seaport  of  the  Russian  empire  (in  1843  its  exports  were  16,178,633 
silver  rubles  in  value) ;  has  72,000  inhabitants,  is  strongly  fortified,  bears  in 
the  architectural  style  of  its  buildings,  and  in  the  customs  and  manners  of  its 
inhabitants,  the  stamp  of  a  German  city,  and  is  noted  not  only  for  its  exten- 
sive commerce,  but  also  for  its  important  manufactures,  literary  institutions, 
its  magnificent  city -hall,  churches  (the  steeple  of  St.  Peter's  is  440  feet  in 
height),  etc  Riga  was  founded  in  the  year  1200,  chiefly  by  merchants  from 
Bremen,  who  already  in  1186  had  established  a  trading  settlement  in  the 
neighboring  village  of  Uexkull.  Dorp  at,  a  city  on  the  Embach,  north-east- 
ward and  145  miles  distant  from  Riga,  is  noted  for  its  university  (see  above) 
and  its  considerable  inland  trade,  and  has  14,000  inhabitants,  who  for  the 
most  part  consist  of  Germans.  Wenden  (with  2,700  inhabitants),  Wolmar 
(with  1,800  inhabitants),  Lemsal  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  and  Fellin  (with 
1,800  inhabitants),  more  or  less  remarkable  towns.  Pernau,  a  commercial  and 
maritime  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Riga,  with  extensive  commerce,  and  6,000  in- 
habitants. Near  the  coast  of  Livonia  is  situated  the  highly  fertile  island  of 
Oesel  (1,917  square  miles,  and  35,000  inhabitants),  containing,  among  other 
places,  the  town  of  Arensburg,  with  1,600  inhabitants. 

4.  Curland  (10,863  square  miles,  and  500,000  inhabitants),  on  the  south 
side  of  Livonia,  and  on  the  west  bounded  by  the  Baltic  Ocean.  It  was  a 
constituent  part  of  Poland  until  in  1561  the  former  grand-master  of  the 
knights  of  the  order  of  the  Sword,  Gotthard  Kettler,  was  invested  with  it  as 
a  hereditary  duchy  (see  above).  One  of  his  descendants  and  successors  was 
in  1710  married  with  the  Russian  grand  duchess  Ann  (see  History  of  Rus- 
sia), but  died  childless  in  the  following  year.  His  widow  having  mounted 
the  Russian  throne  in  1730,  caused  the  state  of  Curland  to  elect  her  lord 
high  chamberlain,  Count  Ernest  John  of  Biron,  their  duke,  with  which  they 
complied.  Thus  he  became  duke  of  Curland,  and  was  in  1770,  when  he 
died,  succeeded  by  his  son  Peter,  who  reigned  until  1795,  when  the  Russian 
empress,  Katharine  II.,  caused  the  states  of  Curland  to  subject  the  duchy  to 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Russian  empire.  Since  that  period  it  has  formed  a 
constituent  part  of  the  latter.  It  contains :  -j-Mietau,  its  ancient  capital,  on 
the  river  Aa,  28  miles  south-south  west  of  Riga,  and  190  miles  north-north- 
east of  Konigsberg  (in  Prussia),  with  a  former  ducal  palace,  10  churches  for 
several  denominations,  a  noted  gymnasium,  important  annual  fairs,  and  29,000 
inhabitants,  a  great  part  of  whom  being  Germans.  Bauske  (with  2,300  in- 
habitants), Seelburg  (with  900  inhabitants),  Friedricltstadt  (with  2,500  inhabi- 


698  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


Russia  in  Europe.— Geographical  Description  of  Curland  and  Finland. 


tants),  Jakobstadt  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Goldingen  (with  5,000  inhabitants), 
Grubin  (with  900  inhabitants),  and  Tukum  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  more  or 
less  remarkable  towns.  Libau,  a  very  important  commercial  city  on  the 
Baltic  Sea,  with  12,000  inhabitants.  Windau,  a  maritime  town  on  the  Bal- 
tic, with  rather  considerable  commerce,  and  2,000  inhabitants. 


IV.— THE  GRAND-DUCHY  OF  FINLAND. 

Area:  136,320  square  miles. 
Population  :  1,500,000  inhabitants. 

It  extends  from  the  neighborhood  of  St.  Petersburg  north- 
ward to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  is  on  the  west  bounded  by  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Gulf 
of  Finland.  In  the  period  from  1157  to  1293  Finland  was  con- 
quered by  the  Swedes,  who  in  1339  ceded  the  first  part,  in  1722 
a  second,  in  1743  a  third  part,  and  in  1809  (by  the  treaty  of  peace 
concluded  at  Frederikshamn  on  the  17th  September  of  that  year) 
the  whole  remainder  of  Finland  to  Russia.     It  contains 

-{-Abo,  its  ancient  capital,  at  the  entrance  into  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  with 
some  literary  institutions,  noted  manufactures,  docks,  commerce,  and  15,000 
inhabitants.  Nystad,  a  commercial  and  maritime  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Both- 
nia, with  various  branches  of  industry,  and  2,500  inhabitants.  Bjorneborg,  a 
maritime  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  with  noted  docks,  rather  considerable 
trade  and  commerce,  and  5,000  inhabitants.  Ramea,  a  very  ancient  mari- 
time town  on  the  named  gulf,  with  2,000  inhabitants.  Near  Abo  is  situated, 
in  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  the  group  of  the  Aland  Isles,  80  of  which  are  inhab 
ited,  having  an  aggregate  population  of  15,000  inhabitants,  who  subsist  on  hus- 
bandry, fishing,  fowling,  hunting  (several  of  the  islands  are  covered  with  for- 
ests  abounding  with  wild   animals),  etc.     The   principal  island  is   named 


RUSSIA   IN  EUROPE.  699 

Geographical  Description  of  Finland. 

Aland.  -{-Helsingfors,  a  maritime  commercial  city  on  the  Gulf  of  Finland, 
with  a  university  (see  above),  a  strongly  fortified  and  commodious  harbor, 
docks,  linen  and  canvass  manufactures,  considerable  commerce,  and  16,000 
inhabitants.  In  its  neighborhood  is  situated,  on  seven  islands,  the  fortress  of 
Sveaborg,  frequently  called  the  "  Northern  Gibraltar,"  on  account  of  its  ex- 
traordinary strength,  with  vast  docks,  and  3,500  inhabitants.  Ekenas,  a 
maritime  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  with  1,600  inhabitants.  -(-Tavaste- 
hus,  a  town  on  a  lake,  northward  and  56  miles  distant  from  Helsingfors, 
with  noted  fairs,  and  2,000  inhabitants.  -{-Wiborg,  a  fortified  town  at  the 
north-eastern  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  north-westward  and  84  miles  dis- 
tant from  St.  Petersburg,  with  rather  considerable  commerce,  and  7,000  in- 
habitants. It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  Carelia,  as  the  eastern  section 
of  Finland  was  named.  -\-Lovisa  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Frederikshamn 
(with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  Borgo  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  more  or  less 
important  commercial  towns  on  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  -\-Kuopio,  a  town  on 
a  lake  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  with  800  inhabitants.  -{-Wasa,  a 
commercial  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  northward  and  190  miles  distant 
from  Abo,  with  harbors,  docks,  and  4,000  inhabitants.  Other  more  or  less 
important  commercial  towns  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  are  :  Christinestad 
(with  1,800  inhabitants),  Ny  and  Omnia  Carleby  (New  and  Old  Carleby ; 
with  respectively  900  and  2,500  inhabitants),  Jacobstad  (i.  e.  Jamestown ;  has 
1,500  inhabitants),  and  Brahestad  (with  1,500  inhabitants).  -j-Uleabokg,  a 
commercial  city  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  350  miles  north-north-east  of  Abo, 
is  regularly  laid  out,  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  tar,  pitch,  timber,  but- 
ter, etc.,  and  has  5,000  inhabitants.  Tornea,  a  town  on  a  river  of  the  same 
name  (see  page  13),  and  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  with  2  churches, 
a  harbor,  and  750  inhabitants. — The  most  remarkable  villages,  or  rather 
parishes,  in  Russian  Lapland  (see  Lapland,  under  the  head  of  Sweden)  are 
Kusamo  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Kemitrask  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  and 
Enontekis  (with  600  inhabitants,  who  are  trading  especially  to  Tornea). 


600  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Russia  in  Europe.— Geographical  Description  of  West  Russia. 


V.— WEST,  OR  POLISH  RU' 

Area:  159,750  square  miles. 
Population  :  8,500,000  inhabitant 

Lying  between  Great  Russia  and  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  it 
comprises  former  Polish  provinces  acquired  and  annexed  to  Rus- 
sia in  the  period  from  1772  to  1809.  Thus,  the  inhabitants  are 
for  the  most  part  Poles,  beside  numerous  Jews.  The  soil  is  very 
fertile  in  corn  and  grazing.  The  principal  section  of  Polish  Rus- 
sia consists  of  Lithuania,  and  three  other  sections  are  generally 
known  by  the  names  of  Podlachia,  Volhynia,  and  Podolia,  though 
they  officially  are  styled  governments,  and  bear  the  names  of  their 
respective  chief  towns,  or  capitals.  % 

Lithuania  (112,890  square  miles,  and  5,000,000  inhabitants),  once  a  power- 
ful grand-duchy,  taking  existence  in  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century,  and 
being  united  with  the  kingdom  of  Poland  in  1386,  in  this  way  that  Grand- 
duke  Jagello  of  Lithuania  married  Queen  Hedwig  of  Poland,  contains: 
-f- Wilna,  the  ancient  capital  of  Lithuania,  on  the  Wilia,  at  its  junction  with 
the  Wilenka,  north-eastward  and  250  miles  distant  from  Warsaw,  has  54,000 
inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  several  highly  remarkable  churches,  for  its  lite- 
rary institutions,  its  medical  academy  (the  university  founded  here  in  1570, 
was  in  1832  abolished),  and  its  considerable  trade.  Braslaw  (with  2,000  in- 
habitants), Smorgoni  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  Troki  (with  4,000  inhabi- 
tants), more  or  less  remarkable  towns.  -)-Kowno,  a  city  on  the  Wilia,  60 
miles  west-north-west  of  Wilna,  is  noted  for  its  mead,  carries  on  a  consider- 
able trade,  and  has  9,000  inhabitants.  -|-Grodno,  a  city  on  the  Niemen, 
south-westward  and  86  miles  distant  from  Wilna,  has  15,600  inhabitants 
(three  fourths  of  them  are  Jews),  carries  on  a  considerable  trade,  and  is  noted 
for  its  annual  fairs.  Formerly  every  third  Polish  Diet  was  held  here.  The 
little  town  of  Mereczowszczisa  is  remarkable  as  the  birth-place  of  Kosciuszko 


RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  601 


Geographical  Description  of  West  Russia. 


(born  on  the  12th  February,  1746). — Within  the  limits  of  the  former  princi 
pality  of  Samogitia,  wrested  from  the  Teutonic  Order  in  1408,  and  then  an 
nexed  to  Lithuania,  are  situated  the  towns  of  Rosienie  (once  its  capital,  ha 
6,300  inhabitants),  Afiedniki  (with  1,800  inhabitants)  Jurburg  (with  4,00 
inhabitants),  Polangen  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  Tauroggen  (with  2,000  inhabi 
tant),  and  Kieydani  (with  5,000  inhabitants). — The  following  cities  and  town? 
until  the  next  dash,  are  situated  within  the  limits  of  a  Lithuanian  section 
which,  both  in  history  and  other  writing,  frequently  occurs  by  the  name  ot 
White  Russia,  viz.,  -f-MomxEW,  a  city  on  the  Dnieper,  with  noted  leathei 
manufactures,  considerable  culture  of  fruits  and  greens,  a  very  extensive  trade 
and  commerce,  and  23,200  inhabitants.  Homel,  a  town  on  the  Sosha,  wit] 
noted  horse-marts,  considerable  trade,  and  6,000  inhabitants,  -j- Witebsk,  : 
city  on  the  Duna,  eastward  and  200  miles  distant  from  Wilna,  and  90  mile 
west-north-west  of  Smolensk,  carries  on  a  considerable  trade,  is  noted  for  it 
mead,  and  has  18,000  inhabitants.  Polozk,  a  town  on  the  Duna,  north-west 
ward  and  60  miles  distant  from  Witebsk,  with  considerable  trade  in  grai; 
and  other  natural  products,  and  10,300  inhabitants.  Dunaburg,  a  strongh 
fortified  town  on  the  Duna,  with  7,200  inhabitants.  -(-Minsk,  a  city  on  the 
Swislocz,  south-eastward  and  110  miles  distant  from  Wilna,  with  ahandsomt 
Catholic  cathedral,  renowned  annual  fairs,  styled  contracts,  and  22,500  inhabi 
tants.  Bobruisk,  a  city  on  the  Beresina,  has  21,000  inhabitants,  and  is  note 
for  its  remarkably  strong  fortress. — Nowogeodek,  a  town  72  miles  west 
south-west  of  Minsk,  with  3,800  inhabitants,  was  formerly  the  capital  of  tha 
section  of  Lithuania,  known  by  the  name  of  Black  Russia.  The  village  of 
Bialowieza  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  forest  of  the  same  name  that  i 
115  miles  in  circuit,  and  harbors  not  only  the  elk,  bear,  wolf,  lynx,  etc.,  bu 
also  about  900  or  1,000  heads  of  wild  oxen  (anciently  to  be  found  in  vas'. 
numbers  throughout  Central  Europe,  and  known  there  by  the  name  of  owres 
or  ure  oxen).  Slonim  and  Sfuzk,  towns  with  respectively  7,600  and  8,40( 
inhabitants. — Brzesc,  surnamed  Litewski,  a  strongly  fortified  city  on  the  Bug- 
and  at  the  "frontier  of  Poland,  eastward  and  120  miles  distant  from  Warsaw 
has  11,400  inhabitants,  carries  on  a  considerable  trade,  is  noted  for  a  military 
school  and  a  Jewish  academy,  and  was  formerly  the  capital  of  that  sectio; 
of  Lithuania,  known  by  the  name  of  Polesia,  and  to  which  did  belong,  more 
over,  the  towns  of  Pruschani  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Kobryn  (with  5,80*: 
inhabitants),  Davidow  (with  3,500  inhabitants),  and  Pinsk  (with  noted  man- 
ufactures of  Russian  leather,  and  7,400  inhabitants). 


602  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Russia  in  Europe.— Geographical  Description  of  West  Russia. 

The  sections  of  Podlachia,  Volhynia,  and  Podolia  were  formerly  constitu- 
ent parts  of  what  was  styled  Little  Poland  (which,  together  with  Great 
Poland  and  Lithuania,  constituted  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Poland),  a.  In 
Podlachia  are  to  be  noticed :  Drohyczyn,  its  former  capital,  on  the  Bug, 
and  within  the  limits  of  the  present  government  of  Grodno,  eastward  and 
76  miles  distant  from  Warsaw,  with  2,000  inhabitants  Bjalystock,  a  city 
on  the  Biala,  north-eastward  and  120  miles  distant  from  Warsaw,  is 
handsomely  and  partly  magnificently  built,  so  that  it  has  been  styled  "  Pod- 
lachian  Versailles,"  carries  on  an  important  trade,  and  has  10,700  inhabitants. 
Bielsk,  a  town  on  the  Biala,  100  miles  east-north-east  of  Warsaw,  with  2,500 
inhabitants.  Knyszyn  and  Siemiatyce,  towns  with  respectively  1,600  and 
4,000  inhabitants,  b.  In  Volhynia  are  to  be  noticed :  Luzk,  its  former  cap- 
ital, on  the  Styr,  75  miles  north-north-east  of  Lemberg  (in  Galicia),  with 
7,000  inhabitants.  -{-Schitomir,  or  Zytomierz,  a  city  on  the  Teterow,  with 
leather  and  other  manufactures,  extensive  trade  in  corn,  wine,  etc.,  and  27,000 
inhabitants.  Krzemieniec,  a  city  on  the  Ikva,  with  a  noted  gymnasium,  and 
10,300  inhabitants.  Ostrog,  a  city  on  the  Wilia,  with  an  extensive  Greek 
monastery,  important  trade,  and  9,700  inhabitants.  Berdyczew,  a  city  on 
the  Guilopiat,  eastward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Brody  (in  Galicia),  is  the 
centre  of  the  Russian  trade  with  Germany  by  Brody,  especially  in  furs,  is 
moreover  noted  for  its  horse-marts,  and  has  34,100  inhabitants.  Radzivilov, 
a  town  at  the  frontier  of  Galicia,  with  considerable  trade,  and  5,000  inhabi- 
tants, c.  In  Podolia  are  to  be  noticed :  -j-Kamixikc,  suruamed  Podohki,  its 
capital,  on  the  Dniester,  south-eastward  and  140  miles  distant  from  Lemberg 
(in  Galicia),  with  a  Greek  and  a  Catholic  cathedral,  some  manufactures,  trade, 
and  1 6,000  inhabitants.  Bar,  a  town  noted  in  history  for  a  confederacy  concluded 
here  in  1768,  against  the  then  reigning  king  of  Poland,  and  has  7,000  inhabi- 
tants. Mohilow  (with  9,300  inhabitants),  Miethyborz  (with  4,000  inhabitants) 
Janepol  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Braclaw  (with  3,600  inhabitants),  Targowicl 
(with  1,500  inhabitants),  Tulczin  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  and  Niemirow  (with 
8,000  inhabitants),  more  or  less  important  manufacturing  and  trading  towns. 


RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  608 


Geographical  and  Historical  Description  of  Poland. 


VL— THE  KINGDOM  OF  POLAND. 

Area  :  48,990  square  miles. 
Population:  5,000,000  inhabitants. 

It  is  the  most  westerly  constituent  part  of  the  Russian  empire, 
on  the  east  connected  with  West,  or  Polish  Russia,  and  for  the 
rest  surrounded  by  Prussian  and  Austrian  territories.     The  ma- 
jority of  the  population  consists  both  of  Poles  and  Roman  Cath- 
olics ;  there  are,  however,  beside  them,  many  Polish  Dissenters, 
about  250,000  Protestants,  and  nearly  500,000  Jews,  though  in 
recent  times  a  great  part  of  the  latter  have  contrived  to  settle  in 
other  Russian  provinces.     In  the  cities  and  towns  are  to  be  found 
many  Germans. — At  present  the  manufactures  in  Poland  have 
attained  a  high  pitch  of  improvement,  and  its  inland  trade  is  now 
greatly  facilitated  by  common  high-roads  and  railroads. — With 
regard  to  its  history,  it  has  already  been  remarked,  page  29,  that 
the  main  body  of  the  Slavonians  remained  in  Russia  and  Poland. 
The  latter  name  came  at  first  into  vogue  iu  the  9th  century.     In 
840  the  Poles  elected  a  simple  peasant,  named  Plasty  their  duke, 
and  his  dynasty  continued   reigning  for  more  than  five  centuries 
(via ,  until  1370).     Duke  Mieceslav  embraced  the  Christian  re- 
ligion in  955.  and  his  son,  Boleslav  I.,  surnamed   Chrobri,  was 
crowned   King  of  Poland   in    1024.      With   Kiug  Casimir  the 
Great,  who  died  in  1370,  the  male  line  of  the  Piasts  became  ex- 
tiuct,  and  his  only  sister  being  married  to  the  king  of  Hungary, 
the  Polish  magnates,  vayvodes,  and  bishops  agreed  upon  the  suc- 
cession of  Casimir's  nephew,  Louis  of  Hungary,  who  died  in  1385, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  only  daughter  Hedwig.  who  was  mar- 
ried to  the  graud  duke  Jagello  of  Lithuania  (see  above,  under  the 


604  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Russia  in  Europe. — History  of  Poland. 

head  of  Lithuania).  Jagello  now  mounted  the  throne  of  tho 
united  kingdom  of  Poland,  by  the  name  of  Vladislav  II  During 
the  reign  of  his  dynasty,  Poland  became  gradually  the  most 
powerful  kingdom  of  Europe,  which  extended  from  the  Baltic  to 
the  Black  Sea,  and  from  beyond  the  Dnieper  to  the  Oder  river. 
In  the  15th  and  1 6th  centuries  it  had  an  area  of  more  than 
383,400  square  miles,  thus  being  as  large  as  all  France  and 
Spain  put  together.  Yet  its  internal  strength  had  been  weak- 
ened by  the  continued  encroaching  upon  the  prerogatives  of  the 
crown  on  the  part  of  the  Polish  nobles,  who  at  the  same  time 
wrested  gradually  nearly  all  political  rights  from  the  middle 
classes  (the  peasantry  were  from  of  old,  the  bondsmen  of  the 
nobility) ;  so  that  at  last  the  majority  of  the  Polish  people  were 
to  be  considered  as  entirely  subject  to  the  sway  of  the  nobles, 
who  were  indeed  the  actual  rulers  of  the  kingdom,  especially 
since  the  dynasty  of  the  Jagellos  had  become  extinct  in  1572,  and 
the  kings  hereafter  been  elected.  It  was  a  matter  of  course,  that 
as  soon  as  the  nobles  had  attained  their  aim,  the  most  violent 
quarrels  and  dissensions  arose  among  themselves  ;  and  it  would 
have  been  a  fact  unprecedented  in  history,  if  under  such  cir- 
cumstances Poland  had  continued  forever  to  be  an  independ- 
ent state.  For  want  of  room,  we  cannot  enter  into  any  further 
particulars  with  regard  to  the  three  divisions  of  Poland  between 
the  neighboring  powers.  The  first  division  took  place  in  1772, 
when  Russia  became  possessed  of  White  Russia  (see  above,  un- 
der the  head  of  Lithuania),  Austria  of  Galicia,  and  Prussia  of 
the  subsequent  provinces  of  West  Prussia.  The  second  division 
took  place  in  1793,  when  the  greatest  part  of  Great  Poland 
fell  to  the  share  of  Prussia,  and  the  remainder  of  Lithuania  to 
that  of  Russia,  while  Austria  did  at  this  time  acquire  nothing. 
The  third  division  took  place  in  1795,  when  Prussia  became  pos- 
sessed of  the  remainder  of  Great  Poland,  together  with  Podlachia, 


RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  605 

The  History  and  Geographical  Description  of  Poland. 

while  the  remainder  of  the  kingdom  was  divived  between  Rus- 
sia and  Austria.  In  1807  Napoleon  restored  Great  Poland  to 
political  independency,  and  appointed  the  king  of  Saxony  its 
sovereign,  with  grand-ducal  title.  This  grand-duchy  was  divided 
into  6  departments  (of  Warsaw,  Posen,  Kalisch,  Bromberg, 
Plock,  and  Lomza),  and  had,  at  the  close  of  the  year  1808,  a 
population  of  2,371,826  inhabitants,  and  an  extent  of  about 
38,000  square  miles.  In  1815  its  western  part  was  restored  to 
Prussia,  anrd  to  the  remainder,  which  Russia  retained,  the  title  of 
a  kingdom,  and  a  constitution  was  conferred,  which  latter  it  for- 
feited in  consequence  of  a  revolution  in  1830-31.  It  may  still 
be  noticed,  with  regard  to  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Poland  (i.  e.,  as 
it  was  previous  to  1772),  that  its  north  western  part  used  to  be 
styled  Great  Poland,  its  southern  or  south-eastern  part  Little 
Poland,  and  the  remainder  Lithuania. — The  kingdom  of  Poland 
is  at  present  divided  into  the  5  governments  of  Warsaw,  Plock 
(both  within  the  limits  of  Great  Poland),  Augustovo  (situated 
within  the  limits  of  Lithuania),  Radom,  and  Lublin  (within  the 
limits  of  Little  Poland),  and  contains  : 

-{-Warsaw,  ancient  capital  of  Poland,  on  the  Vistule  (left  bank,  while  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  river  Warsaw's  suburb  Praga  is  situated),  ranks 
at  present  among  the  finest  cities  in  Europe,  containing  numerous  palaces 
and  other  magnificent  public  and  private  buildings,  is  at  the  same  time  the 
centre  of  Polish  industry  and  commerce,  and  noted  for  its  strong  fortifica- 
tions (among  which  ranks  first  the  extensive  citadel  of  Alexander,  reared  in 
1832  and  the  following  years),  and  had  at  the  close  of  the  year  1845  a  popu- 
lation of  156,073  inhabitants.  Rava  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  Lowicz  (with 
noted  horse-marts,  and  7,100  inhabitants),  Tomaszov  (with  considerable  cloth 
manufactures,  and  5,000  inhabitants),  Ozorkov  (with  cloth  manufactures,  and 
8,000  inhabitants),  and  Brzesk,  surnamed  Cujavski  (with  1,800  inhabitants), 
towns.  Kalish,  a  handsome  city,  on  the  Prosna,  and  near  the  frontier  of  Po- 
sen, with  important  linen  and  cloth  manufactures,  extensive  inland  trade,  and 
12,000  inhabitants.    Sieradz  (with  2,700  inhabitants),  Czenstochau  (with  7,000 


606  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Russia  in  Europe. — Geographical  Description  of  Poland. 

inhabitants),  Zdunska  Wola  (with  9,000  inhabitants),  Lask  (with  2,000  in- 
habitants), and  Petrikau  (with  4,500  inhabitants),  more  or  less  notable  towns. 
-j-Plock,  a  city  on  the  Vistule,  60  miles  below  Warsaw,  with  a  remarkable 
cathedral,  various  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and  10,000  inhabitants. 
Modlin,  at  present  officially  named  Novo-Gcorgievsk,  a  very  strong  fortress 
on  the  Vistule,  at  its  junction  with  the  Bug.  Pultusk,  a  town  on  the  Narew, 
northward  and  32  miles  distant  from  Warsaw,  with  4,000  inhabitants,  is 
noted  in  history  for  battles  in  1703  and  1806.  Ostrolenka,  a  town  on  the  Na- 
rew, north-eastward  and  64  miles  distant  from  Warsaw,  with  1,800  inhabitants. 
Battle  on  the  26th  May,  1831,  between  the  Russians  and  Poles.  -j-Suwalki, 
chief  town  of  the  above-mentioned  government  of  Augustovo,  at  the  high- 
road between  Warsaw  and  St  Petersburg,  is  regularly  and  handsomely 
built,  and  has  5,000  inhabitants.  Lomza,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Narew,  with 
3,500  inhabitants.  Augustovo,  a  town  on  a  lake,  southward  and  18  miles 
distant  from  Suwalki,  with  noted  cattle  and  horse-marts,  and  3,400  inhabi- 
tants. -}-Radom,  a  town  on  the  Radomka,  southward  and  56  miles  distant 
from  Warsaw,  with  1,000  inhabitants.  Sandomir,  a  town  on  the  Vistule,  at 
its  junction  with  the  San,  with  inland  trade,  and  4,500  inhabitants.  Staszov 
(with  3,200  inhabitants),  Konskie  (with  3,400  inhabitants),  Szydlowiec  (with 
3,000  inhabitants),  Opatow  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  and  Zawichost  (with 
2,400  inhabitants),  towns.  Kielce,  until  recent  times  chief  town  of  a  gov- 
ernment, at  present  united  with  that  of  Radom,  north-eastward  and  64  miles 
distant  from  Cracow,  with  considerable  iron-works  and  iron  trade,  and  6,000 
inhabitants.  Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are:  Chenceny  (with 
3,000  inhabitants),  Zarki  (with  2,800  inhabitants),  Pilica  (with  3,000  inhabi- 
tants), Olkusz  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  Miechow  (with  1,600  inhabitants), 
Slavkov  (with  2,200  inhabitants),  Pinczow  (with  4,200  inhabitants),  Schidlow 
(with  1,800  inhabitants),  Wislitza  (with  1,500  inhabitants),  and  Siewierz 
(with  1,500  inhabitants),  which  latter  was  once  the  capital  of  the  ancient 
duchy  of  Severia,  that  for  a  long  period  belonged  to  Silesia.  -f-LuBLm,  a 
city  in  a  beautiful  and  fertile  district,  on  a  lake,  south-eastward  and  116 
miles  distant  from  Warsaw,  with  18  churches  (among  them  a  remarkable 
cathedral),  12  monasteries,  and  6  nunneries,  several  magnificent  palaces,  con- 
siderable inland  trade,  and  15,000  inhabitants.  Pulawy,  a  town  on  the  Vis- 
tule, with  3,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  the  splendid  mansion  of  the  prince 
of  CzartoryskL  Siedlce,  a  town  eastward  and  56  miles  distant  from  War- 
saw, with  5,000  inhabitants.     Zamosk,  a  town  on  a  little  lake,  and  at  the 


RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  607 

Geographical  Description  of  Poland  and  the  Kingdom  of  Kasan. 

high-road  between  Warsaw  and  Lemberg,  has  4,800  inhabitants,  and  is  noted 
for  its  strong  fortress.  Dubienka  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Lenzna  (wilh  2,600 
inhabitants),  Chelm  (with  800  inhabitants),  Tamaszow  (with  3,000  inhabi- 
tants), Hrubieszow  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Kock  (with  1,800  inhabitants), 
Lukow  (with  3,200  inhabitants),  and  Miedzerzyce  (with  2,000  inhabitants), 
more  or  less  notable  towns. 


VII— THE  KINGDOM  OF  KASAN. 

Area:  251,340  square  miles. 
Population  :  6,000,000  inhabitants. 

It  is  situated  between  Great  Russia  and  Siberia,  and  among  its 
population  are  many  Tartars,  Kalmucks,  Mordwines,  and  other 
tribes.  It  was  since  the  latter  half  of  the  13th  century  under 
the  sway  of  the  Mongoles,  until  in  1552  the  Russians  conquered 
it.     It  contains : 

-{-Kasan,  its  capital,  on  the  Kasanka,  near  its  junction  with  the  Volga,  east- 
ward and  500  miles  distant  from  Moscow,  has  45,500  inhabitants,  and  is  noted 
for  its  university  (see  ante),  its  numerous  and  important  manufactures,  and 
its  extensive  inland  trade,  especially  to  Siberia.  Tetinschi  (with  3,000  inhab- 
itants), Swiask  (with  3,500  inhabitants),  and  Tsheboksar  (with  5,200  inhab- 
itants), more  or  less  notable  towns.  -{-Perm,  a  city  on  the  Kama,  north-east- 
ward and  340  miles  distant  from  Kasan,  and  westward  and  240  miles  distant 
from  Tobolsk,  has  27,000  inhabitants,  carries  on  considerable  inland  trade,  and 
is  noted  for  its  productive  copper  and  iron  mines.  Near  Kungur  (a  town  with 
8,400  inhabitants),  are  likewise  such  mines.  Solikamsk,  a  town  on  the  Kama, 
with  5,000  inhabitants,  is  noted  for  its  fur  trade  and  salt-works.  Katharin- 
burg,  or  Jekaterinburg,  a  fortified  city  at  the  foot  of  the  Ural  Mountains,  and 
in  the  centre  of  the  gold  and  platina  mining  district,  with  various  manufac- 
tures, and  16,000  inhabitants.     Werchoturie  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  and 


608  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

Russia  in  Europe.— Geographical  Description  of  the  Kingdoms  of  Kasau  and  Astrachan. 

Nishnei-Tagihk  (with  20,000  inhabitants),  are  noted  mining  towns.  The 
town  of  Irbit,  between  Katharinburg  and  Tobolsk,  with  4,000  inhabitants,  is 
noted  for  its  important  annual  faira  -[-Wjatka,  a  city  on  the  river  Wjatka, 
northward  and  200  miles  distant  from  Kasan,  with  a  handsome  cathedral, 
considerable  trade,  especially  in  grain,  and  11,000  inhabitants.  Ish,  or  Ish- 
cvski-Zavod,  a  noted  manufacturing  town,  on  the  river  Ish,  with  12,000  in- 
habitants. Sarapul,  a  town,  with  various  manufactures,  salt  and  corn  trade, 
and  6,000  inhabitants.  Slobosk,  or  Slobodskoi,  a  town  on  the  Wjatka,  has 
0,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  considerable  iron-works.  Jebaluga,  a 
town  near  the  Kama,  with  leather  and  other  manufactures,  considerable 
trade,  and  4,700  inhabitants.  -{"Simbirsk,  a  city  on  the  Volga,  southward 
and  116  miles  distant  from  Kasan,  with  various  branches  of  industry,  inland 
trade,  and  18,000  inhabitants.  Syzran,  a  city  on  the  Volga,  with  13,000  in- 
habitants, is  noted  for  its  cattle  fairs.  Samara,  a  city  on  the  Volga,  with 
considerable  trade,  and  12,000  inhabitants.  -j-Pknsa,  a  city  on  the  Sura 
(branch  of  the  Volga),  south-eastward  and  370  miles  distant  from  Moscow, 
has  20,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for  its  leather  and  linen  manufactures. 
Saransk  (with  10,200  inhabitants),  Insara  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Nishnij 
Lomov  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  Werchi  Lomov  (with  5,000  inhabitants), 
Kerensk  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  and  Mokshansk  (with  6,000  inhabitants), 
more  or  less  notable  towns. 


VIIL— THE  KINGDOM  OF  ASTRACHAN. 

Area  :  329,837  square  miles. 
Population  :  4,000,000  inhabitants. 

It  is  situated  between  the  kingdom  of  Kasan  and  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  and  among  its  population  are  many  Kalmucks,  Bash- 
kirs, Kirguises,  etc.  It  was  in  1554  conquered  by  the  Russians, 
having  until  then  been  under  the  sway  of  the  Mongoles,  like  the 
kingdom  of  Kasan.     It  contains : 


RUSSIA   IN  EUROPE.  609 

Geographical  Description  of  the  Kingdom  of  Astrachan. 

-f-AsTRACHAN,  its  capital,  on  an  island  of  the  Volga,  and  at  about  60  miles 
distance  from  the  mouths  of  this  river,  southward  and  700  miles  distant  from 
Kasan,  and  south-eastward  and  900  miles  distant  from  Moscow,  has  48,000 
inhabitants,  and  is  not  only  one  of  the  first  commercial  cities  of  the  Russian 
empire,  but  also  renowned  for  its  sturgeon  fisheries,  which  latter  yield  an  im- 
mense revenue.  The  commerce  and  trade  of  Astrachan  extend  so  far  as  even 
to  India.  The  town  of  Krasnoi-Jar,  with  3,000  inhabitants,  is  the  residence 
of  a  Kalmuck  Khan.  Tshernoi-Jar  is  a  fortified  town,  with  3,500  inhabitants. 
-j-Saratow,  a  city  on  the  Volga,  northward  and  420  miles  distant  from  As- 
trachan, with  canvass,  leather,  and  other  manufactures,  considerable  inland 
trade,  and  45,000  inhabitants.  "Within  the  limits  of  the  Saratow  government 
are  more  than  one  hundred  German  settlements,  among  them  Sarepta,  founded 
in  1765  by  Moravian  Brethren,  and  being  a  very  handsome  and  industrious 
town,  with  3,500  inhabitants.  Other  notable  towns  are :  Zaritzin  (with  5,000 
inhabitants),  Petrovsk  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  Kamyshin  (with  7,300  inhab 
itants),  Kusnetzk  (with  10,700  inhabitants),  and  Wolsk  (with  15,600  inhab- 
itants). The  government  of  Orenburg,  the  most  extensive  in  European 
Russia,  contains  among  others :  -|-Oufa,  a  city  on  the  Bilaja  (branch  of  the 
Volga),  eastward  and  300  miles  distant  from  Kasan,  is  the  seat  of  a  Mufti 
for  the  Mohammedans  in  Russia,  and  has  1 3,000  inhabitants.  Orenburg,  a  for- 
tified city  on  the  Ural  river,  north-eastward  and  530  miles  distant  from  As- 
trachan, and  south-eastward  and  1,600  miles  distant  from  St  Petersburg,  is 
the  emporium  for  the  Russian  trade  with  Central  Asia,  and  at  the  same  time 
a  chief  military  station  in  this  quarter,  and  has  16,000  inhabitants.  Uralsk, 
formerly  called  Jaik,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Ural  river,  with  important  fish- 
ery, considerable  trade,  and  16,000  inhabitants. 
26* 


610  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


Russia  in  Europe.— Geographical  Description  of  South  Russia. 


IX.— SOUTH  RUSSIA. 

Area  :  189,570  square  miles. 
Population  :  3,500,000  inhabitants. 

It  embraces,  for  the  most  part,  former  territories  of  Turkey, 
wrested  from  this  power  in  the  course  of  the  last  and  in  the 
beginning  of  this  century,  and  is  divided  into  6  governments 
and  provinces,  which  are  to  be  described  separately. 

1.  The  government  of  Tauris.  comprising  the  Tauric  Chersonese  (Crimea 
proper),  and  the  Nogyan  Steppe.  The  former,  or  Crimea  proper,  consists 
of  a  peninsula  projecting  into  the  Black  Sea,  and  connected  with  the  main 
land  only  by  an  isthmus  not  more  than  four  miles  broad.  The  Tauric  Moun- 
tains (see  page  8)  are  covered  with  valuable  forests,  and  intersected  with 
beautiful  and  densely-peopled  valleys.  The  peninsula  in  general  is  noted  for 
the  fertility  of  its  soil  and  the  mildness  of  its  climate.  In  the  6th  century 
before  the  Christian  era,  Greeks  from  Asia  Minor  began  to  establish  colonies 
in  Crimea,  where  since  flourishing  commercial  towns  arose.  Respectively 
in  1774  and  1783,  Crimea  was  annexed  to  the  Russian  empire.  It  contains: 
-J-Simferopol,  a  city  at  the  northern  foot  of  the  Tauric  Mountains,  with  5 
churches,  4  mosques,  a  seminary  for  Tartars,  a  botanic  garden,  and  8,600  in- 
habitants. JBaktshisarai,  once  the  capital  of  Crimea,  in  a  romantic  valley, 
with  a  remarkable  ancient  palace  of  the  Tartar  Khans,  who  ruled  the  coun- 
try, 32  mosques,  2  churches,  manufactures  of  fire-arms  and  cutlery,  and 
12,800  inhabitants.  Sevastopol,  a  city  on  a  bay  of  the  south-west  coast, 
is  noted  for  one  of  the  finest  and  most  spacious  harbors  in  Europe,  where 
the  Russian  fleets  in  the  Black  Sea  have  their  chief  station,  and  has 
44,000  inhabitants.  Not  far  from  here  is  situated  the  maritime  town  of  Ba- 
laklava,  with  2,000  inhabitants.  Kaffa,  or  Feodosia,  a  maritime  town  on 
the  south  coast,  with  several  literary  institutions,  considerable  fishery,  and 
7,000  inhabitants.  Kaffa  belonged  in  the  period  of  1262-1475  to  the  Gen- 
oese, and  was  at  that  time  a  noted  commercial  city,  with  80,000  inhabitants. 
Karasu,  a  city  in  the  centre  of  the  peninsula,  with  noted  leather  and  other 


RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  611 

Geographical  Description  of  South  Russia. 

manufactures,  and  12,000  inhabitants.  Koslow,  or  Jewpatoria,  a  maritime 
town  on  the  west  coast,  with  considerable  commerce,  and  10,000  inhabitants. 
Other  maritime  towns  are  Jalta  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  and  Kertsh  (with 
4,000  inhabitants). — The  above-mentioned  Nogayan  Steppe  (to  which,  for  the 
rest,  the  name  of  Crimea  is  frequently  extended)  contains:  Nogayzg,  the 
chief  place  of  the  Nogayan  Tartars,  near  the  Sea  of  Azov,  with  1,300  inhab- 
itants. Aleshki,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Dnieper,  with  4,000  inhabitants. 
Berdjansk,  a  maritime  town  on  the  Sea  of  Azov,  with  considerable  commerce, 
and  8,000  inhabitants. 

2.  The  government  of  Clierson,  noted  for  the  fertility  of  its  soil  contains : 
-{-Chebson,  a  city  on  the  Gulf  of  Liman  (see  page  12),  with  a  commodious 
harbor,  where  part  of  the  Russian  fleets  in  the  Black  Sea  are  stationed,  a 
very  strong  citadel,  considerable  industry  and  commerce,  and  30,000  inhabi- 
tants. Nikolajew,  a  city  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bog,  with  a  fine  harbor,  which 
is  the  third  station  of  the  Russian  navy  in  the  Black  Sea,  vast  docks,  hand- 
some houses,  and  29,600  inhabitants.  Elisabethgrad  (with  12,000  inhabitants), 
Olviopol  (with  2,600  inhabitants),  Novo  Mirgorod  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  and 
Wosnosensk  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  more  or  less  notable  towns.  Odessa,  a 
commercial  city  on  a  bay  of  the  Black  Sea,  is  the  Russian  emporium  in 
this  quarter,  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  finest  cities  in  Russia,  with 
80,000  inhabitants.  In  1844  the  exports  of  Odessa  were  at  the  value  of 
18,209,699  silver  rubles,  and  the  imports  of  the  value  of  5,870,986  rubles. 
Odessa  was  founded  in  1792.  Oczakow,  a  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Liman,  was 
formerly  noted  for  its  strong  fortress,  and  had  more  than  50,000  inhabitants, 
but  was  in  1788  taken  by  storm,  and  has  since  fallen  greatly  in  decay.  At 
present  it  has  only  4,600  inhabitants.  Ovidiopol,  Tiraspol,  and  Grigoriopol, 
towns  with  respectively  3,000,  6,600,  and  4,000  inhabitants. 

3.  The  province  of  Bessarabia,  separated  from  Moldavia  (of  which  it  formed 
part  until  1812)  by  the  river  Pruth,  and  from  the  government  of  Cherson 
by  the  Dniester.  This  country  is  noted  in  ancient  history  by  the  name  of 
Scythian  Desert,  and  for  the  abortive  expedition  of  Darius  against  the  Soyth- 
ians  in  514  B.  C.  The  province  of  Bessarabia  contains :  -[-Kishenev,  a  city  on 
the  Bikul  river,  eastward  and  70  miles  distant  from  Jassy  (in  Moldavia),  is 
noted  for  its  culture  of  fruits,  and  has  43,000  inhabitants.  Ismail,  a  forti- 
fied city  on  the  Danube,  with  numerous  leather  and  other  manufactures,  con- 
siderable commerce,  and  22,000  inhabitants.  Kilia,  a  fortified  town  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Danube,  with  provision  trade,  and  6,000  inhabitants.    Akjer- 


612  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT 


Russia  in  Europe. — Geographical  Description  of  South  Russia. 

man,  a  fortified  city  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dniester,  with  vine  culture,  fishery, 
considerable  commerce,  and  25,000  inhabitants.  Reny  (anciently  called  Dino- 
getia),  a  fortified  town  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pruth,  with  6,000  inhabitants. 
Other  more  or  less  remarkable  towns  are :  Belzi  (with  6,000  inhabitants), 
Orghei  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Chotin  (with  11,100  inhabitants),  and  Soroka 
(with  2,000  inhabitants).  Bender,  a  fortified  city  on  the  Dniester,  north- 
westward and  70  miles  distant  from  Odessa,  with  important  leather  manu- 
factures, and  10,000  inhabitants.  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  lived  here  from 
1709  to  1711. 

4.  The  government  of  Jekaterinoslav,  comprising  only  older  Russian  terri- 
tories, contains:  -(-Jekaterinoslav,  a  city  on  the  Dnieper,  170  miles  above 
Cherson,  with  silk  stocking  and  cloth  manufactures,  and  1 2,500  inhabitants. 
Bachmut,  a  town  on  the  Bachmuta,  is  noted  for  its  horse-marts  and  tallow 
trade,  and  has  4,000  inhabitants.  Other  more  or  less  notable  towns  are : 
Alexandrowsk  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Mariupol  (with  3,700  inhabitants), 
Nachitschewan  (with  13,000  inhabitants),  and  St.  Dmitria  Rostovskaja  (with 
9,100  inhabitants),  Azov,  a  town  near  the  mouth  of  the  Don,  has  at  present 
only  1,000  inhabitants,  but  was  in  the  middle  ages  an  important  commercial 
city.  Taganrog,  a  city  on  the  Sea  of  Azov,  has  22,500  inhabitants,  and  is  at 
present  the  emporium  for  the  trade  with  the  provinces  along  the  Don  river. 
On  the  1st  December,  1825,  Emperor  Alexander  I.  died  here. 

5.  The  land  of  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don,  situated  on  both  sides  of  this 
river,  on  the  east  bounded  by  the  kingdom  of  Astrachan.  Its  area  is  estimated 
at  60,700  square  miles,  and  the  population  at  640,500  inhabitants.  The  gen- 
erally fertile  soil  is  rather  well  cultivated,  and  even  vine  culture  is  carried  on 
extensively.  About  the  Cossacks  see  above,  page  580.  Those  of  the  Don 
differ  from  other  Cossacks  (as,  for  instance,  of  the  Ural,  of  Tshernomorsk,  etc. 
Cossacks),  only  by  some  attainments  in  industry,  and  a  more  general 
diffusion  of  knowledge.  -j-Nowoi-Tsherkask,  at  present  their  capital,  is 
situated  near  the  Don,  about  40  miles  above  Azov,  has  18,000  inhabitants,  8 
churches,  a  gymnasium,  a  literary  society,  various  manufactures,  trade,  etc. 
The  former  capital  was  Staroi  Tsherkask  (i.  e.  Old  Tsherkask),  situated  on  an 
island  of  the  Don,  with  15,000  inhabitants,  vine  culture,  considerable  fishery, 
and  7  churches,  one  of  which  is  noted  for  its  rich  ornaments  in  gold,  silver, 
pearls,  and  precious  stones. 

6.  The  land  of  the  Cossacks  of  Tshernomorsk  (L  e.  of  the  Black  Sea),  on 
tha  Sea  of  Azov  and  the  Strait  of  Jenikale  (see  page  10),  formerly  known  by 


RUSSIA  IN  EUROPE.  613 

Geographical  Description  of  South  Russia. 

the  name  of  Kuban,  and  annexed  to  Russia  in  1782.  It  contains :  -{-Jek.a.~ 
terinador,  a  town  on  the  Kuban  river,  southward  and  150  miles  distant 
from  Azov,  with  noted  annual  fairs,  a  gymnasium,  and  3,000  inhabitants. 
The  island  of  Taman,  lying  before  the  mouth  of  the  Kuban,  was  in  aucient 
times  noted  by  the  name  of  Phanagoria,  and  its  chief  town  Tmutarakan 
(with  1,000  inhabitants),  was  in  the  middle  ages  a  flourishing  commercial 
city. 


THE   IONIAN    ISLANDS. 

Area:  1,108  square  miles. 
Population  :  220,000  inhabitants. 

These  islands,  7  in  number,  and  lying  in  the  Ionian  Sea  (see 
page  10),  at  the  entrance  into  the  Adriatic,  are  an  aristocratic 
republic,  under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain,  whose  sovereign 
appoints  the  lord  high  commissioner,  who  is  at  the  head  of  the 
government,  or,  properly  said,  the  actual  ruler. 

The  inhabitants  are,  for  the  most  part,  Greeks ;  but  beside 
them  are  many  Italians,  English,  etc.  The  Greek  population  is 
divided  into  three  classes,  the  nobility,  burghers,  and  peasantry. 
The  nobility  is  not  only  possessed  of  nearly  all  the  real  estate, 
but  occupy  also  the  higher  political  and  ecclesiastical  offices. 

The  surface  of  the  islands  is  more  or  less  mountainous  ;  earth- 
quakes occur  frequently ;  the  climate  is  unusually  mild.  The 
soil  is  comparatively  rich  in  the  fruits  and  products  of  southern 
Europe,  especially  in  olives,  currants,  and  vine.  The  rearing  of 
cattle  is  rather  insignificant. — The  fabricating  industry  is  re- 
stricted to  some  manufactures  of  silks,  cottons,  and  linen. — The 
commerce  is  very  considerable;  of  currants  alone,  nearly  20,- 
000,000  pounds  are  annually  exported, -^The  schools  are  in  a 
very  good  condition.  In  18^3  a  university  was  founded  at  Corfu, 
which  is  frequented  by  350  or  300  students  annually  ;  and  beside 
it,  there  are  2  gymnasiums,  more  than  60  elementary  schools,  etc. 

The  government  is,  as  has  already  been  stated,  an  aristocratic 
republic,,  u,nder  &e_  control  of  the  British  lord  high  commissioner. 


THE  IONIAN  ISLANDS.  615 


Geographical  and  Historical  Description  of  the  Islands. 


The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  an  assembly  of  40  members 
(11  of  whom  are  life-members),  and  the  executive  power  in  a 
senate  composed  of  6  members  of  the  legislative  assembly,  and 
a  secretary  of  state,  appointed  by  the  lord  high  commissioner. 
The  public  revenue  was  in  1838  to  the  amount  of  £157,989,  but 
is  at  present  far  less  (by  about  £27,000).  The  public  debt  was 
in  the  named  year  £154,450. — Beside  1,600  men  of  Greek  mili- 
tia, there  are  4,000  men  regular  troops  that  are  kept  here  by 
Great  Britain.  Corfu  is  a  chief  station  for  the  British  fleets 
in  this  part  of  the  Mediterranean. 

History. — In  the  flourishing  days  of  ancient  Greece,  the  Ionian  islands 
were  independent  states,  and  took  little  notice  of  what  passed  on  the  Greek 
continent  Subsequently  they  shared  the  latter's  political  fate,  were  sub- 
jected by  the  Romans,  and  for  a  long  period  formed  a  constituent  part  of 
the  Eastern  empire.  In  the  13th  century  the  Neapolitans,  and  in  the  14th 
the  Venetians  took  possession  of  them,  and  retained  them  until  1797,  when 
first  the  French,  and  in  1799  the  then  allied  Russians  and  Turks  occupied  the 
islands,  which  in  1800  were  by  Emperor  Paul  transformed  into  a  republic, 
under  the  protection  of  the  Ottoman  Porte.  In  1807  the  French  took  pos- 
session of  them  again,  but  in  1815  the  republic  was  restored  and  placed  un- 
der the  protection  of  Great  Britain. 

The  population  stated  in  the  following  description  of  the  7 
islands,  is  according  to  the  census  of  1846.  The  most  northern 
island  is  Corfu,  and  the  most  southern,  Cerigo. 

1.  The  island  of  Corfu  (224  square  miles,  and  64,566  inhabitants),  by 
Homer  called  Phaeakia,  but  by  the  ancients  generally  named  Corcyra.  It 
contains :  Corfu,  fortified  capital  of  the  whole  group,  and  the  residence  of 
the  British  lord  high  commissioner,  with  the  above-mentioned  university,  a 
gymnasium,  considerable  commerce,  and  25,000  inhabitants.  Peritia,  a  town 
with  1,500  inhabitants. 

2.  The  island  of  Paxo  (32  square  miles,  and  5,017  inhabitants),  noted  for 
its  extensive  olive  culture,  containing :  San  Nikolo,  or  Porto  Gai,  chief  town, 


616  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

The  Ionian  Islands. — Geographical  Description  of  these  Islands. 

with  1,500  inhabitants.     The  neighboring  isle  of  Antipaxo  is  very  fertile  in 
grain  and  southern  fruits,  but  only  inhabited  by  fishermen. 

3.  The  island  of  Santa  Maura  (181  square  miles,  and  18,676  inhabitants), 
anciently  called  Leucadia,  and  productive  in  olive  oil,  wines,  etc.,  contains : 
Amaxichi,  or  Amakuki,  chief  town,  with  14  churches,  2  monasteries,  and 
6,000  inhabitants.  Porto  Drapano  has  the  finest  harbor  of  the  island.  To 
St.  Alaura  belong  the  little  isles  of  Sessola  and  Meganisi. 

4.  The  island  of  Cephalonia  (35  li  square  miles,  and  69,984  inhabitants), 
is  highly  noted  for  its  pleasant  climate,  and  for  the  enterprising  spirit  of  its 
inhabitants,  who  rank  among  the  best  sailors  in  the  Mediterranean.  Chief 
town  is  Argostoli,  with  a  handsome  convent  of  Franciscans,  considerable 
commerce,  and  6,000  inhabitants.  Lixuri,  a  town,  with  vine  culture,  cotton 
plantations,  and  5,000  inhabitants.     Livato,  a  town  with  1,500  inhabitants. 

5.  The  island  of  Theaei  (43  square  miles,  and  10,821  inhabitants),  an- 
ciently known  by  the  name  of  Ithaka,  and  at  present  noted  for  its  excellent 
wines,  currants,  and  olives,  containing :  Vathi,  chief  town,  with  houses  mostly 
built  of  free-stone,  considerable  commerce,  and  2,500  inhabitants. 

6.  The  island  of  Zante  (159£  square  miles,  and  88,929  inhabitants)  is  the 
most  fertile  of  the  whole  group ;  the  annual  produce  in  currants  being  esti- 
mated at  nearly  100,000  quintals,  in  wines  at  10,000  hogsheads,  and  in  olive 
oil  at  55,000  barrels ;  beside  oranges,  and  other  southern  fruits.  Its  capital, 
Zante,  is  handsomely  built  (the  dwelling-houses  are  4  or  5  stories  high), 
carries  on  a  very  considerable  commerce,  and  has  20,000  inhabitants.  The 
Strophades,  or  Strivali  Isles,  belonging  to  Zante,  are  likewise  productive  in 
fruits,  eta 

7.  The  island  of  Ceeigo  (117  square  miles,  and  11,694  inhabitants),  lying 
near  the  southern  extremity  of  Morea,  and  anciently  known  by  the  name  of 
Gythera,  has  a  fertile  soil  in  the  valleys  of  the  interior,  and  contains :  Kap~ 
sali,  or  Cerigo,  chief  town,  with  no  inconsiderable  commerce,  and  1,500  in- 
liabitants.    The  isle  of  Cerigotto,  with  300  inhabitants,  belongs  to  Cerigo. 


THE    KINGDOM   OF    GREECE. 

Area:  19,149  square  miles. 
Population  :  1,000,000  inhabitants. 

Lying  at  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  Europe,  between  the 
Ionian  Sea  and  the  Archipelago  (see  page  10),  it  is  on  the  north 
bounded  by  European  Turkey,  of  which  it  formed  a  constituent 
part,  in  the  period  from  1458  to  respectively  1827  and  1829. 

As  modern  kingdom,  it  took  existence  in  1832,  and,  as  such,  it 
comprises  ancient  Greece  south  of  Thessaly  and  Epirus,  together 
with  those  islands  in  the  Archipelago,  called  the  Cyclades,  and 
the  northern  Sporades. 

The  inhabitants  may  be  called  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Greeks,  just  as  well  as  the  modern  Italians  might  be  called  de- 
scendants of  the  ancient  Romans.  But  whether  those  renowned 
people  of  antiquity  would  recognize  their  modern  namesakes  as 
their  genuine  offspring,  is  another  question,  and  at  all  events, 
very  doubtful.  Without  mentioning  the  gradual,  and  after  the 
first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  rapid  and  total  degeneration 
of  the  Greeks,  it  is  an  historical  fact,  that  the  country  underwent 
nearly  as  many  vicissitudes  as  Italy ;  and  especially  since  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Turkish  sway,  the  Greek  inhabitants  have 
been  thus  intermingled  with  Slavonian  tribes,  that  they,  except 
the  name,  have  nothing  more  in  common  with  the  ancient 
Greeks. 

The  established  religion  is  that  of  the  Greek  Church.  There 
are  however,  about  25,000  Roman  Catholics,  chiefly  on  the 
islands. 


618  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

The  Kingdom  of  Greece.— Its  Natural  Products,  Commerce,  etc. 

Notwithstanding  the  prevailing  mountainous  character  of  the 
surface,  beautiful  plains  and  districts  with  fertile  soil  are  not 
lacking.  Five  millions  acres  are  computed  as  being  adapted  to 
agriculture  (the  soil  is  however  still  badly  cultivated) ;  1,750,000 
acres  as  woodland  ;  180,000  as  vineyards,  and  4,500  acres  as  cur- 
rant-plantations. The  number  of  olive-trees  amounted  in  1845, 
to  723,101. — The  number  of  black  cattle  was.  in  the  same  year, 
only  110,114  heads;  of  horses  (of  small  breed,  but  enduring), 
84,723 ;  of  mules,  23,956  ;  of  common  asses,  63,754  ;  of  hogs; 
78,292;  of  goats,  1,876,269,  and  of  sheep,  2,442,769.  The  rear- 
ing; of  the  silk-worm  and  of  bees  is  considerable. 

The  manufactures  are  small  in  amount,  and  consist  chiefly  of 
carpets,  canvass,  and  morocco  leather. 

The  more  considerable  is  both  the  commerce  and  shipping.  In 
1840  the  imports  were  at  the  aggregate  value  of  $13,507,000,  and 
the  exports  at  the  value  of  $13,848,000.  In  1841  were,  among 
other  articles  (as  currants,  olive-oil  and  wines,  which  are  the  chief 
staples),  exported  figs  to  the  value  of  $43,333  ;  almonds  to  that 
of  $35,641  ;  galls  to  that  of  $26,667  ;  honey  to  that  of  $5,833 
and  raw  silk  to  the  value  of  about  $167,000.  The  Greek  mer 
chant  vessels  amounted,  in  1843,  to  3,169  of  the  burthen  of  137,508 
tons,  and  were  navigated  by  19,000  men.  In  1845  they  had  in 
creased  to  3,314,  which  were  navigated  by  40,000  men.  The 
Greeks  are  the  best  sailors  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  the  art 
of  ship-building  they  are  likewise  highly  skilled. 

Until  recent  times,  the  means  of  education  were  in  the  most 
miserable  state,  with  the  exception  of  some  islands  where  several 
British  and  American  missionaries  had  their  labor-field,  an<? 
founded  several  excellent  schools.  But  in  1832,  and  the  follow 
ing  years,  a  great  many  German  scholars  came  to  the  country 
and  their  endeavors  for  the  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  anc 
for  school  education,  were  soon  met  with  the  happiest  success 


THE  KINGDOM   OF   GREECE.  619 


Government,  Finances,  and  History  of  Greece. 


In  1837  a  university  was  founded  at  Athens,  on  the  same  plan  as 
those  of  Germany  ;  and  in  1841  it  was  already  frequented  by  292 
students.  Beside  this  university,  a  gymnasium  was  founded  in 
the  same  city  ;  3  others  are  in  Nauplia,  Patras,  and  Syra.  The 
total  number  of  secondary  schools  amounted,  in  1846,  to  37,  and 
that  of  primary  schools  to  301. 

The  government  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  and  Prince  Otho 
of  Bavaria  (born  on  the  1st  June,  1815,  and  brother  of  the 
presently  reiguing  king  of  Bavaria)  is  the  first  king  (since  1832). 

According  to  the  budget  for  1845-46,  the  public  revenue  was 
estimated  at  14,486,300  drachms  ($2,414,365),  and  the  expendi- 
ture at  14,786,  546  drachms  ($2,464,405),  thus  with  a  deficit  of 
300,246  drachms  (or  $50,040).  The  public  debt  amounts  to  about 
96,000,000  drachms  (nearly  $16,000,000). 

The  army  consists  of  4,060  men,  and  the  navy  of  33  vessels, 
among  which  are  2  sloops  of  war,  3  brigs,  2  steamers,  12  gun- 
boats, etc. 

King  Otho  has,  in  1845,  instituted  the  Order  of  the  Redeemer, 
in  5  classes. 

History. — The  continental  part  of  the  present  kingdom  of  Greece  was  in 
antiquity  called  Hellas,  and  the  peninsula  of  Morea  known  by  the  name  of 
Peloponnesus.  In  Hellas  were  Attica,  Boeotia,  and  Aetolia — in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, Laconia,  Messenia,  Arcadia,  and  Achaia,  the  most  remarkable  states. 
It  would  partly  lead  us  too  far,  and  partly  be  superfluous  to  enter  into  any 
particulars  of  ancient  Grecian  history  here ;  and  it  may  only  be  remarked, 
that  in  146  B.  C.  it  was,  when  Greece  was  formally  annexed  to  the  Roman 
empire.  Since  the  year  395  A.  D.  forming  a  constituent  part  of  the  Eastern 
empire,  it  shared  its  fate,  and  was  in  1458  subdued  by  the  Turks,  under 
whose  sway  it  continued  to  be  nearly  four  centuries.  Several  endeavors 
made  in  the  latter  half  of  the  last  century  to  stir  up  the  people,  having 
failed,  it  was  not  before  1821,  when  the  first  beginning  of  an  insurrection 
actually  took  place.  The  leaders  behaved,  however,  with  so  little  skill  and 
circumspection,  that  while  the  rage  and  fanaticism  of  the  Turks  were  roused, 


620  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

The  Kingdom  of  Greece.— Geographical  Description  of  Greece. 

nothing  was  won  for  the  cause  of  the  Greeks ;  and  the  latter  would  have 
succumbed  if  England,  France,  and  Russia  had  not  taken  their  part.  First  a 
combined  fleet  of  these  powers  destroyed  the  Turkish  fleet  in  the  bay  of 
Navarino,  on  the  20th  October,  1827,  and  then  a  French  body  of  troops 
landed  in  Greece,  and  compelled  the  Turks  to  evacuate  it  In  the  peace  con- 
cluded at  Adrianople  on  the  14th  September,  1829,  between  Russia  and  the 
Ottoman  Porte,  the  independence  of  Greece  was  recognized  by  the  latter. 
Meanwhile  Count  Kapodistrias,  a  Greek  from  Corfu,  and  a  distinguished 
statesman,  had  in  1827  been  elected  president  of  the  provisional  Greek  gov- 
ernment, but  on  the  9th  October,  1831,  he  was  murdered  by  his  own  country- 
men, who  generally  have  but  little  conception  of  rational  freedom.  Upon 
this  Prince  Otho,  of  Bavaria  (see  back),  was  elected  hereditary  king  of 
Greece. 

The  kingdom  of  Greece  is  divided  into  10  provinces,  styled 
nomos,  or  nomarchies,  which  are  subdivided  into  47  districts,  or 
eparchies.  Of  the  three  principal  sections  of  the  kingdom,  that 
of  Hellas,  at  present  called  Livadia,  is  divided  into  3  nomos ; 
Peloponnesus,  or  Morea,  is  divided  into  5,  and  the  Islands  into  2 
nomos.  The  capitals  of  the  nomos  will  be  found  denoted  with 
this  sign:   +. 

1.  Livadia,  or  ancient  Hellas,  contains :  -{-Athens,  capital  of  the  kingdom 
and  royal  residence,  near  the  Gulf  of  Egina,  and  in  Attica,  was,  as  is  univer- 
sally known,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  cities  of  antiquity,  that  lay  subse- 
quently for  centuries  almost  in  ruins,  but  is  now  reviving  so  rapidly,  that  it 
in  1845  had  a  population  of  31,700  inhabitants.  It  is  laid  out  in  conformity 
to  a  regular  plan,  and  contains,  beside  a  magnificent  royal  palace,  many 
other  handsome  public  edifices  and  private  buildings  ;  a  university  (see 
above),  a  military  academy,  a  gymnasium,  several  other  schools,  15  churches, 
10  or  12  printing-offices,  a  theatre,  hackney-coaches  and  stages,  in  short, 
the  various  accessories  of  civilization.  Athens  carries  on  a  considerable 
commerce,  and  is  by  a  fine  road  connected  with  its  seaport  Pyrdus  (in  1842 
with  450  houses,  and  2,275  inhabitants).  Megara,  a  town  on  the  isthmus  of 
Corinth,  and  near  the  Gulf  of  Egina,  with  2,000  inhabitants.  In  the  just- 
named  gulf  are  situated  the  isles  of  Egina  (21  square  miles,  and  11,000  in- 


THE  KINGDOM   OF  GREECE.  621 


Geographical  Description  of  the  Kingdom. 


habitants),  and  Salamis,  or  Koluri  (32  square  miles,  and  5,000  inhabitants). 
LrvADiA,  at  present  chief  town  of  Boeotia,  north-westward  and  50  miles  dis- 
tant from  Athens,  with  various  branches  of  industry,  and  6,000  inhabitants. 
Not  far  from  here  is  the  village  of  Kaprena,  anciently  so  renowned  by  the 
name  of  Cheronea.  The  ancient  capital  of  Boeotia,  Thebes,  bears  at  present 
the  name  of  Thiva,  and  has  only  3,000  inhabitants.  -j-Amphissa,  or  Salona, 
a  town  near  the  Parnassus,  and  in  the  beautiful  district  of  Lokris,  north-west- 
ward and  80  miles  distant  from  Athens,  has  4,000  inhabitants,  and  is  at 
present  the  capital  of  the  nomos  of  Phthiotis  (with  Lokris)  and  Phokis. 
On  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto  is  situated  the  commercial  town  of  Galaxidi,  with 
2,000  inhabitants.  Amurani,  a  town  in  a  valley,  with  1,500  inhabitants. 
Lidoriki,  a  city  on  the  Cephissus,  west-north-west  and  60  miles  distant  from 
Thebes,  with  trade  in  olive  oil,  cotton  and  silk,  and  15,000  inhabitants.  In 
the  neighborhood  is  the  village  of  Kastri,  once  renowned  by  the  name  of 
Delphi.  On  the  Gulf  of  Zeitun  (that  separates  the  northern  extremity  of 
Negropont  from  the  Greek  continent)  is  situated  the  fortified  commercial 
town  of  Zeitun,  or  Lamia,  with  4,000  inhabitants.  Patradschik,  or  New  Pa- 
trae,  a  town  with  3,000  inhabitants.  Atalante,  or  Talanti,  a  town  near  the 
Gulf  of  Talanti  (that  separates  Negropont  from  the  Greek  continent),  with 
3,000  inhabitants.  Not  far  from  here  is  the  pass  of  Thermopylae.  -+-Vrach- 
ori  (anciently  Trichonium),  at  present  the  capital  of  the  nomo3  of  Aetolia 
and  Acarnania,  north-westward  and  28  miles  distant  from  Lepanto,  and 
north-eastward  and  18  miles  distant  from  Missolonghi,  with  considerable 
trade,  and  3,000  inhabitants.  Lepanto,  or  Naupaktos,  a  town  on  the  Gulf  of 
Lepanto,  has  3,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  in  history  for  the  victory  the 
Spaniards  obtained  here  over  the  Turkish  fleet  in  1571.  Missolonghi,  a 
fortified  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Patras,  westward  and  23  miles  distant  from 
Lepanto,  with  considerable  commerce,  and  4,000  inhabitants.  Dragomestre 
(anciently  Astakos),  a  maritime  town  on  the  Ionian  Sea,  with  1,500  inhab- 
itants. Vonitza,  a  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Arta,  with  1,000  inhabitants.  Not 
far  from  here  is  the  promontory,  anciently  called  Actium,  and  noted  for  the 
victory  Octavianus  obtained  here  in  31  B.  C. 

2.  Mobka,  or  ancient  Peloponnesus,  contains :  -[-Cobinth,  once  a  magnifi- 
cent city,  with  300,000  inhabitants,  is  at  present  reduced  to  a  town  with 
2,000  inhabitants.  Nauplia,  or  Napoli  di  Romania,  a  city  on  the  gulf  of 
the  same  name,  southward  and  28  miles  distant  from  Corinth,  was  until 
1835  the  capital  of  modern  Greece,  carries  on  a  considerable  commerce, 


622  EUROPE,  PAST   AND   PRESENT. 

The  Kingdom  of  Greece. — Geographical  Description  of  the  Kingdom. 


has  14,000  inhabitants,  and  contains  many  houses  built  in  European  style. 
The  neighboring  town  of  Pronia,  founded  in  recent  times  and  considered 
as  the  suburb  of  Nauplia,  has  already  a  population  of  1 3,000  inhabitants. 
Argos,  a  town  north-westward  and  7  miles  distant  from  Nauplia,  with  6,000 
inhabitants.  The  isle  of  Spezzia  has  only  21  square  miles  in  extent,  but  a 
population  of  7,000  inhabitants,  who  are  considerably  engaged  in  commerce 
and  shipping.  The  isle  of  Hydra  (58£  square  miles,  and  30,000  inhabitants) 
is  noted  not  only  for  the  enterprising  spirit  of  its  inhabitants,  who  are  very 
expert  sailors,  but  also  for  its  handsome  city,  one  of  the  finest  in  Greece, 
containing  50  churches  and  several  other  more  or  less  magnificent  public  edi- 
fices, and  18,000  inhabitants,  who  are  much  engaged  in  manufactures,  and 
carry  on  an  extensive  commerce.  The  isle  of  Poros,  anciently  Kalauria  (21 
square  miles,  and  3,000  inhabitants),  has  a  harbor  where  part  of  the  Greek 
navy  is  stationed.  On  this  isle  it  was,  where  Demosthenes  poisoned  himself 
in  322  B.  C.  -j-Patras,  or  Patrae,  a  fortified  capital  of  the  nomos  of  Achaia 
and  Elis,  near  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  opposite  the  Ionian 
islands  of  Cephalouia  and  Ithaka,  with  extensive  commerce,  and  10,000  in- 
habitants. Aegion,  or  Vostizza,  a  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  is  noted  for 
its  fruits,  and  has  2,000  inhabitants.  KalavrHa,  a  town  with  3,000  inhabi- 
tants. Pyrgos,  or  Lctrini,  a  maritime  town  on  the  Ionian  Sea,  with  1,500 
inhabitants  (formerly  and  until  1325  with  10,000  inhabitants).  -[-Arcadia, 
at  present  called  Kyparlssa,  the  capital  of  the  nomos  of  Messenia,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Arcadia,  with  considerable  provision  trade,  and  4,000  inhabitants. 
Phanari  (anciently  Phigalia),  a  town  with  2,000  inhabitants.  Androssa,  a 
maritime  town  with  1,500  inhabitants.  Navariiw  (anciently  Pylos),  a  forti- 
fied maritime  town  at  the  south-western  extremity  of  Morea,  has  a  very 
spacious  and  commodious  harbor,  and  2,000  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  for 
the  above-mentioned  battle  in  1827.  Modon  (anciently  Mtthone),  a  fortified 
maritime  town,  southward  and  9  miles  distant  from  Navarino,  with  7,000 
inhabitants.  Koron,  a  fortified  maritime  town,  with  commerce,  and  5,000 
inhabitants.  -(-Tripolizza,  the  capital  of  the  nomos  of  Arcadia  (not  to  be 
confounded  with  the  above-mentioned  town  of  the  same  name),  in  the  centre 
of  Morea,  with  8,000  inhabitants.  Karytene,  a  town  in  a  valley,  is  noted  for 
its  cattle,  and  has  8,000  inhabitants.  Londari,  a  town,  with  1,000  inhabi- 
tants, -f  Sparta,  the  capital  of  the  nomos  of  Laconia,  is  founded  recently 
on  the  spot  of  ancient  Sparta,  and  has  already  6,000  inhabitants.    Napoli  di 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  GREECE.  623 

Geographical  Description  of  the  Kingdom. 

Malvasia  (anciently  Epidanrus  Limera),  a  maritime  town,  noted  for  its  excel- 
lent wines,  has  2,000  inhabitants. 

3.  The  principal  Islands  are  the  following :  Negropont,  anciently  called 
Euboza,  has  an  extent  of  1,480  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  60,000  in- 
habitants, has  a  fertile  soil,  and  is  in  some  places  thickly  wooded,  and  con- 
tains :  -\-Chalkis,  or  Egribos,  the  capital  of  the  island,  and  of  the  nomos  of 
Euboea,  with  6,000  inhabitants,  and  Karystos,  a  town  with  2,000  inhabitants 
The  northern  Sporades,  belonging  to  this  nomos,  comprise  the  4  isles  of 
Skyros  (with  2,000  inhabitants),  Skopelos  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Skiathos 
and  Halonesus.  The  group  of  the  Cyclades  comprise  21  islands  in  the 
Archipelago,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  are :  The  island  of  Syra  (48 
square  miles,  and  42,000  inhabitants),  productive  in  grain,  wine,  olive-oil, 
fruits,  etc.,  and  containing :  -\-Hermopolis,  a  very  important  commercial  city, 
and  in  some  respect  the  emporium  of  modern  Greece,  with  30,000  inhabitants. 
The  islands  of  Tinos,  or  Tenos  (85  square  miles,  and  20,000  inhabitants),  and 
Andros  (90  square  miles,  and  15,000  inhabitants),  both  noted  for  their  silk, 
fruits,  wine,  etc.  The  island  of  Milo  (64  square  miles,  and  10,000  inhabi- 
tants) productive  in  grain,  cotton,  fruits,  etc.,  and  containing  the  town  of  the 
same  name,  with  a  very  fine  harbor,  considerable  commerce  and  shipping, 
and  5,000  inhabitants..  The  island  of  Paros  (85  square  mile?,  an \  3,000  in- 
habitants), is  noted  for  its  fine  marble.  The  little  isle  of  Delos  is  at  present 
inhabited.  The  island  of  Naxia,  or  Naxos  (106  square  miles,  and  14,000  in- 
habitants), is  noted  for  the  fertility  of  its  soiL  The  island  of  T/iera,  or 
Santorin  (57  square  miles,  and  15,000  inhabitants),  is  noted  for  its  excellent 


EUROPEAN    TURKEY. 

Area  :  209,422  square  miles. 
Population:  12,500,000  inhabitants. 

European  Turkey  comprises  nearly  the  whole  of  the  large 
south-eastern  peninsula  of  Europe,  situated  between  the  Adriatic 
and  the  Black  Sea,  on  the  north  bounded  by  the  Austrian  and 
Russian  empires,  and  on  the  south  by  Greece  and  the  Archipel- 
ago. (That  the  Turkish  or  Ottoman  empire  extends  its  sway 
also  over  the  western  part  of  Asia,  and  nominally,  even  over 
Egypt,  etc.,  is  a  well-known  fact ;  we  now,  however,  refer  only  to 
Turkey  in  Europe.) 

The  ruling  people  are  the  Turks,  or  (as  they  call  themselves 
after  their  first  sultan,  Osman,  who  reigned  from  1299  to  1326) 
Osmanlis ;  but  they  constitute  only  about  one  eighteenth  of  the 
population,  numbering  little  more  than  700,000.  They  belong 
to  the  Tartarian  tribe,  and  have  their  primitive  home  in  Turk- 
istan.  The  majority  of  the  population  consists  of  Bulgarians 
Bosniacs,  Servians,  Wallachians,  and  other  Slavonic  tribes,  and 
the  remainder  of  Albanians  (a  mixed  tribe,  like  the  Greeks  ;  th< 
latter  are  about  1,180,000,  and  the  Albanians  about  1,000,000  ii 
number),  Armenians  (200,000),  Jews  (300,000),  Gypsies  (80,00 
and  Franks.,  as  the  foreigners  from  other  European  countries  us. 
to  be  called  in  Turkey  (50,000). 

In  point  of  religion,  not  only  the  Turks,  but  also  a  great  pai 
of  the  Albanians,  Bosniacs,  and  Bulgarians  are  Mohammedan 
and  the  other  nations  (except  the  Jews  and  Gypsies)  are  Chn 
tians  of  different  denominations. 


EUROPEAN  TURKEY.  625 


Natural  Products,  Manufactures,  and  Commerce. 


For  description  of  the  mountains  and  rivers  in  European 
Turkey,  see  pages  6,  15  and  16. 

The  climate  is  generally  very  mild  and  pleasant,  and  the  soil, 
with  the  exception  of  some  mountainous  districts,  very  fertile, 
aud  produces,  though  badly  and  negligently  cultivated,  far  more 
than  what  is  required  for  home  consumption.  The  products  are 
Indian  corn,  wheat,  barley,  and  rice,  cotton  (in  Macedonia  are  an- 
nually about  70.000  bales  produced),  tobacco  (of  fine  quality,  es- 
pecially in  Macedonia,  where  the  annual  produce  is  at  the  value 
of  more  than  $250,000),  and  madder,  poppy  (very  much  in  de- 
mand to  make  opium  of  it),  saffron,  wine  (in  Wallachia  and  Mol- 
davia, but  also  in  other  provinces),  olives,  and  immense  quantities 
of  timber,  the  northern  and  western  provinces  being  covered  with 
extensive  forests,  among  which  the  forest  of  Belgrad,  beginning 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Constantinople,  has  a  length  of  115  miles. 
The  horses  are  generally  of  very  fine  breed ;  the  same  may  be 
said  of  the  cattle,  but  less  of  the  sheep,  whose  wool  is,  for  the 
most  part,  rather  coarse  ;  hogs  are  only  reared  in  the  northern 
provinces,  as  pork  is  prohibited  by  the  Koran.  Though  the 
mountains  contain  valuable  ores,  they  are  of  no  avail,  as  the  min- 
ing pursuits  are  neglected.  Only  in  Servia  the  mines  are  wrought. 
Salt  is  made  in  great  quantities,  especially  in  Moldavia  and  Wal- 
lachia. 

The  manufactures  are  in  some  branches  distinguished,  especially 
those  of  leather,  carpets,  and  cotton  goods.  Ambelakia,  Larissa, 
etc.,  are  noted  for  their  dyeries  in  Turkish  red. 

The  commerce  is  considerable,  as  well  as  the  inland  trade,  but 
the  former  is  chiefly  carried  on  by  foreigners,  and  mostly  confined 
to  the  port  of  Constantinople,  and  the  latter  is  in  the  hands  of 
Greeks,  Armenians,  Jews,  etc.  The  principal  articles  of  export 
are  cotton,  grain,  tobacco,  silk,  wines,  mastich,  galls,  horses,  and 
cattle.     The  imports  consist  chiefly  of  manufactured  goods.    The 

27 


626  EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


European  Turkey— its  Schools,  Government,  Army,  etc. 


chief  commercial  intercourse  is  entertained  with  Austria,  Rus- 
sia, Italy,  Eugland,  France,  and  the  United  States. 

Among  the  Turks  common  school  education  is  more  widely  ex- 
tended than  among  the  other  nations  in  European  Turkey.  Some 
years  ago  there  were  in  Constantinople  alone.  1,653  Mohammedan 
elementary  schools,  beside  515  colleges,  etc.  On  the  1st  Sep- 
tember, 1846,  the  sultan  has  founded  a  university  on  the  plan 
of  other  European  institutions  of  the  kind.  Many  Turks  of  the 
better  class  have,  in  recent  times,  made  their  studies  in  Vienna, 
Berlin,  and  Paris. 

The  government  is  absolutely  despotic  in  form,  but  at  present, 
in  consequence  of  the  political  reforms  introduced  by  the  late 
sultan,  as  well  as  by  the  present,  actually  limited.  The  sovereign 
is  commonly  called  Sultan,  or  Grand  Signior,  sometimes  also, 
Turkish  emperor.  The  prime  minister  is  (or,  properly  said,  was) 
called  the  Grand  Vizier,  and  the  court  of  the  sultan,  the  Porte, 
or  Sublime  Porte.  The  Mufti  is  the  chief  interpreter  of  the  law, 
and  ranks  next  in  dignity  to  the  sultan  as  is  also  the  case  with 
the  Grand  Vizier.  Governors  of  provinces  are  called  Pachas  or 
Bashaws,  and  are  of  three  different  ranks,  denoted  by  the  num- 
ber of  horses'  tails  on  their  standard. 

The  revenues  of  the  whole  Turkish  empire  are  estimated  at 
$10,000,000  to  $15,000,000;  and  the  public  debt  to  about 
$36,000,000. 

Tbe  regular  army  consists  of  124,000  men,  but  it  can,  by  the  ir- 
regular troops,  be  increased  to  218.000  men.  The  navy  consists 
of  10  ships  of  the  line,  10  frigates,  and  a  certain  number  of  other 
vessels. 

There  are  two  Orders  of  honor,  viz.,  1.  The  order  of  Fame,  in- 
stituted in  1831,  and  in  4  classes;  and  2.  The  order  of  the  Cris- 
cent,  instituted  in  1799,  but  at  present  seldom  conferred  upon 
any  one. 


EUROPEAN  TURKEY.  627 


History  of  Turkey. 


History. — Most  of  the  Turkish  provinces  in  Europe  were  anciently  inhab- 
ited by  people,  whom  the  Greeks  comprised  under  the  common  term  of  Bar- 
barians. Thessalia  was  frequently  considered  as  belonging  to  ancient  Greece ; 
Macedonia  had  with  the  latter  nothing  in  common,  until  the  reign  of  King 
Philip  and  of  Alexander  the  Great.  At  an  earlier  period  Greek  culture  had 
been  introduced  in  Epirus  (Albania).  All  the  other  provinces  were  civilized 
chiefly  by  the  Romans,  who  since  respectively  196  and  146  B.C.,  gradually 
extended  their  sway  over  the  whole  peninsula  that  since  the  year  396  A.  D., 
formed  the  basis  of  the  Eastern  or  Greek  empire.  The  history,  if  not  of  this 
empire  in  general,  but  of  its  court,  is  almost  a  continual  succession  of  the 
most  horrible  cruelties.  Blinding,  cutting  off  noses,  cutting  out  tongues, 
and  similar  barbarities  followed  the  frequent  revolutions  of  the  state. 
Meanwhile  the  Arabs  wrested  gradually  all  African  and  Asiatic  provinces 
from  the  empire.  The  Turks  having,  under  their  sultan,  Osman  (1299- 
1326)  and  hi9  son  and  successor,  Orchan,  conquered  Asia  Minor,  passed 
over  the  Dardanelles,  and  took  possession  of  Gallipoli,  and  subsequently 
of  other  places  and  districts  on  the  European  side.  Sultan  Murad  L  (1360- 
1389)  made  Adrianople  his  residence,  and  in  1453  (on  the  26th  May)  Con- 
stantinople, the  last  remnant  of  the  Eastern  or  Greek  empire,  was  con- 
quered by  Sultan  Mohammed  II.  Henceforth  the  Turks  were  the  terror 
of  Christian  Europe,  and  in  the  16th  century  they  were  at  the  height 
of  their  power.  But  since  they  have  been  more  and  more  declining,  and 
but  for  the  jealousy  between  the  European  powers,  they  would  have  long 
since  been  driven  out  from  Europe.  The  presently  reigning  sultan  is  Abdul 
Meshid,  born  on  the  19th  April,  1823,  and  on  the  throne  since  the  1st 
July,  1839. 

European  Turkey  is  divided  into  4  provinces,  styled  Ejalets, 
w  hich  are  subdivided  into  districts,  styled  Livas,  or  Sandjaks. 
But  a  more  natural  and  historical  division,  adopted  by  most 
of  the  European  geographers,  is  the  following  :  I.  Roumelia ; 
II.  Bulgaria;  III.  Macedonia;  IV.  Tliessalia  ;  V.  The  Islands  ; 
VI.  Albania;  VII.  Bosnia;  and  VIII.  Tributary  Provinces. 


EUROPE,   PAST  AND   PRESENT. 


European  Turkey.— The  Province  of  Roumelia. 


I  —ROUMELIA. 

It  was  anciently  called   Thracia,  came  in  71  B.  C.  under  the 
sway  of  the  Romans,  and  contains : 

Constantinople,  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  and  residence  of  the 
sultan,  is  built  on  seven  hills,  and  beautifully  situated  on  the  Bosphorus, 
which  here  forms  a  fine  harbor,  with  88,000  houses  and  (according  to  the 
census  taken  in  1844)  900,000  inhabitants,  more  than  one  half  of  whom  are 
Turks.  The  city  appears  magnificently  at  a  distance,  the  gilded  domes  and 
elegant  minarets  of  its  485  mosques  rising  everywhere  from  the  bosom  of 
beautiful  groves ;  but  on  entering  the  narrow,  crooked,  and  ill-paved  streets, 
bordered  by  low  and  gloomy  houses,  the  delusion  soon  vanishes.  Some  of 
the  mosques  are  superb  structures,  as  those  of  Sultan  Suleyman  (reared  in 
the  years  1550-55)  and  of  Sultan  Achmet  (founded  in  1610) ;  but  the  most 
remarkable  is  the  mosque  of  St.  Sophia,  until  the  Turkish  sway  a  Greek 
cathedral,  reared  in  the  years  632-38  by  Emperor  Justinan  I.  Its  cupola  is 
165  feet  high,  and  rests  on  110  pillars.  The  seraglio  is  an  assemblage  of 
palaces,  inhabited  by  the  sultan  and  his  court.  Constantinople  often  suffers 
from  desolating  fires,  and  from  the  plague.  More  than  2,000  merchant  ves- 
sels are  annually  visiting  this  port.  The  city  is  about  14  miles  in  circuit,  and 
has  18  suburbs,  two  of  which  (Scutari,  one  of  them,  has  60,000  inhabitants) 
are  situated  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Bosphorus.  Gallipoli,  a  city  on  the 
Dardanelles,  and  near  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  is  noted  for  its  morocco  leather, 
carries  on  a  considerable  commerce,  and  has  40,000  inhabitants.  Rodosto,  a 
city  on  the  Marmora  Sea,  with  vine  culture,  considerable  commerce,  and 
16,000  inhabitants.  Other  cities  or  towns  on  this  sea  are  Silivri  (with  8,000 
inhabitants),  and  Erekli,  anciently  Heraclea  (with  3,000  inhabitants).  The 
Prince  Isles  in  the  Marmora  Sea,  9  in  number,  are  noted  for  their  fertility 
and  beautiful  sceneries,  and  have  a  total  population  of  5,000  inhabitants. 
Enos  and  Kumurdshina,  maritime  towns,  with  respectively  8,000  and  12,000 
inhabitants.  Adrianople,  the  second  city  in  European  Turkey,  on  the  Ma- 
rissa,  north-westward  and  140  miles  distant  from  Constantinople,  with  10 
churches,  40  mosques  (among  which  are  the  superb  mosques  of  Sultan  Selim* 
II.  and  Murad  II),  noted  leather  and  other  manufactures,  considerable  in- 
land trade,  30,000  houses,  and  140,000  inhabitants.     In  the  period  from  1 360 


EUROPEAN  TURKEY.  629 

Geographical  Description  of  Roumelia  and  Bulgaria. 

to  1453  Adrianople  was  the  residence  of  the  Turkish  Sultans,  and  on  the  14th 
September,  1829,  a  peace  was  concluded  here  between  Russia  and  the  Otto- 
man Porte.  Philippople,  a  city  on  the  Marissa,  with  leather,  silk,  and  other 
manufactures,  important  inland  trade,  and  40,000  inliabitants.  Other  more 
or  less  notable  cities  and  towns  are:  Demotica  (with  15,000  inhabitants), 
Tatar  Basardshik  (with  10,000  inhabitants),  Eskisagra  (with  20,000  inhabi- 
tants), Selimnia  (with  20,000  inhabitants),  Kirkilissa  (with  16,000  inhabi- 
tants), Sizeboli  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  Eskibaba  (with  8,000  inhabitants), 
and  Burgas  (on  the  Black  Sea,  with  5,000  inhabitants). 


II— BULGARIA. 

It  was  by  the  ancient  Romans  called  Lower  Moesia,  is  situated 
between  the  Balkan  and  the  Danube,  has  derived  its  name  from 
the  Bulgarians,  who,  having  their  primitive  seat  between  the 
Volga  and  the  Ural,  immigrated  here  in  the  beginning  of  the 
5th  century,  and  contains : 

Sophia  (anciently  Sardica),  its  capital,  at  the  foot  of  a  pass  in  the  Balkan 
Mountains,  on  the  road  from  Constantinople  to  Belgrade,  with  23  mosques, 
noted  leather  and  other  manufactures,  important  inland  trade,  mineral  baths, 
and  50,000  inhabitants.  Ternova,  formerly  the  capital  of  Bulgaria,  at  present 
the  centre  of  its  trade,  is  moreover  noted  for  its  rose  oil  and  rose  water,  and 
has  12,000  inhabitants.  Widdin,  a  city  and  strong  fortress,  on  the  Danube, 
at  about  54  miles  distance  from  the  Hungarian  Military  Frontier  (see  above, 
under  the  head  of  Austria),  with  25,000  inhabitants.  Nicopoli,  a  city  on  the 
Danube,  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  with  Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  is 
much  engaged  in  vine  culture,  and  has  10,000  inhabitants.  In  1396  Sultan 
Bajazet  obtained  here  a  victory  over  King  Sigismund  of  Hungary.  Sistova, 
a  city  on  the  Danube,  with  considerable  vine  culture  and. wine  trade,  and 
21,000  inhabitants.  Bustschuk,  a  city  and  fortress  on  the  Danube,  with  noted 
leather,  linen,  cotton,  and  other  manufactures,  considerable  trade,  and 
30,000  inhabitants.  Silistria,  or  Dristra,  a  city  and  fortress,  on  the  Danube, 
with  considerable  trade,  and  20,000  inhabitants.  Bassova,  a  fortified  town 
on  the  Danube,  40  miles  below  Silistria,  with  8,000  inhabitants.    Shumla,  a 


630  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

European  Turkey.— The  Provinces  of  Bulgaria  and  Macedonia. 

fortified  city  at  the  foot  of  the  principal  pass  into  the  Balkan  Mountains,  200 
miles  north-north-west  of  Constantinople,  and  220  miles  east-south-east  of 
Widdin,  with  various  branches  of  industry,  silk  manufactures,  considerable 
inland  trade,  and  30,000  inhabitants.  Ratzgrad,  or  Hesargrad,  a  fortified 
city  on  the  Lorn  river,  with  16,000  inhabitants.  Varna,  a  fortified  city  on 
the  Black  Sea,  180  miles  north-north-west  of  Constantinople,  with  a  very 
commodious  harbor,  highly  important  commerce,  and  16,000  inhabitants. 
Mangalia  (with  7,000  inhabitants),  and  Kostandshi  (with  4,000  inhabitants), 
maritime  towns  on  the  Black  Sea.  Basardshik  and  Babadagh,  cities  with 
respectively  12,000  and  1 0,000  inhabitants.  Hirsova,  or  Kersova,  a  town  on 
the  Danube,  with  4,000  inhabitants. 


III.— MACEDONIA. 

Between  Roumelia  and  Thessalia,  is  the  finest  province  of 
European  Turkey,  surpassing  in  fertility  of  the  soil  even  the 
island  of  Sicily,  and  contains : 

Salonica,  anciently  Thessalonica,  its  capital,  on  the  gulf  of  the  same  name, 
is  next  to  Constantinople  the  most  important  seaport  in  European  Turkey, 
with  many  Roman  and  Greek  antiquities,  noted  dyeries  and  manufactures, 
extensive  commerce,  and  70,000  inhabitants.  The  primitive  name  of  the 
city  was  Halia,  or  Therma,  and  its  subsequent  name  is  derived  from  that  of 
Alexander  the  Great's  sister,  Thessalonica.  Philip  and  Alexander  of  Mace- 
donia did  not,  however,  reside  here,  but  in  Pella,  at  present  called  Jenidshe. 
Vardar,  a  town  north-westward  and  30  miles  distant  from  Salonica,  is  noted 
for  its  tobacco,  and  has  6,000  inhabitants.  Vodina,  anciently  JSdessa,  a  city 
on  the  Vistritza,  north-westward  and  42  miles  distant  from  Salonica,  with 
12,000  inhabitants.  Near  the  frontier  of  Roumelia  is  situated  the  fortified 
town  of  Drama,  noted  for  its  tobacco,  with  8,000  inhabitants.  The  neigh- 
boring village  of  Filibe  was  anciently  noted  by  the  name  of  Philippi,  where 
in  42  B.  C.  Brutus  and  Cassius  were  defeated  by  Antonius  and  Octavianus, 
and  where  at  a  later  period  St.  Paul  preached  the  gospel  (Acts  xvi.  12,  13, 
etc.).  Near  the  frontier  of  Roumelia  is  also  situated  Kavala,  a  town  Avith 
8,000  inhabitants,  is  remarkable  as  the  birth-place  of  Mehemet  Ali,  the  late 
pacha  of  Egypt,  and  is  noted  for  its  tobacco.    Seres,  a  city  on  the  Strymon, 


EUROPEAN  TURKEY.  C31 


Geographical  Description  of  Macedonia,  Thessalia,  and  the  Islands. 


and  in  a  district  noted  for  its  cotton  plantations,  with  cotton  manufactures, 
considerable  commerce,  and  30,000  inhabitants.  Or/an,  a  maritime  town  on 
the  Gulf  of  Contessa,  with  important  trade  in  cotton,  and  3,000  inhabitants. 
Between  here  and  Salonica  is  the  remarkable  mount  Athos,  with  numerous 
Greek  convents,  churches,  and  chapels.  Karaveria,  or  Veria  (anciently  Be- 
roea),  a  city  on  the  Ferina,  with  8,000  inhabitants.  Kostendil,  a  city  at  the 
southern  foot  of  the  Balkan,  with  warm  sulphur  baths,  and  8,000  inhabitants. 


IV.— THESSALIA. 

It  is  situated  between  Macedonia  and  the  kingdom  of  Greece, 
has  an  area  of  3.514  square  miles,  and  more  than  300,000  Greek 
inhabitants,  who  are  distinguished  for  their  industry,  and  con- 
tains : 

Larissa,  its  capital,  on  the  Peneus,  or  Salambria  river,  80  miles  from  the 
Gulf  of  Salonica,  with  noted  dyeries  and  manufactures,  vine  culture,  con- 
siderable commerce,  and  25,000  inhabitants.  Ambelakia,  a  town  at  the  en- 
trance into  the  romantic  valley  of  Tempe,  with  dyeries  in  Turkish  red,  trade 
in  cotton,  and  4,000  inhabitants.  IWnovo,  a  town  on  the  Salambria,  and  in 
the  valley  of  Tempe,  with  cotton  and  silk  manufactures,  and  4,000  inhabi- 
tants. Trikala,  a  city  on  the  Salambria,  with  dyeries  in  Turkish  red,  and 
12,000  inhabitants.  Farsa,  anciently  Pharsalus,  a  town  in  a  well-cultivated 
plain,  southward  and  24  miles  distaut  from  Larissa,  has  5,000  inhabitants, 
and  is  noted  in  history  for  the  victory  Caesar  obtained  here  over  Pompejus  in 
48  B.  C.  Vblo,  a  maritime  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Volo,  with  corn  and  silk 
trade,  and  2,500  inhabitants. 

V.— THE  ISLANDS. 

The  islands  in  the  Archipelago  and  in  the  Mediterranean, 
which  are  considered  as  belonging  to  European  Turkey,  are  the 
following : 

1.  The  island  of  Candia,  anciently  known  by  the  name  of  Creta,  is  situated 
in  the  Mediterranean,  near  the  entrance  into  the  Archipelago,  and  has  an  ex- 


632  EUROPE,  PAST  AND   PRESENT. 

European  Turkey.— The  Turkish  Islands  and  Albania. 

tent  of  4,008  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  140,000  inhabitants,  one  half 
of  whom  consists  of  Turks,  and  the  remainder  of  Greeks  (among  them  about 
8,000  Sphakiotes),  Armenians,  Jews,  and  6,000  Abadiotes  (of  Arabian  origin). 
The  island  is  very  productive,  especially  in  cotton,  olive  oil,  wine,  fruits, 
grain,  etc.  The  island  came  in  68  B.  C.  under  the  sway  of  the  Romans,  and 
in  823  A.  D.  under  that  of  the  Arabs.  Subsequently  it  often  changed  hands, 
until  in  1 669  the  Turks  became  possessed  of  it.  Its  fortified  capital,  Candia, 
is  situated  on  the  northern  coast,  and  has  12,000  inhabitants.  The  ancient  re- 
nowned city  of  Kydonia  bears  at  present  the  name  of  Canea,  carries  on  a 
considerable  commerce,  and  has  12,000  inhabitants.  Rettimo,  anciently 
Rhitymna,  a  maritime  town,  with  6,000  inhabitants.  /Sphakia,  a  town  noted 
for  its  vine  culture,  has  1,800  inhabitants. — 2.  The  island  of  Lemnos  (160 
square  miles,  and  8,000  inhabitants)  is  situated  in  the  Archipelago,  opposite 
the  coast  of  Macedonia,  is  also  called  Stalimene,  and  is  noted  for  the  Lemnian 
earth. — 3.  The  island  of  Thasos,  or  Taso  (85  square  miles,  and  6,000  inhab- 
itants), near  the  coasts  of  Macedonia  and  Roumelia,  is  noted  for  its  wines  and 
marble. — 4.  The  island  of  Samothraki,  anciently  Samothracia  (36  square 
miles,  and  1,500  inhabitants),  has  fertile  valleys  and  an  industrious  popula- 
tion.— 5.  The  island  of  Imbro,  or  Imbros  (85  square  miles,  and  4,000  inhab- 
itants), is  wooded,  with  fertile  valleys. 


VI.— ALBANIA. 

It  was  anciently  called  Epirus,  and  is  situated  along  the  Ionian 
and  Adriatic  Seas.  Having  been  ruled  for  several  centuries  by 
native  kings,  Epirus  was,  in  148  B.  C.  annexed  to  the  Roman 
empire,  and  in  the  latter  half  of  the  15th  century  it  was  con- 
quered by  the  Turks.  Concerning  the  Albanians,  see  back.  Alba- 
nia contains : 

Scutari,  its  capital,  on  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  at  14  miles  distance  from 
the  Adriatic,  south-eastward  and  270  miles  distant  from  Zara  (in  Dalmatia), 
is  the  centre  of  the  inland  trade  of  Albania  and  Bosnia,  and  has  20,000  in- 
habitants. Durazzo,  anciently  Dyrrachium,  a  maritime  town  on  the  Adriatic, 
with  considerable  commerce,  and  6,000  inhabitants.  Other  more  or  less  nota- 
ble maritime  towns  on  the  Adriatic  are :  Dulcigno,  or  Olgun  (with  6,000  in- 


EUROPEAN  TURKEY.  633 

Geographical  Description  of  Albania  and  Bosnia. 

habitants),  Antivari  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Croja  (with  6,000  inhabitants), 
Alezsio  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Avlona  or  Valona  (with  5,000  inhabitants), 
Butrinto  (with  1,800  inhabitants),  Delvino  (with  8,000  inhabitants),  and 
Parga  (with  a  strong  fortress,  and  4,000  inhabitants).  Prevesa,  a  fortified 
town  on  the  Gulf  of  Arta,  with  provision  trade,  and  4,000  inhabitants.  Arta, 
a  maritime  town  near  the  Gulf  of  the  same  name,  with  commerce  and  inland 
trade,  and  10,000  inhabitants.  Joanina,  a  fortified  town  in  the  interior,  and 
on  a  lake,  north-eastward  and  48  miles  distant  from  the  Gulf  of  Arta,  has  at 
present  only  5,000  inhabitants,  but  had,  in  the  time  when  Ali  Pacha  (who 
was  executed  in  1822)  resided  here,  a  population  of  40,000  inhabitants. 
Ochrida,  a  town  near  the  frontier  of  Macedonia,  with  6,500  inhabitants.  Per- 
serin,  a  town  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain  pass,  is  noted  for  its  strong  fortress, 
and  has  5,000  inhabitants.  Herat,  or  Arnaut  Beligrad,  a  city  in  a  fertile 
plain,  with  11,000  inhabitants.  Argyrokastro,  or  JErgi  Kastri,  a  town  noted 
for  its  snuff,  has  4,000  inhabitants.  The  most  northern  part  of  Albania  is 
known  by  the  name  of  Montenegro,  and  inhabited  by  a  people  that  belong 
to  the  Slavonic  tribe,  and  enjoy  several  substantial  political  privileges. 


VII— BOSNIA. 

It  comprises  the  north-western  part  of  European  Turkey,  did, 
in  the  days  of  the  ancient  Romans,  form  a  constituent  part  of  Pan- 
noma,  is  for  the  most  part  inhabited  by  the  Bosniacs,  who  belong 
to  the  Slavonic  tribe,  and  who  already,  in  the  9th  century,  were 
settled  here.  Many  of  them  are  Mohammedans,  but  the  majority 
consists  of  Greek  Christians.  In  the  12th  century  Bosnia  came 
under  the  sway  of  Hungary,  but  since  the  year  1376  it  was  an 
independent  kingdom,  until  in  1528,  the  Turks  conquered  it.  It 
contains  : 

Bosna  Serai,  its  capital,  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  province,  south- 
westward  and  130  miles  distant  from  Belgrade,  is  the  emporium  of  Bosnia, 
and  has  68,000  inhabitants.  The  neighboring  villages  of  Visoko  and  Varesh 
are  noted  for  their  iron-works  and  mines.  Travnik,  a  city  on  the  Lashva,  45 
miles  west-north-west  of  Bosna  Serai,  with  12,000  inhabitants.    Banjaluka, 

27* 


634  EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


European  Turkey.— Geographical  Description  of  Bosnia  and  Servia. 


a  strongly  fortified  city  on  the  Verbas,  with  mineral  springs,  considerable 
trade,  and  15,000  inhabitants.  Zwornik,  or  Swornik,  a  strongly  fortified  city 
on  the  Drina,  with  considerable  inland  trade,  and  14,000  inhabitants.  Jaitza, 
a  town  with  2,000  inhabitants.  Bihacz  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  Biograd,  or 
Beligrad.  (with  2,500  inhabitants),  Dubitza  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Berbir, 
or  Turkish  Gradisca  (with  1,000  inhabitants),  Stari  Maidar  (with  4,000  in- 
habitants), and  Kamengrad  (with  3,000  inhabitants),  more  or  less  notable 
towns  in  that  part  of  the  province,  which  is  sometimes  called  Turkish 
Croatia.  The  cities  and  towns  of  Mostar  (with  10,000  inhabitants),  Potshi- 
tatz  (with  12,000  inhabitants),  Gabela  (with  6,000  inhabitants),  Nevesigna 
(with  3,000  inhabitants),  Livno  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  and  Trebigno  (with 
10,000  inhabitants),  are  situated  in  that  part  of  the  province,  which  frequently 
is  called  Herzegovina,  or  Turkish  Dalmatia. 


VIII.— TRIBUTARY  PROVINCES. 

They  consist  of  the  three  mediate  principalities  of  Servia,, 
Wallachia,  and  Moldavia,  forming  the  north-western  and  north- 
ern section  of  European  Turkey.  They  are  governed  by  their 
own  princes,  who  are,  as  nearly  all  inhabitants,  Greek  Christians, 
and  are  independent  in  local  affairs,  except  that  they,  as  nominal 
vassals  of  the  Porte,  pay  an  annual  fixed  tribute  to  the  sultan. 

1.  Servia  (12,780  square  miles,  and  1,000,000  inhabitants),  situated  along 
the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  between  Bulgaria  and  Bosnia,  was,  by  the  an- 
cient Romans,  named  Upper  Moesia,  and  its  population  consists  mostly  of 
Servians  proper,  who  belong  to  the  Slavonian  tribe,  and  to  the  Greek  church. 
Servia  was  since  the  10th  century  an  independent  kingdom,  but  respectively 
in  1389  and  1449,  the  Turks  took  possession  of  it.  The  Servians  were  long 
since  tired  of  the  Turkish  sway,  when,  in  1801,  one  of  them,  named  Czerny 
Georg,  incited  them  to  open  revolt,  in  which  they  for  the  present  failed ;  yet 
finally  they  succeeded  in  so  far,  that  foreign  powers  interfered  in  their  favor, 
especially  Russia,  that  induced  the  Porte,  in  1815,  to  grant  to  Servia  the 
privileges  it  enjoys  now  (see  above).  The  annual  tribute  it  has  to  pay  to  the 
sultan  is  fixed  at  about  $18,600  annually.     The  reigning  mediate  prince  since 


EUROPEAN  TURKEY.  635 

Geographical  Description  of  Servia  and  Wallachia. 

1843,  is  Alexander  Kara  Georgetoitch,  a  relation  of  the  above-mentioned 
Czerny  Georg.  Servia  is  a  very  fertile  country,  and  carries  on  an  extensive 
and  considerable  inland  trade,  especially  with  Austria.  It  contains :  Bel- 
grade, strongly  fortified  capital,  on  the  Danube,  at  its  junction  with  the  Save, 
opposite  the  Austrian  city  of  Semlin,  is  the  Turkish  emporium  in  this  quarter, 
is  at  the  same  time  noted  for  its  numerous  manufactures,  and  has  30,000  in- 
habitants. Kraoujewatz,  fortified  town  and  residence  of  the  reigning  prince, 
on  a  branch  of  the  Morava  river,  120  miles  south-south-east  of  Belgrade,  with 
2,500  inhabitants.  Topola,  a  village  remarkable  as  the  birth  and  burial- 
place  of  the  above-mentioned  Czerny  Georg,  who  was  born  in  1770,  and  in 
1817  seized  by  the  Turks  and  beheaded.  Schabacz,  a  fortified  town  on  the 
Save,  westward  and  60  miles  distant  from  Belgrade,  with  vine  culture,  con- 
siderable inland  trade,  and  10,000  inhabitants.  Semendria,  a  fortified  city  on 
the  Danube,  18  miles  below  Belgrade,  was  anciently  the  residence  of  the 
kings  of  Servia,  is  noted  for  its  excellent  wines  and  considerable  trade,  and 
has  10,000  inhabitants.  Eastward  and  14  miles  distant  from  here,  is  situated 
near  the  Danube,  the  fortified  town  of  Passarovitz  (with  2,000  inhabitants), 
noted  in  history  for  the  treaty  concluded  here  in  1718,  between  Austria  and 
Turkey.  Poretsh,  a  fortified  town  on  an  island  of  the  Danube,  with  vine  cul- 
ture, and  3,000  inhabitants.  Usicza,  a  fortified  town  in  a  mountainous  dis- 
trict, with  a  gymnasium,  a  public  kbrary,  considerable  trade,  and  14,000  in- 
habitants. Other  fortified  towns  are:  Waljewo  (with  4,500  inhabitants), 
Novibasar,  or  Jenibazar  (with  15,000  inhabitants),  Jagodina  (with  3,000  in- 
habitants), and  Nixm  (with  10,000  inhabitants).  Pristina,  a  fortified  town, 
near  the  frontier  of  Albania  and  Macedonia,  170  miles  south-south-east  of 
Belgrade,  is  noted  in  history  as  the  birth-place  of  the  Greek  emperor,  Justinian 
L  (who  reigned  from  527  to  565),  and  has  10,000  inhabitants.  Northward 
from  here  extends  a  fertile  plain,  by  European  historians  commonly  called 
Blackbird  Field,  being  remarkable  in  history  for  two  decisive  battles  won  by 
the  Turks  in  1389  and  1449.  Orsova,  or  New  Orsova  (to  distinguish  it  from 
Austrian  Orsova,  see  page  534),  a  fortress  on  an  island  of  the  Danube,  oppo- 
site the  just-mentioned  Austrian  market- town. 

2.  Wallachia  (27,690  square  miles,  and  2,188,000  inhabitants),  situated 
along  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  between  Transylvania  and  Bulgaria,  did, 
in  the  days  of  the  ancient  Romans,  form  a  constituent  part  of  Dacia  (see 
History  of  Hungary),  and  is  chiefly  inhabited  by  Wallachians  proper,  a  pecu- 
liar mixed  people,  tliat,  however,  in  substance  belong  to  the  Slavonic  tribe, 


EUROPE,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 


European  Turkey. — Geographical  Description  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia. 

and  to  the  Greek  church.  Wallachia  having  changed  hands  in  the  earlier 
period  of  the  middle  ages,  was  since  the  13th  century  ruled  by  native  princes, 
but  in  1386,  subjected  to  the  sovereignty  of  Poland,  and  in  1529,  to  that  of 
the  Porte.  The  Poles  tried  frequently  to  re-conquer  Wallachia,  and  finally 
they  renounced  their  claims  upon  it,  by  the  treaty  concluded  at  Carlowitz  in 
1699.  The  sultan  allowed,  however,  the  country  to  be  ruled  by  native 
princes,  as  formerly,  though  he  appointed  them  arbitrarily.  By  the  media- 
tion of  Russia,  however,  the  political  condition  of  Wallachia  is  settled  on 
similar  terms  and  principles  as  in  Servia,  moreover,  with  the  prerogative 
that  no  Turk  is  permitted  to  settle  in  Wallachia.  The  reigning  princes, 
styled  Hospodars,  are  appointed  for  lifetime,  and  the  tribute  which  they  pay 
to  the  sultan  is  fixed  at  about  $15,000  annually.  In  1843  George  Demetrius 
Bibesco  was  appointed  prince,  or  hospodar.  Wallachia  carries  on  a  very  con- 
siderable trade  and  commerce,  and  its  public  revenues  are  estimated  at  nearly 
$1,000,000.  It  contains :  Bukarest,  its  capital  and  princely  residence,  on 
the  Dumbewitza,  300  miles  north-north-west  of  Constantinople,  has  100,000 
inhabitants,  and  many  stately  public  edifices  and  palaces,  but  is  upon  the 
whole  a  dirty  city,  built  in  a  swamp,  and  its  streets,  instead  of  being  paved 
in  the  usual  way,  are  covered  with  planks  and  trunks.  Yet  its  commerce 
and  trade,  especially  in  corn,  wool,  tallow,  wax,  etc.,  is  very  extensive.  Tir- 
govist  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  Kimpolung  (with  4,000  inhabitants),  Buseo 
with  4,500  inhabitants),  Pitest  (with  5,000  inhabitants),  and  Rimnik  (with 
3,000  inhabitants),  more  or  less  remarkable  towns.  Fokshan,  a  town  on  the 
frontier  of  Moldavia  (to  which  belongs  one  half  of  it),  with  noted  vine  cul- 
ture, considerable  cattle  and  corn  trade,  and  4,000  inhabitants.  Braila,  or 
Jbrahil,  a  fortified  commercial  city  on  the  Danube,  north-eastward  and  96 
miles  distant  from  Bukarest,  with  considerable  commerce,  and  30,000  inhabi- 
tants. Giurgewo,  a  fortified  city  on  the  Danube,  southward  and  38  miles  dis- 
tant from  Bukarest,  with  considerable  inland  and  transit  trade,  and  18,000  in- 
habitants. Krajova,  a  city  on  the  Shy  11  river,  westward  and  125  miles 
distant  from  Bukarest,  has  10,000  inhabitants,  who  carry  on  a  rather  ex- 
tensive inland  trade,  and  is  the  chief  place  of  the  so-called  Little  Wallachia. 
3.  Moldavia  (12/780  square  miles,  and  1,500,000  inhabitants),  situated  on 
the  north  side  of  Wallachia,  separated  by  the  Pruth  river  from  Russia,  in 
the  days  of  the  ancient  Romans  formed  a  constituent  part  of  Dacia  (see  Wal- 
lachia), and  is  chiefly  inhabited  by  Moldavians  proper  (of  nearly  the  same 
origin  as  the  WaUachians),  but  beside  them  by  many  Jews,  Gypsies,  Hunga- 


EUROPEAN  TURKEY.  637 

Geographical  Description  of  Moldavia. 

rians,  Servians,  Bulgarians,  Armenians,  Poles,  Russians,  and  Germans.  Most 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Greek  Christians.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  but  negli- 
gently cultivated.  The  rearing  of  black  cattle  and  horses,  together  with  vine 
culture,  is,  however,  carried  on  to  a  rather  great  extent.  The  inland  trade  is 
almost  as  considerable  as  in  Wallachia.  With  regard  to  history,  Moldavia 
underwent  nearly  the  same  vicissitudes  as  Wallachia  ;  and  its  political  condi- 
tion is  likewise  similar  to  that  of  the  latter.  In  1834  Prince  Michael  Stourdza 
was  appointed  Hospodar.  Moldavia  contains :  Jassy,  its  capital  and  princely 
residence,  about  200  miles  north-north-east  of  Bukarest,  with  a  stately 
princely  palace,  2  Lutheran  and  Catholic,  and  43  Greek  churches  and 
chapels,  dirty  and  unpaved  streets,  considerable  inland  trade,  however,  and 
noted  annual  fairs,  and  60,000  inhabitants.  Galacz,  a  commercial  city  on  the 
Danube,  at  its  junction  with  the  Pruth,  is  in  some  respects  to  be  considered 
as  the  emporium  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  and  has  36,000  inhabitants. 
Roman,  a  town  on  the  Sereth,  with  1,500  inhabitants.  Botushan,  or  Bot- 
toshani,  a  town  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  with  considerable  inland  trade, 
noted  annual  fairs,  and  4,000  inhabitants.  Okna,  a  town  noted  for  its  rock- 
salt  mines.  Dorohoe,  a  town,  76  miles  north-north-west  of  Jassy,  with  8,000 
inhabitants. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Aacta,  338 

Aachen,  489 

Aahaus,  483 

Aakirke,  550 

Aalborg,  552 

Aalborghuus,  552 

Aalen,  336 

Aalst,  280 

Aarau,  156 

Aarberg,  159 

Aarburg,  156 

Aardenburg,  271 

Aargau,  156 

Aarhuus,  552 

Aarde,  557 

Aarwangen,  158 

Abadiotes,  632 

Abbano,  541 

Abbeville,  188 

Abenberg,  322 

Abensberg,  316 

Aberbrothik,  252 

Aberconway,  246 

Aberdeen,  252 

Aberdeenshire,  252 

Abergavenny,  240 

Abernethy,  253 

Aberystwith,  216 

Abo,  598 

Abundance,  109 

Abrantes,  72 

Abrudbanya,  531 
Abruzzi,             5,  143 

Abruzzo,  143 

Abtsgemund,  335 

Acarnania,  621 

Acerenza,  145 

Acerra,  142 

Achaia,  622 

Acher,  338 

Achern,  341 

Achtyrka,  594 

Aci  Reale,  148 

Acquapendente  133 

Acquaria,  119 

Acquaviva,  136 

Acqui,  110 

Ac!  in  m,  621 

Adda,  15 

Addiscorabe,  235 

Adelsberg,  5 1 1 

Adelsheim,  344 

Adige,  15 


PAGE 

Adolphseck,  362 

Adolzfurth,  337 

Adorf,  384 

Adour,  16 

Adria,  541 

Adrianople,  628 

Adriatic  Sea,  10 

Aegades,  147 
Aegadian  Islands,  147 

Aegeri,  168 

Aegion,  622 

Aelen,  168 

Aeolian  Islands,  148 

Aeioe,  557 

Aeroeskjobing,  557 

Aerschot,  278 

Aerzen,  436 


Aetolia,  621 

Affenthal,  341 

Affoltern,  169 

Aurde,  220 

Agen,  215 

Agenois,  215 

Aggerhuus,  576 

Agincourt,  189 

Aglie,  108 

Agno,  165 

Agnone,  145 

Agordo,  542 

Agosta,  148 

Agrapha  Mts.,  6 

Agrigent,  147 

Agram,  529 

Ahlden,  437 

Ahrweiler,  488 

A  h  .in.  212 

Ai,  192 

Aichach,  315 

Aichstetten,  334 

Aigle,  168 

Aigueperse,  213 

Aiguesbelles,  109 

Aigues  Mortes,  221 

Aiguillon,  215 

Ailb.ru  109 

Ailly,  186 

Ailsa,  252 

JAime,  110 
A  in  Department,  201 
[Aire,                189,217 

Airolo,  165 
Aisne  Department,  185 

iAbc,  223 


PAGE 

Uix  (in  Savoy),  109 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  489 

Ajaccio,  225 

Ajuda,  71 

lAken,  478 
{Akjerraan,      611,  612 

iAlagna,  111 

Alais.  221 

Aland,  599 

Aland  Isles,  598 
Alans,  23,24 
Aliiric,    king     of 

the  Visigoths,  24 

Alassio,  113 

Alava,  98 

Alba,  108 

Albacete,  94 

Alba  de  Tonnes,  90 

Albania,  632 

Albanians,  624 

Albano,  132 

Albarracin,  94 

Albenga,  113 

Albert  the  Bear,  462 

Albertville,  109 

Albigenses,  220 

Albigeois,  220 

Albizola,  113 

Alboin,  28 
Albret,            216, 217 

Albufeira,  74 

Alby,  220 
Alcala  de  Henares,  87 

Alcala  la  Real,  93 

Alcamo,  146 

Alcailiz,  94 

Alcantara,  91 

Alcaraz,  88 

Alcaudete,  93 

Alcira,  96 

Alcobaca,  72 

Alcoy,  96 

Alcudia,  96 

Alderney,  247 

Alegria,  97 

Alemtejo,  73 

Alencon,  187 

Aleria,  225 

Ales,  114 

Aleshki,  611 

Alessio,  633 

Alet,  220 

Alessandria,  HI 


PAGE 

Alexandrowsk,  612 

Aiexisbad,  404 

Alfaques,  95 

Alfeld,  439 
Alfred  the  Great,    H 

Algarve,  73 

Algesheim,  356 

Algeziras,  92 

Alghero,  114 

Alghieri,  114 

Alhama,  93 

Alhambra,  93 

Alicante,  96 

Alicata,  147 

Alkmaar,  269 

Allemanni,  298 

Allemont,  222 

Allendorf,  370 
Allendorf  an  der 

Lumda,  357 

Allenstein,  496 

Aller,  17 

Allstedt,  388 

Allier,  15 
All  ier  Departmen  t,2()  1 

Allingsos,  572 

Alloa,  251 

Allobrogi,  161 

Allodium,  35 

Alloway,  251 

Almada,  72 

Almaden,  88 

Almagro,  88 

Almansa,  94 

Almaraz,  91 

Almeida,  72 

Almelo,  272 

Almeria,  94 

Alnwick,  244 

Alost,  280 

Alp,  7 

,  Franconian,     7 

,  Rauhe,  7 

,  Rough,  7 

,  Swabian,  7 

Alpirspacb,  333 

Alpnach,  166 

Alps,  4 

Alpujarras,  5 

Alsace,  196 

Alsen,  557 

Alsfeld,  357 

Alsheim,  356 


640 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

1 

PAGE 

PAGK| 

PAGE 

Alstahaug,              578 

Androssa, 

622 

Arc  en  Barrois, 

202 

Arpadians, 

522 

Alster,                       17 

Androssan, 

250 

Archangel, 

593 

Arpino, 

142 

Alta  Comba,           109 

;Andujar, 

93 

Arch-duchy  of 

Arran, 

252 

Altamura,               144 

Anduze, 

221 

Austria, 

508 

Arras, 

189 

Alt-Breisach,          345 

i  Anet, 

185 

Archettes, 

195 

Arrde, 

557 

Alt-Bruchhausen,  436 

Angerburg, 

497 

Archipelago, 

10 

Arroux, 

15 

Altdorf,                   321 

Angermanland, 

574 

Arcis  sur  Aube, 

191 

Arta, 

633 

Altena,                   485 

Angermiinde, 

466 

Arcona, 

471 

Arth, 

164 

Alteuau,                  444 

Angers, 

207 

Arcos  de  la  Fron- 

Artlenburg, 

437 

Altenberg,              381 

Angles, 

25 

tera, 

92 

Artois, 

189 

Altenbruch,            438 

Anghiari, 

124 

Ardeche, 

15 

Ascania, 

402 

Alienburg,              396 

Anglesea, 

246 

Ardeche  Depart- 

Ascanianova, 

406 

Altenryf,                  159 

Angouleme, 

211 

ment, 

221 

A8Chaffenburg, 

323 

Altensteig,              333 

Angoumais, 

211 

Ardee, 

257 

Aschersleben, 

478 

Althaldensleben,    477 

Angra, 

75  i  Ardennes, 

6 

A8Coli, 

134 

Althorp,                  241 

Angus, 

252 

Ardennes  Depart- 

A8Coli di  Satriano,  144 

Alt-Katzenellnbo- 

Anhalt,  ancestral 

ment, 

192 

Ascona, 

165 

gen,                      364 

castle  of, 

404 

Ardres, 

189 

Asele, 

575 

Altkirch,                 199 

Anhalt,  duchies  of,  402 

Arelatian  king- 

Ash ton  under  Line,243 

Altkonig,                     8 

Anhalt-Bernburg,  403 

dom, 

200 

Askersund, 

569 

AU-Landsberg,       465 

Anhalt-Cothen, 

405 

Aremberg, 

442 

Asmannshausen 

363 

Altmark,         477, 478 

Anhalt-Dessau, 

404 

Aremberg-Mep- 

Asperg, 

331 

Altmiihl,                    16 

Anholt, 

483 

pen, 

442 

Asperen, 

270 

Altnacht,                 166 

Anholt  (isle  of), 

553 

Arendal, 

577 

Aspern, 

509 

Altomonte,              145 

Anjou, 
Ankum, 

206 

Arendonk, 

279 

Assen, 

273 

Altona,                    418 

441 

Arendsee, 

478 

Assenheim, 

357 

Altorf,                      166 

Annaberg, 

383 

Arensburg, 

597 

Assens, 

551 

Alt-Strelitz,            412 

Annan, 

250 

Arens  de  Mar, 

95 

Assisi, 

133 

Altvater,                    6 

Anana, 

98 

Arenzano, 

112 

Astakos, 

621 

Aluta,                       16 

Annecy, 

109 

Arevalo, 

89 

Asti, 

108 

Alzey,                      356 

Annonay, 

221 

Arezzo, 

124 

Astorga, 

89 

Amakuki,               616 

Annweiler, 

328 

Argeles, 

217 

Astrachan,       608,  609 

Amalfi,                     142 

Ansbach, 

320 

Argentan, 

187 

Asturias, 

90 

Amalfi(Hist.of),39,48 

Ansgarius, 

438 

Argenteuil, 

184 

Atalaute, 

621 

Amantra,                 145 

Anspach, 

320 

Argonnes, 

6 

Ath, 

281 

Amarante.                 73 

Antequera, 

94 

Argos, 

622 

Athens, 

620 

Amaxichi,               616 

Antibes, 

224 

Argostoli, 

616 

Athlone,          257, 25 

Ambelakia,             631 

Antipaxo, 

616 

Argyleshire, 

253 

Athos, 

631 

Amberg,                  317 

Antivari, 

633 

Argyrokastro, 

633 

Athy, 

257 

Ambert,                  213 

Antrim,           257 

,258 

Arvillers, 

109 

Atri, 

143 

Ambleteuse,            190 

Antwerp, 

279 

Ariano, 

142 

Atribaldo, 

143 

Amboise,                206 

Auxur, 

133 

Ariege  Depart- 

Atripalda, 

143 

Ameland,                272 

Anzin, 

190 

ment, 

218 

Attila,  king  of  the 

Amersfoort,            271 

Aosta, 

108 

Aritzu, 

114 

Huns, 

25 

Amiens,                   188 

Apennines, 

5 

Arklow, 

256 

Au, 

314 

Amoal,                    573 

Apenrade, 

556 

Arlaut, 

213 

Aub, 

323 

Amoneburg,            372 

Apingadatn, 

273 

Aries, 

223 

Aubagne, 

224 

Amurbach,              323 

Apokla, 

387 

Arlesheim, 

157 

Aube, 

15 

Amphissa,               621 

Appenzell,       156,  157 

Arlon, 

283 

Aube  Departmental 

Amrura,                   553 

Appin, 

253 

Armagh, 

258 

Aubenas, 

221 

Amsterdam,           268 

Appleby, 

244 

Armagnac, 

216 

Aubenton, 

188 

Amurani,                621 

Apt, 

224 

Armenierstadt, 

531 

Aubeterre, 

212 

Ancenis,                  210 

Apulia, 

143 

Armentieres, 

190 

Aubin, 

216 

Anclam,                  470 

Aquila, 

143 

Annorica, 

203 

Aubonne, 

163 

Ancona,                   134 

Aquileja, 

512 

Armoricans, 

26 

Aubusson, 

212 

Andalusia,                 91 

Aquino, 

142 

Arnaut  Beligrad, 

633 

Auch, 

216 

Andelflngen,            169 

Aquitauia, 

214 

A  may  le  Due, 

201 

Aude, 

15 

Audelys,  les,           186 

Arabs, 

28 

Arneburg, 

478 

Aude  Department,220 

Andenne,                282 

Arad, 

528 

Arnemuyden, 

270 

Aue, 

383 

Andermatt,              167 

Aragon, 

94 

Arnheim, 

271 

Auerbach, 

384 

Andernach,             487 

Aiagon  River, 

14 

Arnhem, 

27l[Auerstiidti 

480 

Anderno,                 148 

Aragona(inSicily 

,147 

Arno, 

15  Augsburg, 

324 

Andorno,                 108]  Arahda  de  Duerb 

88 

Arnsberg, 

485  Augustenburg, 

557 

Andorra,                  218|  Aranjuez, 

87 1  Arnstadt, 

401  Augustovo, 

606 

Audorre,                 218  Ai-boga, 

569  Arnstein, 

323  Aulla, 

119 

Andorre  la  vieille,  219  Arbofs, 

203|Aruswalde, 

467  Ault, 

188 

Andreasberg,          444  A  rbon, 

166  j  Arolsen, 

376  Auma, 

388 

Andrichau,              518  Arbroath, 

252  Arona, 

llllAumale, 

186 

AndroB,                  623; 

Arcadia, 

622 1 

Arpad, 

522, 

Aumiihle, 

420 

INDEX. 


641 


PAOC 

PAGK] 

PAGBl 

PAGK 

Aunis, 

211 

Bacs, 

526'Banzkow, 

408  Bavay,          ,     . 

191 

Auray, 

209 

Badajoz, 

91 

Bapaume, 

189|Bavl, 

111 

Aurich,            442,  4- 

Baden  (city  in  the 

Bar, 

602  Bay  of  Biscay, 

10 

Aurigny, 

247 

grand-duchy  of 

Bar  (Lorraine), 

lt'5  Bavern, 

311 

Aurillac, 

213 

Baden), 

341 

Bar  sur  Aube, 

191 

1  Bayeux, 

187 

Auriol, 

224 

Baden,  grand-du 

Bar  le  Due, 

195 

B.ivouuB, 

217 

Auronzo, 

542 

chy  of, 

337 

Bar  sur  Seme, 

209 

Baylen, 

03 

Auschwitz, 

518 

Baden  (in  Austria)  509 

Barbastro, 

91 

Bayreuth,        318,319 

Ausonians, 

102  Baden   (in    Swit 

Barbezieux, 

211 

Bayreuth,    High- 

Ausser-Rhoden, 

157 

zerland), 

156 

Barby, 

479 

land  of, 

319 

Austerlitz, 

516 

Baden-Baden, 

340 

Barcellona  (in  Si 

Bayreuth,    Low- 

Austrasia, 

26 

Baden-Ourlach, 

340 

cily), 

148 

land  of,        320,  321 

Austria, 

501 

Badenweiler, 

345 

Barceilos, 

73 

Baza, 

93 

Austria,    arch-du 

Badia, 

541 

Barcelonetta, 

95 

Bazadois, 

215 

chy  of, 

508 

Baena, 

93 

Barcelonette, 

221  Bazas, 

215 

Austrian  circle, 

292 

Baetica, 

84 

Barcelona, 

95  Beam, 

218 

Austrian  empire, 

501 

Baeza, 

93 

Barchfeld, 

373  Beaucaire, 

221 

Austrian  Nether 

Bagne,  valley  of, 

167 

Bard, 

109  Beaucourt, 

199 

lands, 

277 

Bagnerea   de    Bi 

Bardewik, 

437 1  Beaufort, 

207 

Austrian  Silesia, 

517 

gorre, 

217 

Bardo, 

109  Beauge, 

207 

Autun, 

201 

Bagne  res  de  Lu 

Bareges, 

2l7!Beaugency, 

205 

Auvergne, 

212 

chon, 

219 

Barga, 

125'Beaujeu, 

214 

Auvergne  Mts., 

6 

Bagni, 

126 

Barge, 

107|Beaujolais, 

214 

Auxerre, 

201 

Bagno  alia  Villa, 

126 

Bari, 

144;  Beaumaris, 

247 

Auxonne, 

201 

Bagnols, 

221 

Barletta, 

144  >  Beaumont, 

281 

Avalanches, 

152 

Bagolino, 

540 

Barmbeck, 

450  Beaune, 

201 

Avallon, 

201 

Baiersdorf, 

321 

Barmen, 

492  Beaupreau, 

207 

Avares,              29, 521 

Bagnols, 

221 

Barmstedt, 

418 1  Beau  vais, 

184 

Avarian  mark, 

31 

Bailleul, 

190 

Barnstable, 

238  Beauvoir  sur  Mer,  210 

Aveiro, 

72 

Bajuarians, 

298 

Barolo, 

108|Bechtheim, 

357 

Avellino, 

142 

Bakonya  Forest, 

520 

Baron  Hill, 

247  Beckum, 

483 

Avenches, 

168 

Baktshisarai, 

610 

Barr, 

197  Bedarieux, 

220 

A  versa, 

142  Bala, 

246 

Barrow, 

14  Bed  burg, 

492 

Avesnes, 

l91|Balaguer, 

95 

Barsac, 

215IBederkesa, 

438 

Avesta, 

570 

Balaklava, 

610 

Bartenstein,    337 

,496  Bedford, 

237 

Aveyron   Depart- 

Balasfalva, 

531 

Bartfeld, 

527 1  Bedfordshire, 

237 

ment, 

216 

Balaton  Lake, 

11 

Barth, 

470  Beerbersr, 

7 

Avezzano, 

143 

Balearic  Islands, 

96 

Baruth, 

467 

Beeskow, 

466 

Avigliana, 

107 

Balerno, 

165 

Barwalde, 

467 

Befort, 

199 

Avignon, 

224 

Balingen, 

333 

Basardshik, 

630 

Beierberg, 

7 

Avila, 

89 

Balkan, 

6 

Baschkirs, 

580 

Beilngries, 

322 

Aviles, 

90 

Ballenberg, 

344 

Bashaw, 

626 

Beira, 

72 

Avlona, 

633 

Ballenstedt, 

404 

Basle, 

157 

Beja, 

73 

Avola, 

148 

Balleyma, 

258 

,  Little, 

157 

Bejar, 

90 

Avranches, 

187 

Ballina, 

259 

Basques,             19,  76 

Belchen, 

7 

Ax, 

218 

Ballinasloe, 

259 

Basques,  country 

Belem, 

71 

Axel, 

271 

Ballinrobe, 

259 

of  the, 

216 

Belfast, 

257 

Axius, 

15 

Ballon  d' Alsace, 

6 

Basque  Provinces,  97 

Belfort, 

199 

Ayamonte, 

92 

Ballon  de  Sulz, 

6 

Bassano, 

542 

Belgard, 

472 

Aylesbury, 

235 

Ballstall, 

164 

Bassum, 

436 

Belgians, 

263 

Ayr, 

250 

Ballycastle, 

258 

Bastia, 

225 

Belgium, 

275 

Ayrshire, 

250 

Ballysbannon, 

258 

Bastide  de  Clar- 

Belgorod, 

592 

Azof  Sea, 

10 

Balme,  La, 

222 

ence, 

218 

Belgrade, 

635 

Azore  Islands, 

74 

Baltic     Provinces 

Bastogne, 

283 

Beligrad, 

634 

Azores, 

74 

of  Russia, 

595 

Batalha, 

72 

Bellac, 

212 

Azov, 

612 

Baltic  Sea, 

9 

Batavians, 

263 

Belle  Isle, 

209 

Azpeytia, 

97 

Balzers, 

351 

Bath, 

239 

Belleville, 

214 

Bamberg, 

319 

Bath  (Dutch  fort) 

,270 

Belley, 

201 

Baar  (Switzerland)  16 

Banagher, 

257 

Bathgate, 

249 

Bellinzona, 

165 

Baasdorf, 

406  Banat, 

528  Batsch, 

526 

Bellowerth, 

164 

Babadagh, 

630 1  Banbury, 

237JBattaglia, 

541 

Bellrock, 

252 

Babenberg, 

319  Ban  de  la  Roche, 

197  Battenberg, 

357 

Belluno, 

542 

Babenhausen,  326, 35 1 !  Bandon, 

259  Bauerwitz, 

476 

Belt,  Great, 

9 

Babia  Gura, 

5  Banff, 

253!  Baumannshohle, 

447 

,  Little, 

9 

Baccanello, 

117 

Banffshire, 

•J.">:i  B.-iume  les  Dames,  203  Belturbet,  ' 

258 

Baccarat, 

195 

Bangor,            246 

258  Bauske, 

597  Bel  voir, 

242 

Bacharach, 

488 

Banjaluka, 

ti:i:i  Bautzen, 

385Belzi, 

612 

Bachmut, 

612 

Bannockburn, 

251  {Bavaria,          311 

314  Bembibre, 

89 

Backnang, 

331 

Banos  de  Ebro, 

981 

Bavarian  circle, 

292l 

Bemposta, 

71 

642 


INDEX. 


PAOK 

612 
351 


Bender, 
Benduren, 
Bene,  108 
Benetutti,  114 
Benevento,  135 
Benidorme,  96 
Ben  Lawer9,  B 
Ben  Novi9,  6 
Benneckensteiu,  481 
Bennfelden,  19? 
Bensberg,  492 
Bentheim,  442 
Bentink,  earl  of,  424 
Berat,  633 
Beraun, 
Berbir, 
Berching,  322 
Berchtesgaden,  315 
Berdjansk,  611 
Berdyczew,  602 
Berent,  498 
Beresina,  12 
Berg,  duchy  of,  492 
Berg,  grand-du- 
chy of,  294 
Berga,  388 
Bergamo,  540 
Bergara,  97 
Bergedorf,  450 
Bergen,  577 
Bergen  (in  Bel- 
gium), 281 
Bergen  (in  Hesse- 

Cassel),  374 
Bergen   (on  the 

island  of  Riigen),  471 

Bergen  op  Zoom,  274 

Bergerac,  215 

Bergheim,  376 

Bergstrasse,  7 

Bergues,  190 

Bergzabern,  328 

Berka,             387,  389 

Berkeley,  240 

Berkshire,  235 

Berleburg,  486 

Berlin,  464 

Berlinchen,  467 

Bermeo,  97 

Bernalda,  145 

Bernaldo,  145 

Bernau,  465 

Bernay,  186 

Bernburg,  404 

Berne,  158 

Berneck,  319 

Berner  Oberland,  158 

Berukastel,     *  489 

Bernstadt,  474 

Bernstein,  467 

Beroea,  631 

Berre,  223 

Berry,  204 

Berthelsdorf,  385 

Bervie,  252 

Berwick,  244 

Berwickshire,  249 

Besancou,  202 

Besigheim,  331 


Beskides, 
Bessarabia, 


PAGE 

5 
611 
213 
560 

Betanzos,  90 

Bethune,  L8U 

Bettiiigen,  157 

Betzenstein,  320 

Beutelsbach,  336 

Beuthen,  475, 476 

Beveren,  280 

Beverley,  243 

Bevern,  447 

Bex,  168 

Beziers,  220 

Biala,  518 

Bialla,  497 

Bialowieza,  601 

Bialystock,  602 

Biancavilla,  148 

Bibbiena,  124 

Biberach,  334 

Biddeford,  238 

Bihacz,  634 

Biebrich,  362 

Biedenkopf,  357 

Biel,  159 

Biel,  Lake  of,  11 

Bielefeld,  484 

Biella,  108 

Bielsk,  602 
Bielsteinhohle,        447 

Bienne,  159 

Bietigheim,  331 

Biervliet,  271 

Bilbao,  97 
Bill  of  Portland,    238 

Biilerbeck,  483 

Billingfors,  573 

Billom,  213 
Hi  Hung.  Hermann,  433 

BiHwerder,  450 

Bilsen,  283 

Bilston,  241 

Binche,  281 

Bingen,  356 

Binic,  209 

Biograd,  634 

Birkenfeld,  426 

Birmingham,  241 

Birr,  257 

Birstein,  374 

Bisanz,  202 

Biscari,  148 

Biscay,  97 

Bisceglia,  144 
Bischofsheim,  342,  344 

Bischofsheim  vor 

der  Rhon,  323 

Bischofszell,  166 

Bischweiler,  198 

Bismark,  478 

Bistritz,  532 

Bitburg,  489 

Bitonto,  144 

Bitsch,  196 

Bitterfeld,  480 

Bivona,  147 

Bjelew,  591 


PAGK[ 

Bjorko,  38,  568; 

Bjorneborg,  598. 

Blackbird  Field,  635 

Blackburn,  243 

Black  Elster,  16 

Black  Forest,  7 
Black  Forest  circle  332 

Black  Russia,  601 

Black  Sea,  10 

Blankenberghe,  281 

Blankenburg,  401,  447 

I  Blankenese,  418 

JBlankenhayn,  387 

Blasendorf,  531 

Blasien-Zella,  394 

jBlaubeuren,  335 

Blaye,  215 

Bleiberg,  512 

Bleicherode,  481 

Bleking,  571 

Blendheim,  326 

Blexen,  423 

Blexum,  423 

Blieskastel,  328 

Blindheim,  326 

Blocksberg,  8 

Blois,  206 

Blomberg,  428 

Blumfeld,  347 

Bobbio,  111 

Bober,  13 

Boblingen,  331 

Bobruisk,  601 

Bochnia,  519 

Bocholt,  483 

Bockenem,  439 

Bockenheim,  374 

Bockum,  485 
Bodenteich  Lake,  43 1 

Bodenwerder,  436 

Bodoe,  577 
Bodrog-Keresstur,  527 

Bog,  12 

Bogense,  551 

Bohemia,  514 

Boehmerwald  Mts.,    7 

Boh  us,  573 

Boisbelle,  205 

Bois  le  Due,  273 

Boitzenburg,  466 

Bojano,  145 

Bojanowo,  499 

Bolbec,  186 

Bolkenhain,  475 

Bollenz,  165 

Bologna,  135 

Bolognese,  131 

Boise  i  m,  133 

Bolsward,  272 

Bolton,  243 

Bolzano,  513 

Bommel,  272 

Bonames,  456 

Bondage,  36 

Boness,  249 

Boniface  VIIL,  41 

Bonifacio,  225 

Bonn,  491 

Bonneville,  109,  159 


Bonnigheim,  331 

Bootia,  621 

Bopflngen,  336 

Boppard,  487 

Bora  Mis.,  6 

Borchloen,  283 

Bordeaux,  215 

Borgholm,  571 

Borgholzhausen,  484 

Borgloh,  441 
Borgo,               126,  509 

Borgomanero,  1 1 1 

Borgomasino,  108 
Borgo  Sandonnino  117 
Borgo  San  Sepol- 

cro,  124 

Borgosesia,  11 1 

Borgo  Taro,  117 

Borja,  94 

Borkelo,  272 
Borken,            371, 483 

Bonnio,  539 

Borua,  383 

Bomheim,  456 

Bornholm,  550 

Boros,  572 

Borowsk,  591 

Borromean  Isles,  1  ]  1 
Borrowstownuess,  249 

Borysthenes,  12 

Borzonasca,  113 

Bosa,  1 14 

Bosau,  426 

Bosco,  111 

Bosna  Serai,  633 

Bosnia,  633 

Bosniacs,  633 

Bosphorus,  10 

B  ossormeny,  529 

Boston,  237 

Bothnia  Gulf,  9 

Bottoshani,  637 

Botushan,  637 

Botzen,  513 

Bouchain,  190 

Boudry,  163 

Bouillon,  283 

Bouin,  210 

Boulogne,  189 

Boulonnais,  189 

Bourbon,  203 
Bourbon  l'Archam- 

bault,  204 
Bourbonne      les 

Bains,  192 

Bourbon  Lancy,  201 

Bourbonnais,  203 

Bourbon  Vendee,  210 

Bourdelois,  215 

Bourg,  215 

Bourgain,  222 

Bourganeuf,  212 

Bourg  en  Bresse,  201 

Bourges,  204 
Bourges  les  Bains,  204 

Bourg  la  Reine,  183 

Bourgneuf,  210 

Bourgogne,  199 
Bourg  St.  Andeol,  221 


IXDEX. 


613 


PAGE 

Bourmont.  19fi 

Boussac,    '  212 

Bouvignes,  282 

Boiiviues,  190 

Bovenden,  410 

Bove9,  108 

Boviuo,  144 

Bo  vines,  190 

B  ixherg,  344 

Boyle,  259 

Bra,  108 

Brabant,  278 

Brackenheim,  331 

Brackwede,  484 

Braclaw,  602 
Bradford,        239,  244 

Bradley,  241 

Bniga,"  73 

Braganza,  73 

Brahestad,  599 

Braila,  636 

Braine-Lalleu,  279 

Braiae  le  Comte,  281 

Brake,  423 

Brake!,  484 

Bramsche,  441 

Bramsledt,  417 

Brand,  381 
Brandenburg,  city 

of,  465, 
Brandenburg,  pro- 
vince of,  464 
Braslaw,  600 
B  iitz,  499 
Braubach",  364 1 
Braunau,  510' 
Braunfels,  488 
Braunlingen,  347| 
Braunsberg,  49(5 
Braunschweig,  416 
Bray,  256  | 
Bray  sur  Seine,  193 
Brazza,  535. 
Bre,  540  J 
Brechin,  252 | 
BreckniKsk,  246 
Brecknockshire,  246 
Brecon,  246 
Breda,  273 
Bregenz,  514 
Breisach,  345 
Breisgau,  344 
Bremen,  453, 454 
Bremen,  duchy  of,  438 
Bremerhaven,  454 
Bremerlebe,  438 
Bremgarten,  156 
Breno,  540 
Brenta  River,  15 
Brescello,  119 
Brescia,  539 
Breslau,  473 
Bressanone,  513 
Bresse,  201 
Bressuire,  210 
Brest.  209 
Bretagne,  La,  908 
Bretten,  342 
Breyzards,  1711 


PAGE  | 

Brianeon,  222 
Brians  205 
Bridgenorth,  24-2 
Bridgewater,  239 
Bridlington,  243 
Bridporl,  238 
Brie,  191,  193, 
Brie  Champenoise  l!)3 
Brie  Compte  Ro- 
bert, 1841 
Brie  Francoise,  184 
Brie  sur  Yeres,  184 
Brieg,  473 
Briel,  270 
Brienne,  192 
Briesen,  498 1 
Briey,  196 j 
Brig,  167 
Briga,  110 
Brighton,  23(5 
Brihuega,  88 
Brignolles,  224} 
Brilon,  485! 
Briudisi,  144  J 
Brioude,  213 1 
Bristol,  239 
Bristol  Channel,  10 
Britannia,  24 
Brittany,  208 
BrivelaGaillarde,  212 
Briviesca,  88 
Brixen,  513 
Brjiinsk,  901! 
Brecada,  117  j 
Brocken,  8 
Brody,  519 
Bruek  in't  Water- 
land,  2(58 
Bromberg,  49!) 
Bromsebro,  570 
Bronte,  148 
Brood,  534 
Broos,  532 
Bro9eley,  242 
Brotterode,  373 
Brouage,  21 1 
Brouwershaven,  270 
Brozzi,  123 
Bruchsal,  341 
Brack,  156, 511 
Briickenau,  323 
Bruges,  280 
Brugg,  156 
Briihl,  491 
Brundusium,  144 
Brunetta,  107 
Briinn,  516 
Brunsbiittel,  418 
Brunshausen,  438 
Brunswick,  city,  446 
Brunswick,  duchy 

of,  444 

Brunswick-Oels,  445 

Brussels,  278 

Brzesk  Cujavski,  605 

Brzesc  Litewski,  601 

Bublitz,  472 

Buccari,  529 

Buch,  215 


1 

PAOK 

PAOK 

Buchanan, 

251 

Biitzow, 

409 

Buchau, 

334 

Butzbach, 

357 

Buchen, 

341 

Hullsta.  ll, 

387 

Bin-hen, 

420 

B.itrinto, 

633 

Baciiholz, 

466 

Buxtehude, 

438 

Buchhorn, 

334 

Buxton, 

242 

Bacha, 

166 

Buchsweiler, 

198 

Cabras, 

114 

Bucina, 

114 

Cabrera  (isle  of) 

97 

Biickeburg, 

429 

Caceres, 

91 

Buckingham, 

235 

Cadaques, 

95 

Bucki  nghamshire,  235 

Cader  Idria, 

8 

Buckow, 

467 

Cadiz, 

92 

Bucks, 

235 

Cadore, 

542 

Buda, 

525 

Caen, 

186 

Budesheim, 

356  j  Caermarthen, 

245 

Biidingen, 

357  Caermarthenshire,  245 

Bitdissiu, 

385 

Caernarvon, 

216 

Budweis, 

516 

Caernarvonshire, 

246 

Buelach, 

169 

Cagliari, 

114 

Buen  Retiro, 

87 

Cahors, 

215 

Bueren, 

158 

Cairgorm, 

8 

Bug, 

13 

Caithness, 

254 

Bugey, 

202 

Cajazzo, 

142 

Biial, 

341  Calabria, 

145 

Bujalance, 

93  Calahorra, 

88 

Bukarest, 

636  j  Calais, 

189 

Bukowiua, 

520jCalataflmi, 

146 

Bulach, 

333  Calatayud, 

94 

Bulgaria, 

629  Calatrava, 

88 

Bulgarians, 

29,  629lCalcar, 

494 

Biiude, 

484|Caldano, 

126 

Bunzlau, 

474  Caledonians, 

248 

Biiren, 

484|Calenberg, 

435 

Burg, 
Burgas, 

477,  557  Cal  lata  bellata, 
629  Callenberg, 

5 
384 

Burgau, 

325 

Callies, 

472 

Burgdurf, 

437 

Calmar, 

570 

Burgdorf  (Switzer- 

Calne, 

239 

land), 

158 

Caltagirone, 

148 

Burghaslach, 

322 

Caltanisetta, 

147 

Burghaun, 

373 

Caluso, 

108 

Burghausen, 

315 

Calvados  Depart 

Burglitz, 

515 

ment, 

186 

Burgos, 

88 

Calvi, 

225 

Burgraviate  of  Nu- 

Calvorde, 

447 

remberg, 

318 

Calw, 

333 

Burgundian  circle, 292 

Camajore, 

126 

Btirguudians, 

24,  199 

Camaldoli, 

124 

Burgundy, 

27,  199 

Camargue, 

15 

Burgundy,  earl- 

Cam bray, 

190 

dom  of, 

202 

Carnbresis, 

190 

Burken, 

344  Cambridge, 
345;  Cambridgeshire, 

237 

Burkheim, 

237 

Burladingen, 

350 j  Cambusneath, 

251 

Burntisland, 

252  Camenz, 

385 

Burscheid, 

493|Caraerino, 

134 

Burslem, 

241  Cameryk, 

190 

Burton  upon  Trent  241  Cam  mi  n, 

470 

Burtscheid, 

490Camogli, 

112 

Bury, 

243  Campagna, 

142 

B  in  St.  Edmunds,  236  C.impagua  di  Ro- 

Busachi, 

114      ma, 

132 

Busachino, 

145  Campan, 

217 

Busca, 

107  Campanians, 

102 

Busco, 

636  Campbelltown, 

253 

Bute, 

252  Campen, 

272 

Buteshire, 

252  Campobasso, 

144 

Butjadiugerland,    423 

Campo  Formio, 

542 

644 


INDEX. 


PAGE; 

Cam  po  Mayor,         73]Carlstein, 
Campo  di  San  Pie-      jCarlsten, 

tro,  514(Carmagnola, 

Cainpredon,  95  Carmona, 

Cancale,  208  Carniola, 

Cancaio,  bay  of,     208  Carolath, 
Candia,  631,  632  Carolina, 

Canea,  632jCarouge, 

Can  gas  de  Onis,       90  Carpathes, 


PAGEj  PAGE 

515  'Castle  Rushen,  247  Chamouny, 
573  Castleton,  242,  247  Champagne, 
107  Castres,  215,  220  Chantilly, 


Canigou 
Canino, 
Canna, 
Cannae, 
Canne, 
Cannes, 
Cannicatti, 
Canobbio, 
Canosa, 
Canossa, 
Cans  tat  t, 
Cantabria  Mts., 
Cantal    Depart- 
ment, 
Cantavieja, 
Canterbury, 
Can  tyre, 
Capaccio, 
Cape  Lizard, 
Cape  Trafalgar, 
Cape  St.  Vincent, 
Capetians, 
Capetingians, 
Capodisiria, 
Caponnori, 
Cappel, 
Capraja, 
Caprera, 
Capri, 
Capua, 
Carcarente, 
Carcassouue, 
Cardiff, 
Cardigan, 
Cardiganshire, 
C.i  nl(  ma, 
Carelia, 
Carliaix, 
Caritcnan, 
Carignano, 
Carini, 
Carinthia, 
Carlebv,  Gamla, 

,Ny, 

Carlingford, 

Carlisle, 

Carh  .forte, 

Carlopago, 

Carlovingians, 

Carlow, 

Carlowitz, 

Carlsbad, 

Carls  bo  rg, 

Carlsburg, 

Carlshafen, 

Carlshamn, 

Carlskrona, 

Carlsruhe, 

Carlstad, 

Carlstadt, 


5  Carpathes  proper,      5  Catalaunum 
133  Carpentras,  225, Catalonia, 

255  Carpi, 
144 1  Carrara, 
144  Carrick  fergus, 
224  Carrickmacross, 
147  Carrick  on  Shan- 
Ill      non, 

144  Carrick  on  Suire, 
119  Carron, 
331  Carthagena, 
5  Carthageniensis, 

Carthaus, 
213  Casale, 
94  Casale  de  Grecchi,  147 
236  Casal  Maggiore,     538 
253  Caselle, 
142  Casentino, 

Caserta, 

Caserta  Nuova, 

Cashel, 

Cassano, 


92  Castro  del  Rio 
511  Castro  Giovanni 
475  Castronuovo, 

93  Castroreale, 
161jCastrovillari, 

5  Catalaunian  Fielda  102  Charkow, 

192  Charlemagne. 
94  Charlemont, 


93  Charente 

147  Charente  Depart 
146       incut, 

148  Chsrenton, 
145  Charite,  La, 


14.-. 

370 

Cassel  (in  France)  190 


Cassis, 

Cassiterides, 

Cassonay, 


119  Catanea, 
119  Catania, 
257jCatanzaro, 

258  Catharinburg, 
Catherlagh, 

259  Caiheta, 
2W  Catholic  Nether- 
251 1     lands, 

94jCatolica, 
84'Cattaro, 

Cattegat, 

Caub, 

Caudebec, 

Caudinian  Passes, 

Cauterets, 

Cava, 

Cavaillon, 

Cavan, 

Cavoux, 

Cefalu, 

Celano, 

Celle, 

Celts, 

Ceneda, 


PAGE 

110 

191 

1&5 

16 

211 
183 

204 
594 

30 
191 
281 

27 
193 
201 
465 
205 


110 


224 

23;) 


471 


Castel  (in  Bava- 


Castel  franco, 
Castel  Gandolfo, 
Castelguelfo, 
Castell, 
Castellamare,  141,146 
Castellamonte,        108 
Castel  lane, 
Castel  Una  Marit- 

tima, 
Castello, 


224 


Castello  de  Ampu- 

rias, 
Castellobranco, 
Castellon   de    la 

Plana, 
Castel  uaudary,        2 
Castelnuovo,  1 

Castel nuovo   di 

Garfajjna, 
Castel  Sardo, 
Castel  Sarrazin, 
Castelvetrano, 

573  i  Castenedolo, 

531|CastiKlione, 

370lCastiJe, 

571|Castilians, 


148  Charleroi, 

148  Charles  Martell, 

145  Charleville, 
3  Charolles, 

257  Charlottenburg, 
75  Chartres, 

Chartreuse, 
277 !     Grande,  222 

147  Chasseron,  6 

535  Chatam,  236 

9  Chateaubriand,       210 
364  Chateau  Cambre- 
186      sis,  190 

142  Chateau-Chinon,    204 
217  Chateau  duBourg,  211 

142  Chateaudun,  205 
225  Cbateau-Gonthier,  207 

258  Chateaulin,  209 
107  Chateau  du  Loir,   207 

146  Chateauneuf,  207 

143  Chateauneuf  de 

437i     Random,  221 

19  Chateau  Regnaud,  13 

542  Chateau-Renard,    224 


Central  Franconia,320  Chateauroux, 


Central  Italy, 

Cento,    | 

Cephalonia, 

Cerdagne, 

Ceret, 

Cerigo, 

Cerigotto, 

Cerlier, 

Cernay, 

Cers, 

Certaldo, 

Cervera, 

Cervia, 

Cesana, 

Cesena, 

Cette, 

Ceva, 

Cevio,     * 

Cezimbra, 

Chabeuil, 

Chablais, 

Chablis, 

Chalkis, 

Chalonnes, 


205 
195 
193 
210 


Chalons  sur  Marne  192Chenceny, 


57 1 1  Castillon, 
340  Castlebar, 
573  Castle  Comer, 
323,529!Castlereagh, 


119 

114 
2-21 
148 
541) 
539|Chalu8, 

87 1  Cham, 

76  Cham  (Switzer- 
215      land), 
259!  Cham  bery, 
257  Chambord, 
259'Chambra, 


103  Chateau  Salins, 
135  Chateau  Thierry 
616  Chatelleraut, 
219Chatillon  sur 
2191     Marne,  192 

610  Chat il Ion  sur 
6161     Seine,  201 

158'Chatillonles 
199'     Dombes,  202 

247!Chatillon(in  Italy)  109 
123  Chatts,  297 

95,  96Chatsworth, 
135  \  Chaudes- Aigues, 

107  [  Chaudfontaiue, 
135  Chaumont, 
220  Chauny, 

108  Chaux  de  Fonda, 
165  Chaves, 

72lChelm, 
222  Chelm  ford, 

109  Chelsea, 
193  Cheltenham, 
623  Chemille, 
207;  Chemnitz, 


24-3 
213 
282 
193 
185 
163 
73 
007 
936 
23.-) 
240 
207 
383 
606 
Chalons  sur  Sadne  201  jChene  le  populeux  193 


212  Chepstow,  240 

317  Cher,  15 
I  Cher  Department,  204 

168jCherasco,  108 

109 1  Cherbourg,  187 

206Cheronea,  621 

150]Cherson,  611 


INDEX. 


Cherusks, 
Cheshire, 
Chester, 
Chesterfield, 
Cheviot  Hills, 
Chiaramontc, 
Chiari, 
Chiasso, 
Cliiavari, 
Chiavenna, 
Chichester, 
Chiclana, 
Chiem  Lake, 
Chieri, 
Chieti, 
Chi  may, 
Chinchilla, 
Chi  action, 
Chilian, 
Chiny, 
Chioggia, 
Chiozza, 
Chippenham, 
Chiusa, 
Chiusi, 
Chivalry, 
Chivasso, 
Choi  let, 
Clioper, 
Chotin, 
Christburg, 
Chrislchurch, 
Christian  ia, 
Christianiafjord, 
Christianopel, 
Curistiansand, 
Christianstad, 
Christiansund, 
Cliristinehamn, 
Christinestad, 
Chrudin, 
Chur, 
Ciablese, 
Cid,  the 
Cilli, 

Cimbrians, 
Ciinbrishamn, 
Cinesi, 
Cinosa, 
Circe, 

Cinque  Ports, 
Cinto, 
Cintra, 
Ciotat,  La, 
Cirey, 

Cirknitz  Lake, 
Cisjuranian  Bur- 
gundy, 
Cistercium, 
Cita  di  Cistello, 
Cita  della  Pieve, 
Citeaux, 
Citta  Vechia, 
Ciudadela, 
Ciudad  Real, 
Ciudad  Rodrigo, 
Cividale, 


paok  | 
297  ;Ci vita  Ducalo, 
242  Civitadi  Penne 
242  Civita  Vecchia, 
242  Ci vitella  del 

8      Tronto, 
148  Civray, 
540  Clackmannan, 

165  Clackmannanshire  251:  Como  Lake 
1 13  Clagenfurt  Lake,      J 1  IComorn, 
539  Clairvaux,        192,  307!Compiegne, 
2U4 !  Concarneau, 

13 1  Conches, 
260  Concordia, 
443,  444  Conde, 


143  Comarca  diRoma,  132 
143  Comino,  150 

133  jCoiiiinotto, 

Coiniso, 
143  J  Com  mercy, 
210;Commiues, 
251!  Como, 


PAOK 

Cossacks,  580 

Cossacks  of  the 
Don,  612 

148,C6ted'Or,  6 

195  Cdte  d'Or  Dopart- 


190, 2801      mt-nt,  201 

53HiC6ihen,  406 

11  DotroM,  145 

526Cotlbus,  467 

184|Cottian  Alps,  4 

209jCoulungesles  Vi- 

186      neuses,  201 

119  Coulommiers,  11)3 

190 1 Council   at  Con- 

442  CmHlesurNoireaul87|     stance,  302 

213  Condom,                  2J6iCouncil  at  Trent,  302 

Condomois,  216lCountry  of  Cam 


236  Clamecy, 

92  Clara  River. 

11  Clare, 
107  Clausthal, 
143  Cleraenswerth, 
28 J  Clermont, 

94  Clermont  en  Au- 

89j      vergne,  213|Condrieu,  bresi? 

203 1  Clermont  en  Beau- 
283      vaisis,  1^4  Conflans, 

541  Clermont-Ferrand  213  Cont'oleus, 
541  Clermont  l'Herault220;Coni, 
239  <  Icrmont-Lodeve,  220iConil, 

106  Clermont-Oise,       184JConitz, 
124  Clery,  205  Connaught,  258 

46Cleve,  494  J  Constance,  346 

107  Cleven,  530  Constance,  Lake  of,  1 1 
207|Clingen,  401  Constantinople,      628 

12iClonmel,  259,  Constantinople 

612  Clovis,  king  of  the  (Hist.), 


Conference  Island  217  Courmayeur 
109  Course u I e, 
212!Courtesoii, 
107lCourtray, 
92|Coutances, 
498  Coutras, 


498      Franks, 

238|Clugny, 

576|Clumber  Park, 

576jCluny, 

57l|Cluse, 

576 

572 

577 

573 


MS 


CI  uses,  110 

Clusium,  124 

Clusone,  valley  of,  107 
Clyde,  14 

599|Clvdesdale,  250 

516  Clyde  Iron  Works,  251 


16-2  Coblenz, 
109|Coburg, 
88  Cocconato, 

Codogno, 

Coe, 

Coesfeld, 

Cognac, 

Cogoleto, 

Coimbra, 

Col  berg, 

Colchester, 

Colditz, 
■>  Coldstream, 
195IColebrookdale, 
11 


511 
307 
573 
140 

147 
107 
•23H 
5 
71 
233 


26 1  Contessa, 
201  Conti, 

Conza, 

Copa, 

Copenhagen, 

Coppenbriigge, 

Coppet, 

Corbach, 

Corbeil, 

Corcyra, 

Cordova, 

Corfu, 

Cori, 
108Coria, 
538  Corigliano, 
253  Corinth, 
483  Cork, 
211  Corleone, 
113;C6rlin, 
72 1  Cormaggiore, 


38,39 
147 


I  IK) 
[00 
188 
•J-23 
280 
187 
•215 
350 
•210 

:-2 

510 


Cove, 
Coventry, 
Covilhao, 
Cracow, 

Crailsheim,  336 

Cranach,  320 

Crane n burg,  494 

Craonne,  185 

142|Crecy,  188 

12|Creetown,  250 

549  Creglingen,  336 

436  Creil,  185 

168Crema,  540 

376  Cremona,  538 

184  Crescentino,  108 

615|Crepy,  184 
92  Crespy  en  Laonais  185 
615  Crespy  en  Valois,  184 


133  Cressy, 
91  Crest, 
145  Creta, 
621  Creuse-Depart- 
259|     ment, 
J46  Creux  du  Vent, 
472  Creuzburg, 
109  Creuzot, 


471  jCorneliusmiinster,  490  Crevecoeuer, 


Civita  Cistellana,    133  Columbretes, 
Civita  di  Chieti,      143i  Comacchiu, 


Coleraine, 
Coll, 
300  Colle, 
201  Collioure, 
134|Colmar, 
134 1  Col  mars, 
201  Coin, 

150  Cologne,  ancient 
97;    archbishopric  of,  490  Cortina, 

881 ,  city  of,  491  Corvey, 

90iColomba,  97Corvo, 

512  Cofc  >mo,  117  Cosenza, 

9-.  Coal  n, 
135  Cosue, 


236iCorneto, 
382  { Corn  igliano, 
249  Cornwall, 
342iCorreggio, 
258JCorreze  Depart- 
255      ment, 
124 1  Corsica, 
219iCorsignano, 
198iCortaillod, 
224Corte, 
491  Cortona, 
(Cortryk, 


]88 


212 
I 
389 
201 
190 
246 
610 
383 
408 


133  Crickhowel, 
112  Crimea, 
238  Crimmitzsch.au, 
119  Crivitz, 

jCroates,  29 

212  Croatia,  529 

225  Croce  Mosso,  108 

124  Croja,  633 

163  Croix  Rousse,  La,  214 


225  Cromartv, 
124  Cromwell, 
280  Crosic,  Le, 

90  Croton, 
484  Crotoy, 

75  Croydon, 
145  Crusades, 
471  Csepin, 
204  Csongrad, 


254 
233 
210 
145 
188 
235 
45 
530 
528 


646 


INDEX. 


PAGE  | 


Cucarro, 

Cuccio, 

Cud  i  Hero, 

Cuenca, 

Cuglieri, 

Cuilly, 

Cnllen, 

Cully, 

Culm, 

Culm  bach, 

Culmsee, 

Cumberland) 

Cum  brays, 

Cumbrede  Mulha 

ceu, 
< '  imiaini, 
Cuueo, 
Cans, 
Cuorgne, 
Cupar, 

Curishe  Haff, 
Curland, 
Cusel, 
Cuxhafen, 
Cyclades, 
Cylhera, 
Czar, 

Czarnikow, 
Czech, 

Czenstochau, 
Czernigow, 
Czernowitz, 
Czerny  Georg, 


Dacia,521,530,635,630 


PAGK| 

Ill  Davos, 

5  Davidow,  6(11 

90  Dax,  217 

88  Debreczin,  528 

114|Debreczin  Heath,  502 


168  Dees, 
253  Deggendorf, 
168  Deidesheim 
49Speinach, 
319!Deister, 
498  Delbriick, 
244  Delemont, 
252 1  Delft, 
pelfzyl, 

5|Delitzch, 
107lDelmenhorst, 
107!Delos, 
4*9  Dei  phi, 
lOHpelsberg, 
251  Delvino, 

9  Demmin, 
597  Demonte, 
328!Demotica, 
450  Denain, 


Dago, 

Dahlen, 

Dal  River, 

Dalarue, 

Dalekarlien, 

Dalhem, 

Dalkeith, 

Dalmatia, 

D;i  Island, 

Dalya, 

Dana, 

Dam  bach, 

I),  i  in  m, 

Dammersfeld, 

Dammgarten, 

Damvilliers, 

Daniistris, 

Daugast, 

Danish  Islands 

Dannemoia, 

Daiineiilierg, 

D.uiizick, 

Danube, 

Danube  circle, 

Danzig, 

Dardanelles, 

Darkehmen, 

Darlington, 

Darmstadt, 

Daroca, 

Dartmouth, 

Dauphins  of  Vien 

note, 
Dauphiny, 


Denbigh, 
Denbighshire, 
Dender, 
Dendermonde, 
Denia, 
Denmark, 
Deptt'ord, 
Derby, 
Derbyshire, 
Derenburg, 
Derry, 
Des, 

Desenzano, 
Desna, 
Dessau, 
Detmold, 
Deitelbach, 
Detlingen, 
Deutichem, 
Deutsch-Crone, 
Deutsch- Wallen- 
berg, 
Deutz, 
Deux-Ponts, 
Deva, 
Deventer, 
Devil's  Bridge, 
Devil's  Ladder, 
Devonport, 
Devonshire, 


Deynse, 

Diakovar, 

Diauo, 

Die, 

Diedenhofen, 
497|Dieburg, 
10  Diekirch, 
497Diepenau, 
244  Diepholz, 
354  I  Dieppe, 
MJDieagtMiuofen, 
238;Diust, 

Dietftirt, 
222  Dietz, 
22^.  Die u  (island), 


531 
316 
327 
333 
8 
484 
150 
269 
273 
480 
42.1 
623 
RSI 
158 
633 
47(1 

roe 

v.n 
M6 
MB 

10 

no 

06 
543 
336 

242 
478 

sse 

S3] 

53 » 

12 
(05 

438 

32! 
333 

272 
498 

47.". 
491 
338 
531 
272 
106 
983 


530 
142 
222 1 
196 
355 
367 
436 
436 
184 
166 
278 
3 17 
369 
210 


Dieu  le  Fit, 

jDieuze, 
Digne, 
Dijon, 
J  Di  I  len  burg, 
jDillingen, 
Dinan, 
Dinant, 
!  Dingle, 
i  Dingwall, 
iDinkelsbiihl, 
jDinklage, 
iDinogetia, 
Dinslaken, 
Dippoldiswalde. 
Diischau, 
Disenlis, 
Dissen, 


PAGE) 

222  Dortmund, 

195  Dorum, 

224  Dotis, 

201  Douai, 

362  Doubs   Depart- 

325      meut, 

209  Done, 

282  Doutflas, 

260  Doullens, 

254  Douro, 

321  Dover, 

423  Dovre-fjeld, 

612  Down, 

494  Downham, 

381  Downpatrick, 

498  Dragomestre, 

162;Dragonera, 

441!Draguignan, 


Dithmarschen  414,418  Drama, 


Divenow, 
Dixmuyden, 
Dnieper, 
Dniester, 
Dobbertin, 
;  Doberan, 
!  Dobriluck, 
Doesburg, 


13  Dramburg, 
281  Dram  men, 

121  Drave, 

12  Dreieicherhain, 
410iDrenthe, 
409 1  Dresden, 
408  Dreux, 
272|Dreysam, 


Doge  (of  Venice),  540jDriburg, 


Dohna 

Dokkum, 

Dole, 

Dolgelly, 

Dollart, 

Dombes, 

Domburg, 

Dom  front, 

Dornhof, 

Domino, 

Domitz, 

Domndossola, 

Domo  d'Ossola, 

Domremy, 

Don, 

Donaghadee, 

Donaueschingen, 

Donaustauf, 

Donauworth, 

Donegal, 

Donez, 

Dongio, 

Doornik, 

Dora  Baltea, 

Dora  Riparia, 

Dorat, 

Dorchester, 

Dordogne, 

Dordogue  Depart 

merit, 
Durgali, 
Dornburg, 
Dornhan, 
Dornholzhaustm, 
Dornoch, 
Durnstetten, 
Dorohoe, 
Dorpat, 
Dorsetshire, 
D.irsteu, 
Dorl, 


381  Driesen, 


272 

6,  203 

246 


270 


Drin, 
Dristra, 
Drogheda, 
Dmhyczyn, 
Droitwich, 
Drome, 

D.dine   Depart- 
ment, 
Dronero, 
Drottningholm, 
Drontheim, 
Diiben, 
Dubienka, 
Dubitza, 
Dublin, 
Duderstadt 
Dudley, 
Duern, 
Duisburg, 
Dukeries, 
Dukla, 
Dulcigno, 
Dulken, 
Diilmen, 


PAGE 

485 
438 
526 
190 

202 
207 
247 
188 

14 
236 
5 
258 
237 
258 
621 

97 
224 
630 
472 
576 

16 
355 
273 
380 
185 
338 
484 
467 

15 
629 
257 
602 
240 

15 

222 
108 
568 
577 
480 
607 
533,  634 
256 
440 
240 
14 
494 
242 
519 
632 
493 
483 
251 


212|Dumbarton, 

238 1  Dumbartonshire,  251 

15!  Dumfries,  250 

[Dumfriesshire,  250 

215]  Dummer  Lake,  431 

114  puna,  13 

406lDunaburg,  601 

333|  Dunbar,  249 

359Dundalk,  257 

254!  Dundee,  252 

333:  Dunfermline,  252 

637!Dui.gann..n,  258 

5:)7|Dunuaivau,  259 

3S8|DanktfM,  253 

4831  Dunkirk,  191 

269iDanse,  249 


IXDEX. 


647 


Dunsinan, 

Durance, 

Durango, 

Durazzo, 

Diiren, 

Durham, 

D  irhamshire, 

Diirkheim, 

Durlach, 

Durtal, 

Dusemond, 

Diisseldorf, 

Dii-i-rltll.il, 

Dutch,  the 
Dutch  Flanders, 
Dwrna, 

D'Yeu  (island), 
Dyrrachium, 

Eaglesham. 
East  Flanders, 
K  ist  Friseland, 
East  Galloway, 
East  Luthian, 
East  Meath, 
Eastphalians, 
East  Prussia, 
East  Pyrenees  De- 
partment, 
Eist  Riding, 
Eaize, 
Ebeleben, 
Ebeltoft, 
Eberbach, 
Ebermanustadt, 
Ebern, 
Ebersdorf, 
f'bingen, 
Eboli, 
Ebro, 
Echallens, 
Eehelles, 
Echternach, 
Ecija, 

Eckardtsberga, 
Eckernforde, 
Ecktniihl, 
Eel  use, 
Eeouen, 
Edam, 

EdlerachylUa, 
Eddy  stone, 
Edenkoben, 
Ede-theitn, 
BduMB, 
Edinburgh, 
Edinburghshire, 
Ef»cloo, 
Eger  (city), 
Eger  Hn  Hungary)  527  BttrUle 
Eger  River,  16  Klvas, 


rxocl  PAOI 

253  Ehningen,  333 

15  Ehrenbreitstein,     487 
97  Ehrig,  400 

63-2  Eibenstock,  383 

490  Eichsfeld,  481 

244  Eichsfeld,  Lower,  440 

244  Eichstiidt, 

388  Eider, 

340  Eifel, 

207  Eilenburg, 

489  Eilsen, 

492  Eimbeck, 

492  Eindhoven 

2ii5  Einsiedeln, 

270  Eisenach, 
12  Eisenberg. 

210  Eisenburg, 

632  Eisenstadt, 
iEisfeld, 

251  Eisgrub, 

279  Eisleben, 

442  Ekenas, 

250  Ekesjo, 

249  Elba, 

257  Elbe, 

298  Elberfeld, 

495  Elbeuf, 
Elbing, 


PAOK 

158 
,  364 
17 
98 
345 
162 

ma 

572 

484 
298 
281 
234 


219  Elbingerode, 

243  El  burg, 

2l6Elche, 

401  Eldagsen, 

553  Eldena, 

314  Electoral  Hesse,    368 

319  Electoral  Palat- 

333      inate,  327,  312 

393  Electors  of  the  an- 

333  j     cient  German 

142 1     empire, 

14  Ellsborg, 
168  Elfs-iabben, 
109  Elgersburg, 
367  Elgin. 

92l  Elginshire, 
483!  El  is, 

5561  Elisabethgrad 
3lfi|Eilfeld, 
270  Ellbogen, 
184iEllg, 
SOU  Ellinsren, 
254  Ellrich, 
338  Ellwaugen, 
327  Blmshorn, 
327  Rtmntftr, 
630  Elsfleth, 
241)  Eisterben?, 
349  Elsterwerda, 
380  Elterlein, 
515  EH  mum, 


If. 

272 

4t> 


72 
221 
527 
192 


Egglofotein, 
Egidatadt, 

Egina. 

Egisheim, 

Eglisau, 

Egribos, 

Ehenheim, 

Ehingeu, 


32)  |  Ely, 

5:11  E'.vaiaus, 

820  Blxaeh, 

198  Elza, 

r; »  Bmbrun, 

633  Bindeo, 

197  r'mmendingen, 

3 ■;."»  Emmerich, 


Emme-valley, 

Ems  (in  Nassau). 

Ems  River, 

Encartaiiones, 

Endingen, 

Eug.idin, 

Engelberg, 

Eugelholm, 

Enger, 

Engers, 

Enghien, 

England, 

English  Channel, 

Enkhuyzen, 

Biikoping, 

Ennis, 

Enniscorthy, 

Enniskillen, 

Enontekis, 

Enos, 

Ens, 

Enschede, 

Ensigns  armorial 

Enstsheim, 

Entre  Minlio  e 

Douro, 
Entrevaux, 
Eperies, 
Eperuay, 

Epidaurus  Limera623 
Epinal, 
Epirus, 
Eppendorf, 
Eppiagen, 
Epsom, 
Epstein, 
Erbach, 
Exole, 
Enlely, 

Enlely  Highland, 
Erding, 
En-kli, 
Erfurt, 
Ergi  Kastri, 
Erlacii, 
Erlangen, 
Erlau, 
Erlier, 
E<-ma:ingen, 
Ermeland, 
Enistthal, 
Erpel, 
Erzgebirge, 
E<ch, 

E«chenbach, 
Eschersleben, 
E<chwege, 
E«;hweiler, 
Escurial, 

Es.'ns, 

Eskibnba, 
EitiUtutiOi 

Eskisagra, 
Espali.ui, 
Espinosa  de  los 

Monteros, 
Esqueira, 
E«ek, 
Essen, 


pack 
236 
509 
332 
159 
541 
118 
97 
527 
596 


Esslinj?, 

Esslingen, 

Estavayer, 

E-te, 

Este,  house  of, 

Estelh, 

Esterhaz, 

Bothnia, 

jEstremadura,  in 

[     Portugal, 

Estremadura  (in 
Spain), 

Estremoz, 

Eta  m  pes, 

Etaples, 

Etholone, 

Etna, 

Eton, 

Etruria, 

Etruria  (England),  241 

Etruscan  Apen- 
nines, 5 

Etruscans,  102 

Ettenheim,  346 

Ettenhei  ininunster  345 


71 

91 
73 

184 


5 

235 
122 


195 

632 
45!) 
342 
335 

364 

355 

125 

530 
5 
315 
B38 
481 
633 
158 
331 
537 
158 
166 

ton 

393 
488 

7 
317 

3n 

417 
371 

490 

a 

•14? 
03  i 
563 
639 

3J6 

PS 

72 
529 
494; 


Etllingen, 
Eu, 

Euboca, 
Eulen-Gebirge 
Eupen, 
Eure, 

Eure  Department,  186 
Eure  and  Loir  De- 
partment, 205 
European  Russia,  579 


341 
1*6 
623 

7 

490 

15 


Euskirchen, 

492 

Eutin, 

425 

Eviau, 

1H9 

Evora, 

73 

Evreux, 

1R6 

Exeter, 

238 

Exideuil, 

215 

Exilles, 

107 

Eyjaflalle-Joekul, 

8 

Eylau, 

496 

Eyraoutiers, 

212 

Faaborar, 

551 

Fabriauo, 

134 

Fachingen, 

362 

Faemund  Lake, 

11 

Faenza, 

135 

Faetano, 

136 

Fagaras, 

531 

Falaise, 

187 

Falkenberg,    196,572 

Falkirk, 

251 

Falmouth, 

239 

Falkdpmg, 

573 

Falser, 
Falun, 

Si 

F.wio, 

134 

FanoL', 

553 

Faro, 

74 

Faroe  Isles, 

557 

F-irsa, 

031 

Faucigny, 

199 

Faulquemont, 

196 

648 


INDEX. 


PAQKj 

FAOKl                                  paok(                                 pagk 

Fauquemont, 

368:Fivizzano, 

125JFrankenau, 

372  Fridericia, 

553 

Favara, 

147 

Fladstrand, 

552  Frankenberg,  372,  384  Friesoyte, 

423 

Faverges, 

109 

Fladungen, 

323 !  Frankenhauseu, 

401 

rriedberg, 

358 

Faviere, 

160 

Flanders,          279, 28 

474 

Friedberg  (in  Ba 

Favignana, 

147 

Flatow, 

498'Frankenthal, 

327 

varia), 

315 

Fayal, 

75 

Flemings,          19,  275  Fran  ken  wald, 

7 

Friedeberg,     467 

,475 

Fecamp, 

186 

Flensburg, 

556  Frankfort,  grand- 

Friedewald, 

373 

Feder  Lake, 

329 

Fleurus, 

281  j     ducliyof, 

294 

Fried  ingeu, 

332 

Fees, 

36  Flint, 

246,  Frank  fort  on  the 

Friedlaud,       496 

,  516 

Feglio, 

136  Flintshire, 

246      Mayne,         454 

455 '  Friedrichshafen, 

334 

Fehrbellin, 

465  Florae, 

221  Frankfort  on  the 

Fried  richshof, 

359 

Fejer  Templom, 

5341  Florence, 

123 1     Oder, 

467  Fried  richstadt, 

597 

Feldberg, 

7JFU>res, 

75  Frankish  circle, 

292  Friesack, 

466 

Feldberg,  Great, 

8JFloridia, 

1 18 '  Friinkisch-Kruin- 

IFrieses, 

263 

Feldkirch, 

514lFlottbeck, 

418|     bach, 

353  Friesland, 

272 

Felegyhaza, 

529 

Fluelen, 

Kit;  Franks  (Germau 

iFrieslunders, 

298 

Felicudi, 

149 

Flushing, 

270 

tribe), 

26  Frignano, 

119 

Felletin, 

212 

Fochabers, 

253 

Franks  (in  Tur- 

Fritzlar, 

372 

Fellin, 

597 

Foehn, 

152 

key), 

624  Frontignan, 

220 

Felsberg, 

371 

Foggia, 

144 

Franks,  Ripuarian  298  Froome, 

239 

Feltre, 

542 

Fohr, 

557 

,  Salic, 

298  Frosinoue, 

133 

Felvincz, 

532 

Foix, 

218 

Franzensbrunn, 

515  Frutingen, 

158 

Femern, 

557 

Fokshan, 

636 

Frascati, 

132  Fuente  Ovejuna, 

93 

Fene9trelle, 

107 

Fdldvar, 

532 

Frasersburgh, 

252  Fuenterabia, 

97 

Feodosia, 

610 

Foligno, 

134 

Frauenburg, 

496  Fugger,  princes 

Ferrara, 

135 

Fondi, 

142 

Frauenfeld, 

165i     and  earls  of, 

326 

Fere  Champenoise, 

Fonni, 

114 

Frauenstein, 

381  Fulda  (city), 

373 

La, 

192 

Fontenay, 

281 

Fraustadt, 

499  Fulda  (Hessian 

Fermanagh, 

258 

Fontenay  le  Comte  110 

Fredensborg, 

549  i     province), 

372 

Fermo, 

134 

Fontainebleau, 

184 

Frederic  the  Great  46 

17 

Fermoselle, 

90 

Fontaine  rEveque281 

Frederiksborg, 

549  Fulnek, 

517 

Fermoy, 

259 

Fontaine  Fran- 

Frederikshald, 

576  Fumay, 

191 

Feruey, 

202 

caise, 

201 

Frederishamn, 

599  Funen, 

551 

Ferrol, 

90 

Foradada, 

97 

Frederikshavn, 

552  FUnfkirchen, 

526 

Ferte  Bernard,  La  207 

Forcalquier, 

224 

Frederiksoort, 

273  Furnas, 

75 

Ferte  sous  Jouarre,  193 

Forchheim, 

320 

Frederiksort, 

556  Furnes, 

281 

Feuchtwang, 

320 

Forchtenberg, 

337 

Frederiksstad, 

576  Fiirstenau, 

441 

Feudal  System, 

35 

Forchteustein, 

527 

Frederikstad, 

556  Furstenberg,    412,  44 

Fichtelberg,  Great,    7 

Fordon, 

500 

Frederikssteen, 

576  Furstenberg,  prij 

. 

Little, 

7 

Forest  of  Thurin 

Frederikssund, 

550      ces  of,           346 

,347 

Fichtel-Gebirge, 

7 

g'a, 

7 

Frederiksviirn, 

576  Furstenberg,  town 

Fiesole, 

123 

Forez, 

214 

Frederikswerk, 

549       of, 

347 

File, 

251 

Forfax, 

252 

Free  Cities, 

51  FUrstenstein, 

473 

Fifeshire, 

251 

Forfaxshire, 

252 

Freiberg, 

381 

Fiirstenwalde, 

467 

Figeac, 

216 

Forli, 

135 

Freiburg  in  Breis 

Furth, 

320 

Figline 

123 

Formentera, 

97 

gau,               344 

,345 

Fiissen, 

325 

Figueira  do  Mon- 

Fornovo, 

117 

Freiburg  (in  Swit 

Fyen, 

551 

dego, 

72 

Forres, 

253 

zerland), 

159 

Figueras, 

95 

Forst, 

327 

Freiburg  unterm 

Gadebiisch, 

409 

Filehne, 

500 

Forste, 

468 

FUrstenstein, 

473  Gabela, 

634 

Filibe, 

630 

Fort  Louis, 

198 

Freienhagen, 

376'Gaeta, 

112 

Finale, 

113 

Fort  Opus, 

535 

Freienwalde, 

466  Gaels, 

19 

Finale  (iu  Mode- 

Fort  Vauban, 

198 

Freihan, 

474  Gai  bach, 

:J23 

na), 

119 

Forth, 

14 

Freising, 

315  Gaillac, 

220 

Findhorn, 

253 

Fosdinovo, 

119 

Freiwaldau,     475 

,  517  Gailinipi, 

Fingal'8  Cave, 

254 

Fossano, 

108 

Frejus, 

224  Gainsborough, 

2)7 

Finisterre  Depart- 

Fossigny, 

109 

French  Flanders, 

190  Gais, 

157 

ment, 

209 

Fossombrone, 

134 

French  Nether- 

i Galacz, 

637 

Finland, 

598 

Fotheringay, 

241 

lands, 

190!Galanlha, 

524 

Finland  Gulf, 

9 

Fougeres, 

208 

French  Switzer- 

|Galaxidi, 

621 

Finnan, 

252 

Fraga, 

94 

land, 

167  Galenstock, 

166 

Finnish  tribe, 

564 

Francavilla, 

145 

Fresh  Haff, 

9  Galicia  (Austrian)  518 

Finnmarken, 

578 

France, 

170 

Freudenstadt, 

333  Galicia  (in  Spaiu; 

,  90 

Finspong, 

570 

Franche 

Freudenberg, 

314  Gallaecia, 

84 

Finsteraarhorn, 

4 

Comte,         200, 202 

Freystadt, 

318  Gallego.                14,  77 

Finsterwalde, 

468 

Franconi  a, 

Friaul,                31 

512  Gallipoli,          144 

,628 

Fiorenzuola, 

117 

318,320,322 

Friaul,  Venetian, 

542 .Galloway,  East, 

250 

Fiume, 

529 

Franconiau  Alps, 

7 

Friburg, 

159 New. 

2.30 

Fiumicino, 

133 

Franeker, 

272 

Frick, 

156 

,  West, 

250 

INDEX. 


64T 


Galium, 

Galoshields, 

Galway, 

Gamertingen, 

Gamla  Carle  by, 

Gandersheim, 

Gandia, 

Ganges, 

G  an  nat, 

Gap, 

Gard. 


PAGE 

114 

250 
259 
349 


Gerabronn, 
Gerace, 
Gerardraer, 
.__  Gerdauen, 
599iGeringswalde, 
447|Gerlachsheim, 
96  German   Empire, 
220 1     the  ancient, 
204  Germanes, 
222|Germania,  297 

15  Germanic  Confed- 


PAG«|  PAUK 

336  Glatz,  474 

145 1  Glatz,  earldom  of,  474 


Gard  Department,  220 1     eration 
Garda  Lake,  1 1  Germany 


Gardanne, 

Gardelegen, 

Garding, 

Gardone, 

Garfagna, 

Garfagna  Grandu 

cale, 
Gargnano, 
Garigliano, 
Garmisch, 
Garmouth, 
Garonne, 
Garter,  the, 
Garz, 
Garz  (on  the  island 


224  Germersheim 
478  Gernrode, 
556  Gernsbach, 
540  Gernsheim, 
119  Gerolzhofen, 

|  Gerona, 
125  Gerresheim, 
540  Gers, 


195  Glauchau, 

496:Gleiwitz, 

383  Glen-Coe, 

344  Glina, 
Glogau, 

291|Glommen, 
18,  19  Glons, 
Glott. 

Gloucester, 
Gloucestershire, 
Gliicksbrunu, 

3-27  Gliicksburg 


GlUckstadt, 

Gmiind, 

Gmunden  Lake, 

Gnadau, 
_     Gnadenfeld, 
492  Gnesen, 
15Goch, 


404 
341 
354 
323 
95 


15  Gers  Department,  216  Goes, 
315  Gersau,  164 1  Goeschenen 

253  Gerstungen, 

15  Gertruidenberg. 
232  Gesecke 


389iGoetzenbruck 
274G6ksholm, 
485|Goldapp, 
158iGoIdau, 


of  Riigen), 
Gascony, 
G ostein, 
Gatshina, 
Gaualgesheim, 
Gaul, 
Gebeaee, 
Gebweiler, 
Gedern, 
Geertsberghen, 
Geeste, 
Geeslhacht, 
Gefle, 
Gehren, 
Geilnau, 
Geisenbeim, 
Geiser, 
Geisingen, 
Geislingen, 
Geismar, 
Gelderland, 
Geldern, 
Geldern  (in  Prus- 


G rand  pre, 
Grand  Signior, 
1  Gessenay,  158iGoldau,  164;  Grandson, 

Gvstrikland,  573  Goldberg,        410,  474  Grand  Vizier, 

165  Golden  Bull,  301  Grangemouth, 

202| Golden  Fleece,  83, 506  Gran  River, 


Gellen, 

Gellbeim, 

Gelnhausen, 

Gembloux, 

Gemiinden, 

Generalife, 

Geneva, 

Geneva  Lake, 

Genevese, 

Genevois, 

Gengenbach, 

Gennargentu, 

Gennep, 

Genoa, 

Genthin, 

Gepides, 

Gera, 


471  Gevio, 
216  Gex, 
510  Geyer, 
596  Geysa, 

356  Gheel, 
26  Ghent, 

481  Giant's  Causeway,  258 
198  Giants'  Mts., 

357  Gianuti, 
280  Giare, 

17  Giaveno, 
450  Gibraltar, 
573  Giebichenstein, 
401  Gieboldehausen, 
365  Gien, 
363  Giencen, 
559  Gieasen, 
347  Gifhorn, 
334  Gigantiuu, 
371  Giglio, 
271  Gijon, 
271  Gilgenberg, 

|Gingst, 
494  Giornico, 
471  Giovenazzo, 
328  Girgenti, 
374  Gironde, 
282Gironde  Depart- 
323,  372;     ment, 

93  Gisborough, 
160Giurgewo, 

11  Givet, 
109Givors. 
109|  Glaciers, 
341  Gladbach, 
5  Glammis, 
368  Glamorganshire, 
111,112  Glarus, 
478  Glasgow, 

24  Glashutle, 
399  Glastonbury, 


384 
476 
253 
533 
474 

14 
282 
326 
240 
240 
391 
557 
416 
336 

11 
479 
476' 
500i 
4114 
270 
l(i(i 
19.-) 
5(59 
497 
164 
474! 

II 


Gournay, 

Govone, 

Gozzo, 

Graben, 

Grabfeld, 

Grabow, 

Graciosa, 

Gradisca, 

Gradisca,  New, 

,  Old, 

Grafenau, 
Grafenberg, 
Grafenberg  (in  Ba 

varia), 
Griifenhainchen, 
Griifrath, 
Grammont, 
Grampian  Hills, 
Gran, 
Granada, 
Granard, 
Grand  Colombier, 
Grand  Donnon, 
Grand  Chartreuse,  22 


10 

32f> 
32 

40f; 

51; 
53  i 

53 

3K 
518 


4:.. 
W 

S3 
9:< 
•Jo: 


383  Goldingen, 
389  Goldkronach, 
279  Gollheim, 
279  Gollnow, 

Gollup, 

Gondreville, 

Gonten, 

Gonzaga, 

Goole, 

Goppingen, 

Goree, 

Gorgeny, 

Gorgeny-Szent- 
Imreh, 

Gorgona, 

Gorizia, 

Gorkum, 

Gorlitz, 

Gortz-Schlitz, 

Gorz, 

Goslar, 

Gospich, 

Gosport, 

Gossau, 

Gota-Canal, 

Gotha, 

Gotha  River, 

Gotharike, 

Gdtheborg, 

Gothic  style  in  ar 
chitecture, 
152  Goths, 
493  Gottenburg, 
253  Gdttingen, 
245  Gottland, 
161  Gottlieben, 
256  Gottorp, 
381  Gouda, 
239  Gourdon, 

28 


596 
319 
328 
470 
498 
195  J 
157 
539 
243 
335! 
270j 
5311 

531 
125 

512 
270 
475 
358 
512! 
439! 
533 1 
238 
169 
562 
394 
13 
570 
572 

44 
18,23 
572 
440 
571 
165 
556 
270 
216 


193 
6-26 


251 
16 


Gran  Sasso  d'ltalia,   5 


168 
187 
93 
450 
221 


Gran  see, 
Granville, 
Grao, 

Grasbrook, 
Grasse, 
Grasse,  La, 
Gratz, 
Gratz, 
Graudenz, 
Graulhet, 
Grave, 
Gravelines, 
Gravelingen, 
s'Gravenhaag, 
Gravenstein, 
Gravesand, 
Gray, 
Gray  Alps, 
Gray  le  Pre, 
Great  Belt, 
Great  Britain, 
Great  Feldberg, 
Great  Greece, 
Great  Hall', 
Great-Island, 
Great  Rumania, 
Great  Poland, 
Great  Rad, 
Great  Russia, 
Great  Schneeberg,     6 
Grebenstein,  371 

Grecian  Archipel- 
ago, 10 
Greding,  322 
Greece,  617 
Greek  Church,  20 
Greeks,  19 
Greenlaw,               249 


510 
510 
498 
220 
274 
190 
190 
269 
556 
230 
203 
4 


8 
10C 

9 
259 
528 

6o;» 

7 
980 


650 


INDEX. 


PAGE' 

PAGE 

PAGE 

PAGE 

Greenock, 

251  Guden, 

14 

Halifax, 

243 

Hauptweil, 

166 

Greenwich, 

236  Gudensberg, 

371 

Hall,                 335, 513 

Hausach, 

312 

Greetsiel, 

443  Guelphs, 

433 

Halland, 

572 

Hausberge, 

484 

Gregory  VII., 

41,Guerande, 

210 

Halle, 

480 

Hausen,   342,  345,  3' 

Greiffenberg, 

470JGuerche,  La, 

208 

Halle  (inBelgiun 

)278 

Haute  Combe, 

109 

Greiffenberg  (in 

|Gueret, 

212 

Hallein, 

510 

Hauterive, 

159 

Silesia), 

475  j  Guernsey, 

247  Halligen, 

557 

Hautpoul, 

220 

Greiffenhagen, 

470jGuetaria, 

97 

Halmstad, 

572 

Havel, 

17 

Greifswald, 

471:Gugglingen, 

331 

Ham, 

188 

Havelberg, 
Haverfordwest, 

466 

Greiz, 

398  Guibray, 

187 

Hambach, 

327 

245 

Grenaa, 

553;  Guildford, 

235 

Hamburg,        448, 450 

Havre  de  Grace, 

186 

Grenchen, 

164  i  Guildhall  in  Lon 

Haraeln, 

435 

Hawick, 

249 

Grenna, 

571      don  (History  of),  54 

Hamilton, 

251 

Hay  barn  Mts., 

7 

Grenoble, 

222  Guilds,                52,  53 

Hamra,            450, 4£ 

Hazebrouk, 

190 

Gretna  Green, 

250  Guillotiere,  La, 

214 

Ham  me, 

280 

Heath  of  Debrec- 

Greussen, 

400  Guimaraes, 

73 

Hammelburg, 

323 

zin, 

502 

Grevemachern, 

366  Guingamp, 

209 

Hammerfest, 

578 

Heath  of  Ketske- 

Grevenbroich, 

493  Guiole, 

216 

Hammers  tein, 

498 

met, 

502 

Grevismiihlen, 

409  Guipuzcoa, 

97 

Hampshire, 

238 

Heaths  Depart- 

Greyerz, 

159  G  oldene  Aue,  399, 458 

Hampton  Court, 

235 

ment, 

217 

Grigoriopol, 

611  Gulf  of  Genoa, 

10 

Hanau, 

373 

Hebrides, 

254 

Grimby, 

237  Gulf  of  Lyons, 

10 

Hanau-Lich  ten- 

Hechingen, 

349 

Grimrna, 

382 1  Gulf  of  Riga, 

9 

berg, 

328 

Hecla, 

8 

Grim  men, 

470  i  Gulf  of  Taranto, 

10 

Hanover,  city, 

435 

Heddernheim, 

363 

Gripsholm, 

569j  Gumbinnen, 

496 

Hanover,  Kingdom 

Hedemora, 

570 

Grisons, 

161  Gundelfingen, 

326 

of, 

430 

Hedemiinden, 

440 

Grodno, 

600  Gundelsheim, 

332 

Hanschuchsheim 

343 

Heerenveen, 

272 

Groenlo, 

2721  Guns, 

526 

Hauseatic  cities, 

447 

Hegendorf, 

164 

Grohnde, 

436;  Guntersblum, 

357 

Hanseatic  League,  54 

Hegyallya  Hills, 
Heide, 

527 

Groix, 

209iGUnthersberge, 

404 

Hants, 

238 

418 

Grol, 

272|Gunzburg, 

325jHanut, 

283 

Heidelberg, 

343 

Gronau, 

439  Gunzenhausen, 

321|Hapsburg, 

156 

Heidelsheim, 

342 

Gronenbach, 

325  Gurau, 

473iHapsburg,  House 

Heidenheim,  32C 

,337 

Groningen, 

273  Guspini, 

114J     of,                30] 

,507 

Heilbronn, 

332 

Gross-  Almerode, 

370  Giistrow, 

409 

Hapsburg-Lor- 

Heilige  Linde, 

496 

Grossbottwar, 

331 

Guyenne, 

214 

raine,           303, 507 

Heiligenbeil, 

496 

Grosselflngen, 

350 

Gyergyo  Szent 

Harburg, 

437 

Heiligenberg, 

347 

Grossenhain, 

381 

Miklos, 

534 

Hardenberg, 

272 

Heiligenhafen, 

417 

Grossetto, 

124 

Harderwvk, 

271 

Heiligenstadt, 

481 

Grossgerau, 

354 

Haarlem, 

269|Hardt  Mountains 

6 

Heiliger  Damm, 

407 

Grosshennersdorf,  385  Haarlem  Lake, 

11  Harfleur, 

186  Heilsberg, 

496 

Gross-Linden, 

357  Haarlingen, 

272  i  Harlech, 

246 

Heilsbronn, 

320 

Gross-Salze, 

477  Haase, 

17iHarleigh, 

246 

Heinersdorf, 

392 

Gross-Schlatten, 

531  Habelschwerdt, 

474 

Harrowgate, 

244 

Heitersheim, 

346 

Gross-Schonau, 

385  Habelschwerdt 

Harsefeld, 

438 

Heldburg, 

392 

Gross-Strehlitz, 

476      Mountains, 

7 

Hartenstein, 

384 

Helder, 

269 

Gross-Vargula, 

481  Habichtswald, 

8 

Hartz, 

7,8 

Heldrungen, 

479 

Gross-Wardein, 

528  Habsal, 

596 

Harwich, 

236 

Helensburgh, 

251 

Grotkau, 

476  Hachenburg, 

362 

Harzburg, 

447 

Heligoland, 

247 

Grotzi  ngen,     333,  340  Had  amar, 

362 

Harzgerode, 

404 

Hellas,             61fl 

,620 

Grouaix, 

209 1  Haddington, 

249 

Haseiiinne, 

442 

Hellebeck, 

550 

Grubenhagen, 

440|  Haddingtonshire, 

249 

Haslach, 

342 

Helmond, 

274 

Grubin, 

598  Hadeln, 

438 

Hasle, 

550 

Helmstadt, 

447 

Grueningen, 

169  Hadersleben, 

556 

Haslithal, 

158 

Helsingborg, 

572 

Giunberg,        357 

,  474IHaemus, 

6 

Hasparon, 

217 

Helsingfors, 

5SI9 

Grund,             444,  486 1  Hafnerzell, 

316 

Hasparren, 

217 

Helsingland, 

573 

GiUnhain, 

384 

Haga, 

568 

Hasselfelde, 

448 

Helsingor, 

594 

Griinsfeld, 

344 

Hagen, 

485 

Hasselt,            272, 283 

Heltau, 

532 

Griinstadt, 

328 

Hagenau, 

197 

Has8furt, 

323 

Helvetia, 

151 

Gruyeres, 

159 

Hagenow, 

409 

Hass-Gebirge, 

7|Helvetic  Republi 

c  153 

Guadalaviar, 

14 

Hagos, 

528 

Hastenbeck, 

435 

Helvoetsluin, 

270 

Guadalaxara, 

88 

Hague,  the, 

269 

Hastings, 

236 

Henneberg,  ancient 

Guadalquivir, 

14 

Haiger, 

362 

Hattem, 

272 

castle  of, 

391 

Gnadiana, 

J4iHaigerloch, 

349 

Hattenheim, 

363 

Heunebcrg,  earl- 

Guadix, 

93|Haiiiault, 

281 

Hattei>heim, 

363 

dom  of, 

388 

Guardamar, 

96  Hainichen, 

381 

Hatiingen, 

485 

Hennebon, 

209 

Guastalla, 

117  Hajduks'  District 

529 

Hatzeg, 

534 

Hennersdoif  in 

Gubbio, 

134jHalberstadt, 

478 

Hatzleld, 

357 

Seifen, 

385 

Guben, 

468 

Halin, 

630 

Haulx, 

278 

Henricbemont, 

205 

INDEX. 


651 


PAOB  | 

PAOB[ 

PAOt' 

PAOB 

Henry  the  Lion, 

433  Hillebrunn, 

573 

Holstein, 

41  -2  Humber, 

14 

Heppeuheim, 

334  Hillerod, 

549 

Holsteiu-Gottorp 

.til  HUmmling, 

431 

Heptarchy, 

25  Hillscheid, 

363 

Holum, 

530  Hundholm, 

578 

Heraclea, 

628lHilpoltstein, 

317 

Holy  Causeway, 

407  Hundsruck, 

8 

Herault, 

15  Hilsbach, 

344 

Holyhead, 

247  Hundwyl, 
7  Hiinfeld, 

157 

Herault  Depart- 

Himmelsberg, 

544 

Holy  Kreuzberg, 

373 

ment, 

220  Hindelopen, 

27-2 

Holy  River, 

12  Hungary, 

520 

Herbolzheim, 

345  Hirschau,         31" 

,333 

Holy  Roman  Em 

Hungen, 

357 

Herborn, 

388  Hirschberg, 

474 

pire, 

2S>1  Hliningen, 

199 

Herculanum, 

141  1  lirscli  horn, 

355 

Holyrood, 

249  Huns, 

25 

Hereford, 

240  Hirsova, 

630 

Holywell, 

246  Hunsriicken, 

8 

Herefordshire, 

240  Hisingen, 

572  Holzappel, 

364  Hunte, 

17 

Herentals, 

279  Hispania  citerior, 

84  Holzminden, 

447  Huntingdon, 

237 

Herford, 

484  Hispania  ulterior 

,    84iHotnberg  in  Hesse, 371  Huntingdonshire 

,  237 

Hericourt, 

203  Hitzacker, 

437 

Horn  berg  an  der 

Husavik, 

560 

Hering, 

355  Hjelmar  Lake, 
373  Hjelmsnabben, 

11 

Ohm, 

357  Husum, 

556 

Heringen, 

569 

Homburg  (in  Bava-        Huttweil, 

158 

Hurisau, 

157  Hjo, 

573 

ria), 

328  Hutwyl, 

158 

Herjedalen, 

574  Hjorring, 

552 

Homburg  vor  der         Huy, 

2-!2 

Herlisheim, 

198  Hobro, 

553 

Hohe, 

359  Hven, 

572 

Hermannstadt, 

532  Hochberg, 

345 

Homel, 

601  Hydra, 

622 

Hermopolis, 

623  Hochheim, 

363jHonfleur, 

186  Hyeres, 

224 

Herraunduri, 

378  Hochkirch, 

385Hoogstraten, 

279  Hyerian  Islands, 

224 

Hernosand, 

574  Hochst, 

363|Hooksiel, 

424  Hypanis, 

12 

Herrenberg, 

333  Hocbstadt,       319,  326|Hoorn, 

269  Hythe, 

236 

Herrieden, 

322  Hodimont, 

2S3  Hdpital, 

109 

Herrnhut, 

385  Hoegaerden, 

279  Horb, 

332  Ibbenbiiren, 

483 

Hersbruck, 

321  Hof, 

319 1  Horde, 

485  Iberian  Mountains,    5 

Hersfeld, 

373  Hofgeismar, 

370 

Hordic, 

209  Iberians, 

19 

Hera  tall, 

282  Hofheim, 

363 

Horgen, 

169  Ibrahil, 

636 

Hertford, 

237  Hofwyl, 

158 

Horn,               428, 45 

559 

Hertfordshire, 

237  Hogue,  La, 

187 

Horn  berg, 

346  Icolmkill, 

254 

Hertogenbosch, 

273 !  Hone  Eule, 

7 

Horneburg, 

438  Idar, 

426 

Heruli, 

25  Hohegeiss, 

448 

Horsens, 

553  Idarkopf, 

8 

Herve, 

283  Hohr, 

an 

Horstmar, 

483Idria, 

512 

H«rzberg, 

440  Hohscheid, 

493 

Horla, 

75  Idstein, 

362 

Herzegovina, 

634Hohenasperg, 

331 

Hospodars, 

636  Ifferten, 

168 

Herzogenrath, 

490  Hohenberg, 

332 

Hostalrich, 

95  Iglau, 

517 

Herzogenaurach, 

320  Hohenembs, 

514i  Houat, 

209  Iglesias, 

114 

Hesargrad, 

630  Hohenfried berg, 

475  House  of  Bourbon,  180  Igualada, 

95 

Hesdin, 

189 1  Hohenheben, 

347  House  of  Bragau-        jlianz, 

162 

Hesse-Cassel, 

368Hohenklingen, 

164      za, 

69'Ilfeld, 

440 

Hesse-Darmstadt, 

351  Hohenkriihen, 

347 1  House  of  Este, 

1 18 '  Hie  and  Vilaine  De- 

Hesse,  electorate  of  368  i  Hohenlindeu, 

314!  House  of  Hano  vei 

■,233|     partment, 

208 

Hesse,  grand-duchy     iHohenlohe, 

336  House  of  Medici, 

122  Iller, 

16 

of, 

351 1  Hohenlohe-Schil- 

House  of  Stuart, 

233  Illertissen, 

325 

Hesse-Homburg, 

358 

lingsfurst, 

322 

House  of  Tudor, 

233  Illok, 

530 

Hesse,  landgravi 

Hohensalzburg, 

510 

House  of  Witteis- 

Dlyria, 

511 

ate  of, 

358 

Hohensch  wangau 

,314 

bach, 

313llllyrians, 

102 

Hesse    and   at 

Hohenstaufen, 

Howden, 

243  Ilmen  Lake, 

11 

Rhine, 

351 

324,33 

H  oxter, 

484.11menau, 

388 

Het  Loo, 

271 

Hohenstein, 

384 

Hoya, 

436  II  raenau  River, 

17 

Hettingen, 

349 

HohenstofTeln, 

347 

Hoyerswerda, 

475  Usen burg, 

479 

Heubach,  Klein, 

323 

Hohentwiel, 

333 

Hoym, 

404  Imbro, 

632 

Heuscheuer  Ge- 

Hohenzollera,  an- 

Hradschin, 

514  Imbros, 

632 

birge, 

7 

cestral  castle  of, 

349 

Hraundalur, 

560 1  Imgenbroich, 

490 

Heusden, 

274 

Hohenzollern,  the 

Hrubieszow, 

607  lmmediateness  ( 

n 

Hexham, 

244 

principalities  of,  347 

Hubertsburg, 

382      Germany), 

51 

Highland  of  Bay 

Hohenzollern-He 

Hiickeswagen, 

493  Immenhausen, 

371 

reuth, 

319 

chingen, 

349 

Huddersfield, 

243 

Immeustadt, 

325 

Highlands  of 

Hohenzollern-Sig 

Hudikswall, 

574 

Imola, 

135 

Berne, 

158 

maringen, 

349 

Huelva, 

92 

Indre, 

15 

Highland  of  Meis- 

Hohnstein, 

440 

Huesca, 

94 

lndre  Department  2t 

sen, 

376 

Hohnstein,  ancient 

Hiiringen, 

347 

Indre  and  Loire 

Highlands  of  Scot- 

earldom of, 

481  Huissen, 

272 

Department, 

206 

land, 

253 

Holbek, 

550  Hull, 

243 

Ingelflngen, 

336 

Hilchenbach, 

4fifi 

Holland, 

208  Hulonesus, 

623 

(ngelheim, 

356 

Hildhiircrhnusen, 

393 

llollleld, 

320  II  ulst, 

271 

In^rleboroiiifh, 

8 

Hildeshciin, 

439 

Holstebro, 

553 

Hultschin, 

476 

Ingolstadt, 

314 

652 


INDEX. 


VMiK 

PAGK  f                                            PAGK 

pads 

lnsrrnnde, 

207 

Itzehoe, 

417  Judenbach,             392 

Kji(zont'linbo}re7 

, 

Injuria, 

595 

Ivanovo, 

592  Judenburg,             511 

3o4,  3G4 

Inn  River, 

16 

Iverdun, 

168jJugria,                     521 

Kntzeiielhibogei) 

Innerleithen, 

250 

Ivica, 

97  Jiilich,                     490 

(town), 

364 

Inner-Rhoden, 

157 

[vrea, 

108|Juliers,                     490 

Kaub, 

364 

Innucentus  III., 

41 

Ivrv, 

l86Julin,                        469 

jKaufbeuren, 

334 

Innspruck, 

513i 

(Jung-Breslau,         500 

K  aval  a, 

630 

Inuwraclaw, 

500Jaca, 

94;Jungfrau,                    4 

Kecskemet, 

525 

lnsara, 

608|Jacobstad, 
7jJacobstadt, 

599  Jung-Stilling,          486 

Kedrich, 

363 

Inselsberg, 

598  Jura  Department,  203 

Kehl, 

341 

Insterburg, 

497 | Jaen. 

93  Jura  (island),         254 

Keighley, 

244 

Interamnia, 

143|Jagello, 

600  Jura  Mts.,                   6 

Kelheim, 

316 

Interlachen, 

158  Jagerndorf, 

517  Jurburg,                  601 

Kellinghusen, 

417 

Interlaken, 

158  Jagodina, 

635  Jussev,                    203 

Kells, 

257 

Intra, 

llljJaik, 

609  Justinian,                   26 

Kelso, 

249 

Inverbervie, 

252  Jaitza, 

634  Jiiterbock,               467 

Kemi, 

13 

Inverary, 

253;jalta, 

611  Jutland,                  552 

Kemitrilsk, 

599 

Inverlochy  Castle,  253  Janepol, 

602 

Kemnath, 

317 

Inverness, 

253  Jankau, 

515  Kadolzburg,           321 

Kempen, 

493 

Inverness-shire, 

253,Jankowitz, 

515  Kaferloh,                 314 

Kempten, 

324 

Iona, 

254  Jaonina, 

633  Kiifernburg,            401 

Kendal, 

245 

Ionian  Islands, 

6l4|Jarlsberg, 

576  Kaffa,                      610 

Kengis, 

575 

Ionian  Sea, 

10  Jarmen, 

470  Kahla,                     396 

Kenilworth, 

240 

Iperia, 

ISOJarnac, 

211  Kaisersberg,            198 

Kent, 

236 

Ipswich, 

236|jaroslav,         519, 592 

Kensington, 

235 

Irbit, 

608  Jass-Bereny, 

529  Kaisersreuth,          336 

Kenzingen, 

345 

Ireland, 

256  Jasseno vacz, 

533  Kaiserswerth,         493 

Keraes, 

209 

Irnis, 

165,Jassy, 

637  Kalau,                     468 

Kerensk, 

608 

Irwin, 

250  Jastrow, 

498  Kalauria,                622;  Kerns, 

166 

Isar, 

16 

Jauer, 

474  Kalavrito,               622  i  Kernwald, 

166 

Ischia, 

141 

Jaxt, 

329  Kalbe,                     477  Kerry, 

260 

Ischl, 

510 

Jaxtberg, 

337  Kalish,                    605|Ker8Ova, 

630 

Isefjord, 

544 

Jaxt  circle, 

335  Kallenberg,            394|Kertsh, 

611 

Iseghem, 

281 

Jazyges,           521, 529  Kallraiinz,                  17  Kesmark, 

527 

Isenburg, 

355 

Jazygia, 

529iKallundborg,          550 

Kesselsdorf, 

381 

Isenburg-Biidin- 

Jebaluga, 

608  Kalmucks,              580 

Keswick, 

244 

gen, 

357 

Jedburgh, 

249  Kaltennordheim,   389 

Ketskemet, 

525 

Iseo, 

540 

Jekaterinador, 

613'Kaltensundheim,   389 

Ketskemet  Heath,  50i 

Isere  Department,  222 

Jekaterinburg, 

607  Kaluga,                   591 

Kettwig, 

494 

Iserlohn, 

485 

Jekaterinoslav, 

612  Kama,                       12 

Keula, 

401 

Isernia, 

144 

Jelatma, 

592  Kamengrad,           634 

Kezdi  Vasarhely, 

534 

Ish, 

608 

Jemappes, 

281 

Kaminiec  Podol- 

Kickelhahn, 

7 

Ishevski-Zavod, 

608 

Jemtland, 

574 

ski,                       602 

Kidderminster, 

240 

BT' 

187 

Jena, 

387 

Kammin,                470 

Kidwelly, 

245 

114 

Jenibazar, 

635 

Kamyshin,              609 
Kandern,                 345 

Kiel, 

417 

isim 

254 

Jenidshe, 

630 

Kielce, 

606 

Isla  de  Leon, 

92 

Jersey, 

247 

Kapnik  Banya,      531 

Kiev, 

594 

Islay, 

254 

Jeschken, 

7 

Kaprena,                 621 

Kiew, 
Kieydani, 

594 

Isle  de  France, 

182 

Jesi, 

134 

Kapsali,                   616 

601 

Ismail, 

611 

Jessnitz, 

405 

Kaptshak,               588 

Kilbarchan, 

251 

Isny, 

334 

Jever, 

424 

Karansebes,           534 

Kildare, 

257 

Isola, 

512 

Jewpatoria, 

611 

Karasu,              15, 610 

Kilia, 

611 

Isola  bella, 

111 

Joachimsthal,  466, 515 

Karaveria,             631 

Killala, 

259 

Isola  mad  re, 

111 

Jockmock, 

575 

Kardsschag-Uj- 

Killalve, 

260 

Isola  dei  Pescatori  111 

Johanngeorgen- 

Szallas,                528 

Killarney, 

260 

Isole  de  Tremiti, 

144 

stadt, 

383 

Kiirnthen,                511 

Killkenny, 

256 

Isselburg, 

494 

Johannisberg, 

363 

Karystoa,                 623 

Kilmarnock, 

250 

Isselhorst, 

484 

Johannisburg, 

497 

Karytone,               622 

Kimpolung, 
Kindelbriick, 

636 

Issengeaux, 

221 

John  O'Groat's 

Kasan,                     607 

481 

Issoire, 

213 

house, 

254 

Kaschau,                 527 

King's  County, 

257 

Issoudun, 

205 

Johnstown, 

251 

Kasimov,                592 

Kingston,        235, 256 

Istres, 

223 

Johstadt, 

383 

Kasmark,                527 

Kincardine, 

252 

Istria, 

512 

Joigny, 

193 

Kastel,                     356 

Kinnaird's  Head, 

252 

Issnrtille, 
Italian  Switzer- 
land, 
Italy, 
Ithaca, 
Itter, 

201 

Joinville, 
Jonkdping, 

192 
571 

Kastri,                     621 
Katarinburg,           607 

Kinross, 
Kinross-shire, 

252 
252 

165 

Jonzac, 

211 

Katscher,                476 

Kinsale, 

259 

99 
616 

Joux, 

Joux,  valley  of, 

203 

168 

Katz,                        364 
Katzbach,                  13 

Kirchberg, 
Kircbhain, 

336 
372 

357 

Jucka9jarwi, 

575 

Katzenbuckel,           7 

Kirchheim, 

326 

INDEX. 


653 


PA.GC 

Kirchheim  unter 

Teck,  335 
Kirdorf,  357 
Kirkaldy,  25? 
Kirkcudbright,  250 
Kirkcudbright- 
shire, 250 
K  rkilissa,  629 
Kirkwall,  255 
Kirn,  4*8 
Kishinev,  fil  1 
Kissingen,  322 
Klagenfurt,  511 
Klausenhurg,  531 
Klein-Heubach,  3231 
Kleinhueningen,  157 1 
Klein-Schlatten,  531 
Klein-Schmalkal- 

den,  373 

Kleinwelka,  385 

Klettgau,  346 

Klingenberg,  323 

Klingenthal,  197 

Klingnau,  156 

Klodnitz,  13 

Kloppenburg,  423 ! 

Klundert,  274 

Klutz,  409 

Knaresborongh,  244 
Knights  of  St.  John,  46 
Knights  of  the  Or- 
der of  the  Sword  596 
Knights  Templars,  46 

Knin,  535 

Kniphiiusen,  424 

Knyszyn,  602 

Kobryn,  601 

Koburg,  394 

Kocher,  329 

Kochheim,  487 

Kock,  607 

Koenigsfelden,  156 

Koesfeld,  483 

Koevoerden,  273 

Kola,  593 

Kolberg,  471 

Kolding,  553 

Kolen,  5 

Kollero,  573 

Kollin,  515 

Kolocsa,  525 

Kolosvar,  531 

Koluri,  621 

Komorn,  526 

Kongelf,  573 

Kongsbacka,  572 

Kongsberg,  576 

Kongshavn,  558 

Koniggratz,  516 

Konigheim,  344 

Konigsberg,  496 
Konigsherg  in 

Franken,  394 
Konigsberg  in  der 

Neumark,  467 

Konigsbronn,  337 

Konigsbriick,  385 

Kdnigsee,  401 
Kduigshofen,  322,  344 


MM 

PAOKl 

Konigshiitte, 

444 

Kiinzelsau, 

337 

Konigslutter, 

447 

Kuopio, 

599 

Konigstein,      364 

,382 

Kupferberg, 

320 

Konigsstuhl, 

488 

Kupferzell, 

337 

Kdnigswalde, 

467 

Kurnbach,       340, 355 

Konigswinter, 

492 

Kurnik, 

499 

Konskie, 

606 

Kursk, 

592 

Kopenick, 

465 

Kusamo, 

599 

Kdping, 

569 

Kusnetzk 

609 

Korbach, 

376 

Kustrin, 

467 

Korneuburg, 

509 

Kuttenberg, 

516 

Koron, 

622 

Kuylenburg, 

272 

Korosbanya, 

531 

Kyburg, 

169 

Korsoer, 

550 

Kydonia, 

632 

Kortgene, 

270 

Kyfifhausen, 

401 

Kosel, 

475 

Kyparissa, 

622 

Kosen, 

480 

Kyritz, 

466 

Koslow, 

611 

Kj'»rteminde, 

551 

Kosstainicza, 

533 

Kjobenhavn, 

549 

Kostandschi, 

630 

Kjoge, 

549 

Kostendil, 

631 

i 

Kostritz, 

399 

Laaland, 

550 

Kostroma,          12, 592 

Laasphe, 

486 

Knswick, 

404 

La  Balme, 

222 

Kothen, 

406 

La  Bastide  de  Clar- 

Knwno, 

600 

ence, 

218 

Krabln, 

559 

Labea, 

470 

Kragnjewatz, 

635 

Labour, 

216 

Krailsheitn, 

336 

La  Charite, 

204 1 

Krain, 

511 

La  Chatre, 

205 

Krajova, 

636 

Lachen, 

164 

Kranichstein, 

354 

La  Chiusa, 

108 

Krasna, 

531 

La  Ciotat, 

223 

Krasnoi-Jar, 

609 

Laconia, 

622 

Krautheim, 

344 

Ladenburg, 

343 

Krawinkel, 

394 

Ladinian, 

151 

Krefeld, 

495 

Ladoga  Lake, 

10 

Kreischa, 

3«1 

La  Fere, 

188 

Kremlin, 

591 

La  Fere  Champe- 

Kremnitz, 

525 

noise, 

192 1 

K  reins, 

509 1  La  Ferte  Bernard 

,207 

Kremsier, 

517 

La  Ferte  sous  Jou- 

Kremsmiinster, 

510 

arre, 

193! 

Kreut, 

315 

La  Ferte  Milon, 

185 

Kreuzburg,      389 

,476 

La  Fleche, 

207! 

Kreuznach, 

488 

La  Foce, 

112 

Kreuz-Wertheim 

323 

Lages, 

75 

Krivan, 

5 

Lagnieu, 

202 

Krolewetz, 

594 

Lagonegro, 

145 

Kronach, 

320|Lngonero, 

145 1 

Kronberg, 

364  [Lagos, 

74 

Kronborg, 

549  LaGranja, 

89 

Kronstadt,       532,  596  i  La  Grasse, 

224 

Krossen, 

467  La  Guerche, 

208 

Krotoszin, 

499  La  Guillotiere, 

214 

Krumbach, 

325  La  Haye, 

206 

Kruschwitz, 

500,Lahn, 

16 

Krzemieniec, 

602lLahneck, 

364  > 

Kuban,               12,613  Lahr 

363 

Kufstein, 

513  La  Hogue, 

187 

Kuhlandchen, 

517  Laholm, 

572 

Kukukstein, 

381  Lahr, 

342 

Kullen, 

572  Lai  bach, 

511 

Kiilsheim, 

344  L'Aigle, 

1871 

Rumania,  Great, 

528  Laigueglia, 

113! 

,  Little, 

529  Lake  circle, 

346 

Knmurdshina, 

6-2-*  Lake  of  Constance,  11 

Knngur. 

607  Lake  di  Card  a, 

11 

Kuunersdorf, 

467 

Lake  of  Geneva, 

11 

PAOK 

Lake  Maggiore,  11 

La  Mancha,  88 

La  Marche,  212 

Lamballe,  209 

Lambesc,  223 

Lamego,  72 

Lamia,  621 

Lam  lash,  252 
Lamothe-Fenelon,  215 

Lampedusa,  147 

Lampione,  147 

Lanark,  250 

Lanarkshire,  250 

Lancashire,  242 

Lancaster,  242 

Lanciano,  143 

Landau,  327 

Landen,  283 

Landernau,  209 

Landeron,  163 

Landes,  216 

Landrecies,  191 

Landsberg,  315 
Landsberg  an  der 

Warthe,  467 
Land's  End,  239 
Landshut,  315 
Landshut  (in  Sile- 
sia), 475 
Landskrona,  572 
Landstuhl,  328 
Lanesborough,  257 
Langeac,  213 
Laugeland,  551 
Langenargen,  335 
Langennerg,  493 
Langenburg,  336 
Langensalza,  481 
Langenthal,  158 
Langholm,  250 
Langnau,  158 
Langogne,  221 
Langon,  215 
Langres,  192 
Languedoe,  219 
Langueglia,  113 
Lannion,  209 
Lans-le-Bourg,  110 
Lanusei,  114 
Lanzo,  107 
Laon,  185 
La  Palisse,  204 
Lapland,  574 
Laplanders,  574 
liaredo,  88 
La  Reole,  215 
Largentieres,  221 
Larissa,  631 
Larne,  258 
La  Roche,  283 
La  Rochefoucauld  212 
La  Rochelle,  211 
Laruns,  218 
Las  Cabezas  de  San 

Juan,  92 

La  Seyne,  224 

Lask,  606 

Lasde,  552 

La  Superga,  107 


654 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

La  Teste  de  Buch,  215  Leicester, 
Latins,  102  Leicestershire, 

Latisana,  542  Leichlingen, 

Latium,  132jLeirnen, 

La  Tour  de  Peils,  168;Leine, 
La  Tour  du  Pin,    222]  Leiningen, 
La  Trappe,  208j  Leiningen,  earl 

Laubach,  357     dom^of, 

Laubar.,  475  Leinster, 

Lauchheim,  336  Leipsic, 

Lauchstadt,  479  Lei  pzig, 

Lauda,  344|Leire, 

Laudenbach,  343 j  Lei  ria, 

Lauenau,  436jLeisnig, 

Lauenburg,    413,  418,  |  Lei th, 

4l9jLeitha, 
Lauenstein,  436  Leitmeritz, 

Lauf,  321  Leitrim, 

Laufen,  159,  169  JLe  Mans, 

Laufen  (in  Bavaria)  31 5  [  Lemberg, 
Lauffen,  331;Lemforde, 

156  Lemgo. 


Lauffenburg, 

Lauingen, 

Lauis, 

Launceston, 

Laupen, 

Laurenbunr, 

Lawrencekirk. 

Laurvig, 

Lausanne, 

Lausche, 

Lautenthal, 

Lauterbach, 

Lauterbrunnen, 

Lauterburg, 

Lautereck, 

Lautrec, 

Lavagna, 

Laval, 

La  Valetta, 

Lavaur, 

Lavedan, 

La  Veneria, 

Lavenza, 

Lav  is, 

La  Voulte, 

Laxenburg, 

Laybach, 

Lazzaroni, 

Leadhills, 

Leamington, 

Le  Blanc, 

Lebus, 

Lecce, 

Lecco, 

Loch, 

Leek, 

Le  Crosic, 

Lectoure, 

Ledesma, 

Leeds, 

Leer, 

Leerdara, 

Leerfoss, 

Leeuwarden, 

Leghorn, 

Legnago, 

Legue  St.  Brieuc 


326 
165 
239 
158 
301,  364 
,  252 
576 
167 
7 
444 
357 
158 
198 
327 
220 
113 
207 
150 
220 
217 
107 
119 
165 
221 
SOB 
511 
141 
25 1 
241 
MS 
407 
143 
536 
J  6 

n 

210 
210 
90 
243 
443 
270 
577 
27-2 
125 
542 


Lernnos, 

Lempster, 

Lemsal, 

Lemvigr, 

Lendinara, 

Lengenfeld, 

Lengerich, 

Lennep, 

Lens, 

Lentini, 

Lenzburg, 

Lenzen, 

Lenzerwische, 

Lenzna, 

Leoben, 

Leobschiitz, 

Leominster, 

Leon, 

Leonberg, 

Leonforte, 

Leopoldshafen 

Le  panto, 

Lepontine  Alps, 


PAGE  I 

24 1  Levanto, 
241 1  Levanzo, 
493  Le  Vigan, 
343Levroux, 

17  Lewin, 
328j Lewis  (island) 

Leyden, 
357:  Li  ban, 
256  Libourne, 
382  Licata, 

382  Lich, 
549  Lichfield, 

72,  560  Lichtenau, 

383  Lich  ten  berg, 
249  Lichtenberg  (Al- 

16j     sace), 
515  Lichtenberg,  prin 
259      cipality  of, 
207  Lich tenfels, 
519  Lichtensteig, 
436  Lichtenstein, 
428  Lichtervelde, 
632  Lidkbping, 
240  Lidoriki, 
597  Liebau, 
553  Liebenau, 
541  Liebenstein, 

384  Liebenwalde, 
442,  483  Liebenwerda, 

493  Liebenzell, 
189  Lieberose, 
148  Liebstadt, 
156,LiechstalI, 


PAGEl  PAGE 

1 13  Lines  of  Weissen- 
147      burg,  198 

221  Lingen,  earldom 
205      of,  441 

474 1  Lingen,  town,         442 
255  Linkoping,  570 

Linlithgow,  .  249 

Linlithgowshire,    249 


2li'.i 
598 
215 
147 
357 
241 
342,  371 


Linz,  509 

Linz  (in  Prussia),  48-* 
Li  pari,  14ft 

Lipari  Islands,  118 
Lippe-Biickeburg,  428 
Li  ppe-Detmold,      427 


Lippe  River, 

Lippehne, 

Lippstadt, 

Liria, 

Lisboa, 

Lisbon, 

Lisburn, 

Liscowo, 

573jLisianka, 

621  Lisieux, 

475  L'Isle, 

-\t  - 


16 

467 

428 

96 

71 

71 

258 

592 

594 

187 

225 

259 

499,  535 

600 


436  Lismore, 
391JLissa, 
465!  Lithuania, 
480  Little  Belt,  9 

333 [Little  Brittany,  208 
468;  Little  England,  258 
381  Little  Haff,  9 

157  Little  Poland,  602,605 
466 :  Liechtenstein,  350, 351  j  Little  Russia,  594 

458Liege,  282  Little  Schiitt,  524,525 

607(Liegnitz,  474 1  Little  Wallachia,    636 


Le  Puy  en  Velay,  221      lie, 


511  Lier, 
476Liestall, 
240JLifford, 
89jLigne, 
331  Ligny, 

148,Ligny  (Lorraine), 
340  Ligurian  Apen- 
621      nines, 
4 1  Ligurian  Repub- 


279|Littorale, 


Le  Quesnoy, 

Lerici, 

Lerida, 

Lerinian  Islands, 

Lerwick, 

Les  Andelys, 

Lesina, 

Lesparre, 

Les  Sables  d'Ol- 

onne, 
Lessines, 
Lesum  River, 
Letrini, 
Leucadia, 
Leucate, 
Leuchtenberg, 
Leuk, 

Leutershausen, 
Leuthen, 
Leutkirch, 
Leutschau, 
Leuze, 


191  Lili, 


208, 2091  Levauti  na, 


113 

95 

224 

255 
180 
535 
215 

210 
981 

17 
022 
Oil) 
330 
31ft 
107 
321 
473 
334 
527 
2ft  I 
163 


Lille, 

Lillebonne, 

Lilybaeum, 

Limagne, 

Liman  Gulf, 

Limburg  (town  in 
Belgium), 

Limburg  (in  Nas- 
sau), 

Limburg,  duchy 
of,         274,  365,  367 


Limerick, 

Limmer, 

Limoges, 

Limousin, 

Limoux, 

Linares, 

Lincoln, 

Lincolnshire, 

Lindau, 

Lindenfels, 

Lindesberg, 


260 
435 
212 
212 
220 
93 
237 
237 
324,  440 
355 


Livadia, 

Livato, 

Liverpool, 

Livno, 

Livonia, 

Livorno, 

Lixuri, 

Lizard  Point, 

Ljusnedal, 

Llandaff, 

Llanelly, 

Llanydloes, 

Llerena, 

Loano, 

Lbbau, 

Lobenstein, 

Locana, 

Locarno, 

T.,occum, 

Loch  Awe, 

Lochem, 

Loches, 

Loch  Katerine 

Loch  Lomond, 

Loch  Ness, 

Locle, 

LOcse, 

Lodeve, 

Lodi, 

Lodomeria, 

Loffingen, 

Lofoden, 


512 
620,  621 
616 
243 
634 
596 
125 
616 
239 
574 
245 
245 
246 

91 
113 
385,  498 
398 
108 
lfi5 
435 

12 
272 
20« 
253 

11 

12 
163 
527 
220 
538 
518 
347 
577 


INDEX. 


655 


PAGE*                                             PAGE  I 

PAGE 

PAGE 

Ltifsta, 

568  Lowenstein- Wer-          Lucon, 
88      theim,                  324  Lude, 

210 

Lya, 

16 

Logrofio, 

484 

Lohr, 

323  Lower  Alps  De-            Lihienscheid, 

485 

Maad, 

527 

Loir  and  Cher  De-            partmerit,             224  Liidinghausen, 

483 

Maaseyk, 

2*3 

pnrtment, 

206  Lower  Alsace,        197  Liidingworth, 

438 

Maassluis, 

270 

Loire, 

15  Lower  Austria,       508  Ludlow, 

242 

Macclesfield, 

242 

Loire  Depart- 

Lower Bavaria,      315  Ludwigsburg, 

331 

Macedonia, 

630 

ment, 

214  Lower  Charente            Ludwigslust, 

409|Macerata, 

134 

Loiret  Depart- 

|    Department,       211  Ludwigstadt, 

319  Macon, 

2ul 

ment, 

205  Lower  Eichsfeld,   440  Lugano, 

165 

Maddalena, 

II  t 

Loka, 

569  Lower  Franconia,  322  Lugano  Lake, 

11 

Maddaloni, 

142 

Lokeren, 

280  Lower  Hesse  (of         iLiigde, 

484 

Madrid, 

bl 

Lokris, 

631      Hesse-Casael),     370  Lugo, 

91 

Mad  ue  Lake, 

.      11 

Lombards, 

28  Lower  Hungary,    524  Luhe, 

17 

Maelar  Lake, 

11 

Lombardy,      536,  537  Lower  Ingefheim,  35(5  Luik, 

282 

Maenzingen, 

146 

Lombardy  and  Ve-     | Lower  Italy,           103  Lukow, 

607 

Maestricht, 

274 

nice, 

536  Lower  Lake,            11  Lulea, 

574 

Mafra, 

71 

Lorabez, 

216  Lower  Loire  De- 

Lumello, 

111 

Magdalena, 

75 

Lommatzsch, 

381      partment,            209 

Lund, 

571 

Magdeburg, 

477 

Lomnitzer  Spitze,     5  Lower  Lusatia,      46? 

Lunden, 

418 

Miigdesprung, 

404 

Lomza, 

606  Lower  Margra- 

Liineburg, 

436 

Maggiora, 

111 

Lonato, 

540     viate,                   310  Liineburg  Heath, 

431 

Maggiore  Lake, 

11 

Londari, 

622  Lower  Moesia,       629  jLunel, 

220 

Magliano, 

133 

London, 

234  Lower  Palatinate,  342|Luneville, 

194 

Magna  Graecia, 

102 

London  (History 

,   38  Lower  Pyrenees            Lunigiana,       11{ 

,125 

Magnac  Laval, 

212 

Londonderry, 

25«      Department,       218 

Lupodanum, 

343 

Magyars,    19,  52C 

,521 

Longford,        239,  257  Lower  Rhenish 

Lupodum, 

343 

Mali  1  berg, 

346 

Longobuco, 

145      circle,                  292 

Lure, 

203 

Mahlstrom, 

577 

Longwy, 

196 

Lower  Rhine  cir- 

Lurgan, 

258 

Mahon, 

96 

Longy, 

247 

cle,                      342 

Lnrley, 

364 

Maidstone, 

236 

Loningen, 

423 

Lower  Rhine  De- 

Lus, 

217 

Mai  land, 

537 

Lons  le  Saulnier, 

203 

partment,            197 

Lusatia, 

384 

Maine, 

207 

Loo,  het, 

271 

Lower  Saxon  cir- 

Lusatia, Lower, 

467 

Maine  and  Loire 

Looz, 

283 

cle,                      293 

Lusatia,  Upper, 
Lusatian  Mis.. 

475 

Department, 

206 

Lopshorn, 

428 

Lower  Saxony,       378 

7 

Mainland, 

255 

Lorca, 

94 

Lower  Seine  De- 

Lusatian Neisse, 

13 

Maiutenon, 

205 

Lorch,              337 

,363 

partment,            185 

Lusignan, 

210 

Mainz, 

356 

Loreto, 

134 

Lower  Selters,        363 

Lusitania, 

84 

Maisenthal, 

195 

Loretto, 

134 

Lower  Silesia,        474 

Luso, 

127 

Majorca, 

96 

Lorient, 

209 

Lower   Stamm- 

Lussin  Piccolo, 

512 

Majores-domus, 

27 

Lorrach, 

345 

heim,                    169 

Lustri, 

168 

Ma'ladetta, 

4 

Lorraine, 

193 

Lower  Valais,         167 

Lutetia, 

183 

Malaga, 

93 

Lorsch, 

354 

Lowestoff,               236 

Liitetsburg, 

443 

Malapane,          13, 47; 

Loschkirch, 

532 

Lowicz,                   605 

Liitjenburg, 

417 

Malaria, 

100 

Los  Passages, 

97 

Lowlands  of  Scot- 

Lutry, 

168 

Malchen, 

7 

Lossnitz, 

384 

land,                    249 

Luttenberg, 

511 

Malchin, 

409 

Lot, 

15 

Loxa,                        93 

Lutter  am  Baren 

Malchin  Lake, 

11 

Lot  Department, 

215 

Lozere,                       6 

berge, 

447 

Malchow, 

410 

Lot  and  Garonne 

Lozere  Depart- 

Lutterworth, 

241 

Mallow, 

259 

Department, 

215 

ment,                   221 

Liittringhausen, 

493 

Malmaison, 

184 

Lothians, 

249 

Liibbecke,              484 

Liitzelburg,     365, 36(5 

Malmedy, 

490 

Lotzen, 

497 

Liibben,                  468 

Liitzen, 

479 

Malmo, 

571 

Loudeac, 

209 

Liibbenau,              468 

Luxeuil, 

203 

Malplaquet, 

191 

Loudun, 

210 

Lubec,            451, 452 

Luxemburg  (Bel- 

iMalta,              14S 

,  150 

Loueche, 

167 

Lubec,  principality 

gian), 

283 

Mamers, 

207 

Loughborough, 

242 

of,                         4-25 

Luxemburg  (city) 

,366 

Man, 

247 

Lough  Neagh, 

12 

Liibeck,                   452 

Luxemburg,  grand- 

Man  with  the  iron 

Loughrea, 

259 

Lublin,                    605 

duchy  of, 

365 

mask, 

224 

Louhans, 

201 

Lublinitz,                47(5  Luzerne, 

162 

Mancha,  La, 

88 

Lourdea, 

217 

Liibtheen,               40'.)  Luzerne,  Lake  of 

11 

Ifaoehe  Depart- 

Louth, 

257 

Lucania,                  145  L  izk, 

602 

ment, 

187 

Louvain, 

278 

Lucca,                      125  Lychen, 

466  .Manchester, 

243 

Louven, 

14 

Lucena,                     93  Lyck, 

497  Mumlal, 

577 

Louviers, 

186 

Lucera,                   1  M  Lygians, 

472  Manebach, 

394 

Louvre, 

182 

Lucerna,  valley  of,  107<  Lygumkloster, 

557  Maulrednnia, 

144 

Lovere, 

540 

Liichow,                   4:57  Lymfjord, 

5-14  Maugulia, 

630 

Lovisa, 

5<>9 

Lucka,                    39<i  Lynn  R-'gis, 

237  Mannheim, 

343 

Lowenberg, 

474 

Luckiu.                   4i'i7  Lyons, 

214  Mano-njue, 

224 

Lowenstein, 

33-2 

Luckeuwalde,         4<>() 

Lyonnais, 

2131 

Manresa, 

95 

656 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Mansfeld,  479 
Mansfield,  242 
Mantes,  184 
Mantua,  city  of,  539 
,  ancient  duchy 


of, 

Manxmen, 

Manzanares, 

Marans, 

Marbach, 

Marbella, 

Marbore, 

Marourg, 

Marburg  (in  Aus- 
tria), 

March  River, 

Marche,  La, 

Marche  en  Fa- 
mine, 

Marcomans, 

Marco  Polo, 

Maremma, 

Marengo, 

Marennes, 

Maretimo, 

Margate, 

Mariager, 

Maria  Taferl, 

Mariazell, 

Mariboe, 

Mariefred, 

Marienbad, 

Marienberg, 


Marseilles, 

Mars  tall, 

Marstrand, 

Marthalen, 

Martigny, 

Martigues, 

Martinach, 

Martinengo, 

Martorell, 

Martos, 

Marvejols, 

Marville, 

Marxburg, 

Maryborough, 

Mary  port, 

Mascoli, 


PAGE 

223 
557 
573 
169 
167 
223 
167 
540 
95 
93 
221 
195 
364 
257 
244 
148 
119 
119 


Massa-Carrara, 
283  Massa  di  Marema,  124 
297  Masserano,  108 

55  Mataro,  95 

120  Matera,  145 

111  Matlok,  242 

211  Maubeuge,  191 

147  Maulbronn, 
236  Mauleon, 
553  Maupertuis, 
509  Mauriac, 
511  Maurizio,  San 
550|Maurs, 
569iMauze, 
5l5JMaxen, 
383  Maxsayn. 


Meersch, 

Meganisi, 

Megara, 

Mehadia, 

Mehlsack, 

Mehun, 

Meilen, 

Meinau, 

Meiningen, 

Meinungen, 

Meisenheim, 

Meissen, 

Melazzo, 

Melchthal, 

Meldorf, 

Mele, 

Melfi, 

Melibocus, 

Melite, 

Melk, 

Melle, 


Mellrichstadt, 

Melnik, 

Meloria, 
331  Melrose, 
217  Melsungen, 
210  Melton  Mowbray,  242 


PAGE 

367 


205 
169 
347 
391 
391 
359 

379,  381 
148 
166 
418 
112 
145 
7 
150 
509 

210,  441 
323 
515 
1-25 
24!  I 
371 


Marienburg,    497,  532jMayenburg 
Marienburg  (in  Bel-  JMayence, 


gium), 
Marienwerder, 
Mariestad, 
Marignano, 
Marino,  San, 
Maringuea, 
Marissa, 
Maritime  Alps, 
Maritimo, 
Mariupol, 
Mark,  ancient  earl 

dom  of, 
Markdorf, 
Markgroningen, 
Markirch, 

Markneukirchen,  384 
Markolsheim,  197 

Markranstadt,  383 
Markt-Einersheim  322 
I.larkt-Erlbach,       321 


282|Mayenne 
498  j  Mayenne  Depart- 
573      ment, 
538!Mayne, 
136  j  Maynooth, 
21 3  j  Mayo, 
15iMazamet, 
4 1  Mazzara, 


213  Melun,  184 

107  Memel  (city),  496 

213  Memel  River,  13 

210  Memmingen,  324 

381|Memmleben,  480 

362  Memsen,  436 

466  Menai  Strait,  246 

356;Mende,  221 

15, 207iMenden,  485 

Mendris,  165 

207'Mendrisio,  165 

16JMengen,  335 
257  Mengeringhausen,  376 

259lMenin,  281 
220  Mentone, 


Mazzarino, 

Mearns, 

Meath, 

Meaux, 
346  j  Mechlin, 
331  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin, 

Mecklenburg-Stre- 
litz, 

Medelpad, 

Medemblik, 

Medewi, 


Mentz,  city, 
,  ancient  elec- 
torate, 


257JMeppel, 
~~  Meppen, 

Mequinenza, 

Meran, 

Mereczowszczisa, 

Mereville, 
4lO|Mergeutheim, 
574  Merida, 


40li 


Markthennersdorf,  385:  Mediasch, 


Marly,  183!  Medici,  House  of,  122 
Marmande,  215  Medicina,  135 
I  larmora  Sea,           10|  Medina  Celi, 
Marne,               15,  418  Medina  Sidonia, 
Marne  Depart- 
ment, 192 
Maros  Ujvar,  531 
Maros  Vasarhely,  532 
Marrac,  217 
Marsac,  213 
Marsala,  147 
Marsan,  2 
Marsberg, 


269j  Merionetshire, 
570|Merkendorf, 
532  j  Merovingians, 


Medina  del  Rio 

seco,  89 
Mediterranean  Sea,  10 

Medoc,  215 

Medwisch,  532 

Meenen,  281 

Meerane,  384 

Meerholz,  374 


485lMeersburg,  346 


Merse, 

Merseburg, 

Merthyr  Tydvil, 

Merwe, 

Merxheim, 

Merzich, 

Meschede, 

Meseritz, 

Messenia, 

Messina, 

Mesto, 

Mestre, 

Methone, 


110 
35(3 

355 
273 
442 

94 
513 
600 
184 
336 

91 
246 
320 

26 
249 
479 
245 

16 
360 
489 
485 
499 
622 
148 

15 
541 
622 


Mettmann, 

Metz, 

Metzingen  unter 
Urach, 

Meudon, 

Meulebeke, 

Meung, 

Meurs, 

Meurthe  Depart- 
ment, 

Me  use, 

Meuse  Depart- 
ment. 

Meyenfeld, 

Meynthal, 

Meyringen, 

Mezen, 

Mezieres, 

Mezin, 

Mezzafuso, 

Mezzovo  Mts., 

Michailovka, 

Michelstadt, 

Micheltown, 

Middelburg, 

Middelfart, 

Middle  Rhine  cir 
cle, 

Middlesex, 

Mid-Lothian, 

Miechow, 

Miedniki, 

Miedzerzyce, 

Miedzyborz, 

Mietau, 

Migration  of  na- 
tions, 

Mjos  Lake, 

Milan, 

Milano, 

Milazzo, 

Milden, 

Milford, 

Milhaud, 


196 

333 
184 

281 
205 
494 

194 
16 

195 
162 
165 
158 
12 
192 

6 
147 

6 
592 
355 
259 
270 
551 

340 
234 
249 


607 
602 
597 


23,24 
11 
537 
537 
148 
168 
245 
216 


Military  Frontier,  533 

Militsch, 

Millesimo, 

Milo, 

Miltenberg, 

Mincio, 

Mindelheim, 

Minden, 

Mineo, 

Minho, 

Minnesingers, 

Minorca, 

Minsk, 


474 

108 

623 

323 

15 

325 

483 

148 

14 

56 

96 

601 


Miranda  de  Douro,  73 


Mirande, 

Mirandella, 

Mirandola, 

Mirecourt, 

Missolonghi, 

Mistretta, 

Mitrovicz, 

Mittelmark, 

Mittelwalde, 

Mittenwakl, 

Mittenwalde, 


216 
73 
119 
195 
621 
148 
534 
464,  467 
474 
315 
465 


INDEX. 


657 


Mitterburg, 

Mockmiihl, 

Modane, 

Modejares, 

Modena, 

Modica, 

Modtgliano, 

Modlin, 

Modon, 

Moen, 

Moers, 

Moesia,  Lower, 

Moesia,  Upper, 

Moffat, 

Moguer, 

Mohacz, 

Mohammedans, 

Mohilew, 

Mohilow, 

Mohra, 

Miihringen, 

Mohrungen, 

Moissac, 

Mokshansk, 

Mola  di  Bari, 

Mold, 

Moldau  River, 

Moldavia, 

Molfetta, 

Molina, 

Molk, 

Molle, 

Mollis, 

Molln, 

Mologa, 

Molsheim, 

Mommelliano, 

Mompelgard, 

Monaco, 

Monaghan, 

Moncaiieri, 

Monchiqne, 

Mondonedo, 

Mondovi, 

Mondragon, 

Moneins, 

Monheim, 

Monistrol, 

Monmouth, 

Monmouthshire, 

Monnikendam, 

Monopoli, 

Monreale, 

Mons, 

Monselice, 

Monsheim, 

Monstiers, 

Montabaur, 

Montasrnana, 

Montaigu, 

Montalban, 

Montalcino, 

Montalto, 

Montargis, 

Montauban, 

Montbard, 

Montbeliard, 

Mont  Blanc, 

Montbrison, 


PAQK 

512 
331 
110 
76 
117,  118 
148 


123 
606 
622 
550 
494 
629 
634 
250 
92 


391! 
347 
496 
216 
608 
144! 
246 

16 
636 
144 

88 
509 
577 
161 
420 

12 
197 
109 
203 
110 
258 
106 

74 

91 
108 

97 
218 
326 
221 
240 
240 
269 
144 
146 
281 
541 
357 
110 
363 
541 
278 

94 
124 
133,134 
205 
216 
201 
203 
4 
214 


63!} 
112 
149 

124 

H3 

113 
5 

144 

114 

5 

113 

110 


Mont-Cassel, 
Mont  Dauphin, 
Montdidier, 
Mont  Dore, 
Montecalieri, 
Monte  Cassino, 
Montechiaro, 
Monte  Christo, 
Monte  Cimone, 
Montefarchio, 
Monteflascone, 
Montefusco, 
Monte  Gibello, 
Monte  Giuliano, 
Monteleone, 
Montelimart, 
Monte  Negro  (near 

Leghorn), 
Montenegro  (in 

Turkey), 
Montenotte, 
Monte  peloso, 
Montepulciano, 
Montereau  fault 

Yonne, 
Monterosso, 
Monte  Rotondo, 
Monte  Sant'  An- 
Mgelo, 
Muntesanto, 
Monte  di  Sibylla, 
Montferrand, 
Montferrat, 
Montfort,         208,271 
Montgomery,         246 
Montgomeryshire,  246 
Montherhausen,     195 
Monthey, 
Montiers, 
Monti  I  la, 
Montivilliers, 
Montjoie, 
Mont- Louis, 
Montlucon, 
Monti  uel, 
Mont  de  Marsan, 
Montmedy, 
Montmelian, 
Montm  trail, 
Montmorency, 
M  out  inori  lion, 
Montpellier, 
Montpensier, 
Mont  Perdu, 
Montreale, 
Montreuil, 
Montrose, 
Mont  St.  Michel, 
Montserrat, 
Mont  Tendre, 
Mont  de  Tonnere, 
Monts  de  Faucille,    6 
Monza,  538 

Monzon,  94 

Mook,  heath  of,      271 
Moors,  28, 33 

Moorslede,  281 

Moorzele,  281 

Moorwerder,  450 

281 


FA  OR  | 

190;Moo8burg, 
2-2-2  Morat, 
188j  Moravia, 

6 1  Moravian  Mts., 
106  Morawa, 
142;  Moray, 
540  Morbegno. 

Morbihan  Depart 
ment, 

Mordwines, 

Morea, 

Morella, 

Morez, 

Morgarten, 

Morges, 

Moringen, 

Moritzburg, 

Morlaix, 

Morpeth, 

Mors, 

Morsburg, 

Morsee, 

Mortagne, 

Mortain, 

Mortara, 

Morwan  Mts., 

Mosaisk, 

Mosbach, 

Moscow, 

Moselle, 

Moselle  Depart- 
ment, 

Mosken, 

Moskenas-Strom- 
men, 

Moskirch, 

Mosony, 


167 
110 
83 

1«!-) 
40.) 

319 

204 
202 
217 
195 
109 
199 
184 
210 
220 
213 
4 
148 
189 
252 
181 
•J.") 

i 


PAOK 

315 
159 
516 
7 
16 
253 
539 


Mostar, 

Motala, 

Motril, 

Mottlau, 

Moudon, 

Moulins, 

Mount  Edge- 
combe, 

Mount  Hecla, 

Mount  Mellick, 

Mountrath, 

Mount  Rosa, 

Moura, 

Monzon, 

Moyenvic, 

Mucidan, 

Mufflon, 

Mufti, 

Muggendorf, 

Muhlberg, 

MUhldorf, 

MUhlenbach, 

Miihlhausen, 

MUhlhausen  (Al- 
sace), 

Miihlheim  am 
Rhein, 

Miihlheim 
Ruhr, 

Muhlingen. 

Miihltroff, 


203 
168 
168 
440 
382 
209 
244 
552 
346 
168 
190,208 
187 
111 
6 
591 
344 
590 
16 

188 

577 

577 
347 
527 
57ti 
831 
570 
03 
13 
168 
204 


8 
257 
887 

4 
73 
193! 
195 
215 
113 
6261 
319 
480 
315 
532 
481 


der 


402 


493 

401 


Muiden, 

268 

Mulde, 

16 

Mull, 

254 

Mijllheim, 

345 

Mullingar, 

257 

Miillrose, 

467 

Mummel  Lake, 

338 

Munch  berg, 

319 

Muncheberg, 

467 

Miinchen, 

314 

Miinchengratz, 

515 

M  iinden, 

440 

Miinder, 

436 

Munderkingen, 

335 

Munich, 

314 

Munkacs, 

528 

Mii  nncrs  tadt, 

323 

Munsingen, 

335 

Munster, 

259 

MUnster, 

482 

Minister  imGrego- 

rienthal, ' 

108 

Miinsterberg, 

474 

Miinstereifel, 

492 

Miinzenberg, 

357 

Munzthal, 

195 

Murano, 

541 

Marat, 

213 

Murcia, 

94 

Mures, 

90 

Muret, 

217 

Murg, 

338 

Muri, 

156 

Muritz  Lake, 

11 

Murrhard, 

331 

Murten, 

159 

Murviedro, 

96 

Muskau, 

475 

Musselburgh, 

249 

Muttenz, 

158 

Mutzig, 

197 

Mutzschen, 

3*2 

Muyden, 

268 

Mylau, 

384 

Naarden, 

269 

Naas, 

257 

Nab, 

16 

Nabburg, 

317 

Nachitschevan, 

612 

Naefels, 

161 

tfagold, 

333 

Nagy-Banya, 

528 

Nagy  Enyed, 

531 

Nagy  Falu, 

531 

Nagy-Karoly, 

528 

Nas?y-Szent-Mik- 

los, 

528 

Nagy  Varad, 

528 

Nahe, 

16 

Naila, 

319 

Nairn, 

253 

Nairnshire, 

253 

V  tk-kop, 

551 

Nam. mi, 

281 

Vamslau, 

473 

tfamur, 

281 

Nancy, 
Nangis, 

194 
184 

658 


INDEX. 


PA6K|                                             PAGKj 

PAGEI                                             PAGE 

Nantes, 

209 (Netherlands,  king-       |Neustadtl, 

51l!Nieuwport,             280 

Nantua, 

202|     domofthe,          265  Neustettin, 

472Nievre,                      15 

Nautwicb, 

242;  Netherlander,        265  Neu-Strelitz, 

41l|Nievre  Depart- 

Naples, 

141  Netze,                        13Neustria, 

27      ment,                   204 

Napoli  di  Malva- 

Netzschkau,            384jNeu-Titschein, 

517|Nikolaiken,             497 

sia,                622, 623 

Neubrandenburg,  412 

Neuveville, 

159|Nikolajew,              611 

Napoli  di  Roma- 

Neuburg on  the 

Neuwied, 

488;Nikolsburg,            517 

nia, 

621 

Danube,               326 

Nevers, 

204iNimeguen,              271 

Narbonne, 

220 

Neuchatel,       162,  163 

Nevesigna, 

634|Nimes,                     220 

Narenta, 

15 

Neuchatel    (in 

Neviges, 

493 

Nimptsch,               473 

Narni, 

133 

France),               186 

Newa, 

13 

Ninove,                   280 

Naro, 

147 

Neudamm,              467 

Newark, 

242 

Niort,                       210 

Narva, 

596 

Neudenau,              344 

New  Branden- 

Nishnei-Novgo- 

Nassau,  duchy, 

360 

Neuenburg,             423 

burg, 

412 

rod,                     592 

Nassau  (town), 

362 

Neuenburg,             333 

New  Breisach, 

198 

Nishnei-Tagilsk,     608 

Nassau-Siegen, 

486 

Neuenhaus,             442 

Newbury, 

235 

Nishnij  Lomov,     608 

Naters, 

167 

Neuenstadt,            159  Nt 

87 

Nisida,                     141 

Naugard, 

470 

Neuenstein,            337 

Newcastle  under 

Nissa,                      635 

Nauheim, 

374 

Neuerburg,             489 

Lyne, 

241 

Nivelles,                 278 

Naumburg, 

479 

Neufahrwasser,      497 

Newcastle  upon 

Nivernais,               204 

Naumburg  am  Bo- 

Neufchaieau,  195,283 

Tyne, 

244 

NizzadellaPaglia,  111 

ber, 

475 

Neufchatel  Lake,     11 

New  Galloway, 

250 

Nobility  (history),   46 

Naumburg  (in 

Neuffen,                   333 

New  Gradisca, 

534 

Nocera,            134,  142 

Hesse-Cassel), 

372 

Neuhaldensleben,  477 

New  Katzenellnbo- 

Nogat,                       13 

Naumburg  am 

Neuhaus,                 437 

gen, 

364 

Nogayzg,                 611 

Queis, 

475 

Neuhausel,             525 

New  Lanark, 

250 

Nogayan  Steppe,    611 

Naupaktos, 

621 

Neuilly,                   183 

Newlands, 

250 

Nogent  le  Roi,        192 

Nauplia, 

621 

Neukirch,                164 

Newmarket, 

237 

Nogent  le  Rotrou,  208 

Navia, 

90 

Neukirchen,    372,493 

New  Orsova, 

635 

Nogent  sur  Seine,  192 

Navan, 

257 

Neukloster,             410 

New  Patrae, 

621 

Noirmoutier,          210 

Navarino, 

622 

Neumark,        464, 467 

Newport, 

240 

Nola,                        142 

Navarre  (in 

Neumarkt,      317, 473 

New  Radnor, 

246 

Noli,                       113 

France), 

218 

Neumiinster,   169,  417 

New  Ross, 

256 

Nonnenmattwei- 

Navarre  (in 

Neunburg  vordem 

Newry, 

258 

her,                      338 

Spain), 

97 

Walde,                317 

Newstead  Abbey,  242 

Nontron,                 215 

Navarre  (palace 

Neusatz,                  525 

New  Strelitz, 

411 

Noord-Beveland,    270 

of), 

186 

Neusiedl  Lake,        11 

Newton  upon  Ayr,  250 

Nora,                       569 

Naxia, 

623 

Neuss,              168, 493 

Newton  Stuart, 

250 

Norburg,                 557 

Naxos, 

623 

Neustadt  (in  Hol- 

NexOe, 

550 

Nord  Department,  190 

Neapolitan  Apen- 

stein),                 417 

Nibe, 

552 

Norden,                   443 

nines, 

5 

Neustadt  (in  Meck- 

Nicastro, 

145 

Norderney,              443 

Neath, 

245 

lenburg),            409 

Nice, 

110 

Nordhausen,  *       481 

Neau, 

490 

Neustadt  an  der 

Nicolas  de  Port, 

195 

Nordheim,              440 

Nebel, 

17 

Aisch,                  321 

Nicolosi, 

148 

Nordhorn,               442 

Necessidades, 

7] 

Neustadt  am  Culm  318 

Nicopoli, 

629 

Nord  land,               577 

Neckar,              16, 329 

Neustadt  an  der 

Nicosia, 

148 

Nordlingen,            324 

Neckar-Biscbof- 

Dosse,                  466 

Nidau, 

158 

Norfolk,                  236 

sheim, 

344 

Neustadt-Ebers- 

Nidda, 

357 

Noricum,                297 

Neckar  Circle, 

331 

walde,                  466 

Nidwalden, 

166 

Norma,                   133 

Neckargemiind, 

343 

Neustadt  an  der 

Niebla, 

92 

Normandy,              185 

Neckarsteinach, 

355 

Haardt,                327 

Niedenstein, 

371 

Norman  Islands,    247 

Neckarsulm, 

332 

Neustadt  an  der 

Niederaula, 

373 

Normans,                  30 

Negropont, 

623 

Heide,                  394jNiederbronn, 

198 

Norrkoping,            570 

Neheim, 

485 

Neustadt  (in  Hesse-     [Niedernhall, 

337 

Norrland,                573 

Neidenau, 

344 

Cassel),               372  Niederrad, 

456 

Norrtelge,               508 

Neidenburg, 

496 

Neustadt  unterm          Nieder-Selters, 

363 

North  Albingia,      414 

Neisse, 

476 

Hohnstein,          441 '  Niederstetten, 

337 

North  Albingians,  298 

Neisse  River, 

13 

Neustadt  an  der          INiederwildungen 

376 

Northampton,        241 

Neitra, 

16 

Linde,                 331[Niemen, 

13 

Northampton- 

Nemours, 

184 

Neustadt  an  der           Niemirow, 

602 

shire,                   241 

Nenndorf, 

372 

Orla,                   388Nienburg, 

436 

North  Brabant,       273 

Nerac, 

217 

Neustadt  in  der          iNienburg  an  der 

North  Cape,        3,  578 

Nerike, 

569 

Rosenau,             355]     Saale, 

406  North  Channel,        10 

Nervi, 

112 

Neustadt  am  RU-         INierstein, 

356,  North  Coasts  De- 

Nestved, 

550 

benberge,            436  Niesky, 

475!     partment,            20b 

Netherlands, 

261 

STeustadt  an  der          Nieuport, 

280  Northgau,                197 

,  Austrian, 

277 

Saale,                   323  Nieuwe  Dien, 

2C,9  North  Holland,       268 

,  Catholic, 

277  Neustadt  an  der           Nieuwfcerk," 

272  Northumberland.   244 

,  Spanish, 

277, 

Waldnab,            318 

Sieuwpoort, 

210 

Vorlh  Jutland,        552 

INDEX. 


659 


PAOK 

PAOE 

PAOK 

PAOK 

North  Riding, 

24: 

1  Oberwesel, 

48' 

'  Old  Orsova, 

5U 

Ortenau, 

341 

North  Sea, 

£ 

Obidoa, 

72  Old  Pazna, 

534 

Ortenberg, 

357 

North  Shields, 

244 

Obotrites, 

40" 

Old  Rhine, 

H 

Ortenburg, 
Orthez, 

316 

North  Uist, 

255 

Obwalden, 

16C 

Old  Strelitz, 

41S 

218 

North  Wales, 

24« 

Ocana, 

8- 

Oleggio, 

ill 

Ortles, 

4 

North  wich, 

24-. 

Occhieppo  supe- 

Oleron,            211, 21* 

Ortona  a  Mare, 

143 

Norway, 

575 

riore, 

10£ 

Oletzko, 

497 

Orvieto, 

133 

Norwegian  Lap- 

Ochsenfurt, 

323  Olgun, 

635 

Orzi  Nuovi, 

540 

land, 

578 

Ochsenkopf, 

7 

Olite, 

97 

Oschereleben, 

478 

Norwich, 

236 

Ochsenwerder, 

450 

Oliva, 

497 

Oschiri, 

114 

Noto, 

148 

Ochrida, 

63: 

Olivenca, 

91 

Osieczno, 

499 

Nottingham, 

242 

Oczakow, 

611 

Olkusz,' 

606 

Osilo, 

114 

Nottinghamshire 

,  242 

Odeu, 

547 

Ollioules, 

224 

Osimo, 

134 

Novara, 

111 

Odenkirchen, 

493 

Olmiitz, 

517 

Osma, 

89 

Nova  Zembla, 

593 

Odense, 

551 

Olonetz, 

593 

Osmanlis, 

624 

Novel  lara, 

119 

Odenwald, 

7 

Oloron, 

218 

Osnabriick, 

441 

Novgorod, 

593 

Oder, 

13 

Olpe, 

485 

Osning, 

8 

Novi, 

112 

Oderbruch, 

458 

Olsa, 

13 

Ossa, 

13 

Novibasar, 

635 

Odernheim, 

356 

Otten, 

164 

Ossiach  Lake, 

11 

Novo  Georgievsk,  606 

Odessa, 

611 

Olviopol, 
Omagh, 

611 

Ossuna, 

92 

Novogorod, 

50  Odin, 

547 

258 

Ostende, 

280 

Novo  Mirgorod, 
Nowogrodek, 

611  Odoacer, 

45 

Orabrone, 

120 

Osterburg, 

478 

60]  Oedenburg, 

526 

Ommen, 

272 

Osterburken, 

344 

Nowoi-Tsherkask,  612;Oederan, 

384 

Onate, 

"93 

Osterhofen, 

316 

Nozay, 

210  Oehringen, 

336 

Onega  Lake, 

10 

Osterholz, 

438 

Nucko, 

596  Oeland, 

571 

Onega  River, 

13 

Osterhout, 

274 

Nuits, 

201  Oels,                445,4 

Oneglia, 

110  Osterland,       382.  395 

Numantia, 

89  Oelsnitz, 

384 

Onolzbaeb, 

320  Osterode, 

440 

Numburg, 

372  Oeraefe-Joekul, 

8 

Oostburg, 

27HOsterwiek, 

478 

Nummedalen, 

576  Oerebro, 

569  Opatow, 

606  Ostheim, 

389 

Nuremberg, 

321jOeregrund, 

568 

Opladen, 

493|Osthofen, 

356 

Niirnberg, 

321 1  Oeresound, 

9 

Oporto, 

72 

Ostra, 

132 

Nuoro, 

114  Oesel, 

597 

Oppa, 

13 

Ostrach, 

349 

Nurri, 

114  Oesterby, 
333'Oester-G6thland, 

568 

Oppeln, 

475 

Ostrog, 

602 

Niirtingen, 

570 

Oppenau, 

341 

Ostrogoths, 

23 

Nusloch, 

343  Oesteriisoer, 

577 

Oppenheim, 

356 

Ostrolenka, 

606 

Nya  Elfsborg, 

572  Oester-Joekul, 

8 

Oppidolo, 

147  Oswestry, 

242 

Nyborg, 

551  Oesteroe, 

558 

Orange, 

223|Otranto, 

143 

Ny  Carleby, 

599  Oestersund, 

574 

Oranienbaum, 

405jOttensen, 

418 

Nykjobing 

550,!OetMng,Old, 

315 

Oranienburg, 

465  Otterbersr, 

327 

551 

,  552  Oettingen, 

326 

Orb, 

323  Otterndorf, 

438 

Nykoping, 

568  Ofen, 

525 

Orbach, 

168  Ottersberg, 

438 

Nymphenburg, 

314  Offenbach, 

355 

Orbe, 

168 

Ottmachau, 

476 

Nyon, 

168  Offen  burg, 

341 

Orbitello, 

125 

Ottobeuren, 

325 

Nyons, 

223  Oggersheira, 

327 

Ordufia, 

97 

Ottweiler,        360, 489 

Nystad, 

598!Ogliastra, 

114 

Ore  Mountains, 

7 

Oudenaarde,   279,  280 

Nysted, 

551  Oglio, 

15 

Orel, 

591 

Oudewater, 

270 

Nyvel, 

278 

Ogulin, 

533 

Orenburg, 

609 

Ouessant, 

209 

Ogygia, 

150 

Orense, 

91 

Oufa, 

609 

Oakham, 

241 

Ohlau, 

13 

Orfan, 

631 

Oulx, 

107 

Ober-Aargau, 

158  Ohrdruf, 

394 

Orghei, 

612 

Ourem, 

72 

Oberbaden, 

156iOhrnbau, 

322 

Orgon, 

224 

Ourique, 

73 

Ober-Glogau, 

476  Oise, 

15 

Orgosola, 

114 

Ourthe, 

16 

Obergiinzburg, 

325 

Oise  Department, 

184 

Orihuela, 

96  Otise, 

14 

Ober-Hohenberg, 

7 

Oka, 

12 

Dristano, 

114|Ovar, 

72 

Oberkirch, 

341 

Okna, 

637 

Orkney  Islands, 

255jOvelgonne, 

423 

Ober-Kulm, 

156 

Olau, 

473 

Drkneys, 

255|Over-Flakke, 

27D 

Oberlahnstein, 

363 

Oldenburg,  city  of,  423 

)rlamiinde, 

396 

Overyssel, 

272 

Obermoschel, 

328 

Oldenburg,  Grand- 

3rleanais, 

205 

Ovidiopol, 

611 

Obernay, 

197 

duchy  of, 

420 

Orleans, 

205 

Dviedo, 

90 

Obernburg, 

323 

Oldenburg  (in 

Drnans, 

303 

>wl  Mountains, 

7 

Oberndorf, 

332 

Holstein), 

417 

Orne, 

15  < 

Dxford, 

237 

Obernkirchen, 

372  Old  Castile, 

88 

>ne  Department,  187 1  Oxfordshire, 

237 

Oberrad, 

456  Oldendorf, 

371 

Dropa, 

108  1  >vonnar, 

202 

Oberramstadt, 

354  Oldenzaal, 

272 

)rosei, 

1 14  Ozieri, 

114 

Ober-Rossbach, 

357  Oldesloe, 

417 

)rsova. 

635  Ozorkov, 

605 

Oberschonau, 

3" A  Old  Gradisca, 

5:14 

Orsova,  Old, 

5:i  f 

Oberstein, 

428  Oldham, 

2411 

)rsoy, 
Ortelsburg, 

494! Pacha, 

626 

Obersteut'eld, 

332! 

Old  Oetting, 

3151 

490  1 

^uchino, 

148 

660 


INDEX. 


Pacracz, 

Paderborn, 

Padua, 

Paestum, 

Pagalia  Orba, 

Pago, 

Puimpont, 

Paisley, 

Palais, 

Palais  Royal, 

Palatinate,  Bava- 
rian, 

Palatinate  of  Ches- 
ter, 

Palatinate,  Elec- 


PAGE 

530 
484 
541 
142 
5 
535 
208 
251 
209 
182 


:vjr, 


Patricians, 
Patschkau, 
Pattada, 
Patlensen, 
Patti, 
Pau, 
Paula, 
Paulinzelle, 
Paulilatino, 
Paulliac, 
Pausa, 
Pavia, 
Pavullo, 
242|Pawlovsk, 
Paxo, 


toral,  342  Pay  erne, 

Palati  nate  of  Lan-       |  Pecs, 

caster,  242 1  Peebles, 

Palatinate,  Up-  |  Peeblesshire, 

per,  316,  317  Peene, 

Pal  a  ti  nes,  342 1  Pegau, 

Palazzo  Adriano,    147  Pegli, 


Pilencia. 

Palenzerthal, 

Palermo, 

Palestrina, 

Palisse,  La, 

Pallauza, 

Palma, 

Palmajola, 

Palmanova, 

Palm  aria, 

Palmi, 

Painters, 
un  pel  una, 

Pancorvo, 

Pancsova, 

Paunonia, 

Pantalaria, 

Pantaleu, 

Pantelaria, 

Paola, 

Papa, 

Papenburg, 

Pappenheim 

Parchim, 

Pardo,  el, 

Parga, 

Paris, 

Parisians, 

Parma, 

Paros, 

Parsberg, 

Parsonslown, 

Partenkirchen, 

Parthenay, 

Parthenope, 

Pas  de  Calais  De- 
partment, 

Pasewalk, 

Passages,  Los, 

Passarge, 

Passarovitz, 

Passau, 

Passy, 

Paterno, 

Patradschik, 

Patrae, 

Patras, 


89  Peina, 
165|Pelagio, 
146:Pelasgians, 
1 32^11^ 

204 1  Peloponnesus,  619, 621 
llljPelvouxde  Val- 
96,  147      louise, 
125!  Pembroke, 
542  j  Pembrokeshire, 
113  Pempelfort, 

Penig, 

Peniscola, 

Penkun, 

Penne, 

Pennine  Alps, 

Penrith, 

Penryn, 

Pensa, 

Penthievre, 

Pentland  Frith, 

Penzance, 

Penzlin, 

Pepin  of  Herstall 

Pepin  the  Little, 

Perche, 

Perigord, 

Perigueux, 

Peritia, 

Perleberg, 

Perm, 

Pernau, 

Peronne, 

Peroso,  valley  «f, 

Perpignan, 

Persante, 

Perserin, 

Perth, 

Perthshire, 

Perugia, 

Perugia  Lake, 

Pesaro, 

Pescara, 

Pescia, 

Pesco  Pagano, 

Peso  da  Regoa, 

Pest, 

Peterborough, 


145 
218 

97 

88 

534 

521,  633 

147 

97 
14 
145 
526 
442 
322 
409 

87 
633 
182 
183 
115,  116 
623 
317 
257 
315 
210 
141 


PAGE( 

51  Peterhead, 
476  Peterlingen, 
114  Petersburg, 
436Petersdorf, 
148;Petershagen, 
218  j  Peterwardein, 
145Petrikau, 
401  Petri  nia, 
114  Petrosawodsk, 
215  Petrovsk, 
384lPetschenegri, 
538  Petschora, 
119  Pezenas, 
592;Pi'affenhofen, 
615Pfalz,  die, 
168'Pfalzburg, 
526:Pfalzel, 
250  Pfeddersheim, 
250  Pfeffers, 

13  Pt'effikon, 
383  Pflnz, 
112  Pforta, 
439  Pforzheim, 
29IPfreimdt, 
102!Pfullendorf, 
630  Pfullingen, 

Phdakia, 

Phanagoria, 

Phanari, 

Pharsalus, 
245!  Pheasant  Island, 
492JPhigalia, 
383 1  Philippe  ville, 
96|Philippi, 
470  Philippine, 
143  Philippople, 

4|Philippsburg, 
244Philipseich, 
239  Philippsruhe, 
608  Philipstad, 
"    Philippsthal, 

Philipstown, 

Phokis, 

Phthiotis, 

Piacenza, 

Piana, 

Piano  de'Greci, 

Pianosa,  Isle  of, 

Piast, 

Piave, 

Piazza, 

Picacho  de  Veleta, 

Picardy, 

Piclong, 

Pico, 

Pico  las  Posets, 

Picts, 

Piedimonte, 

Piedmont, 

Piedrahita, 

Pienza, 

Piesport, 

Pietrasanta, 

Picnerol, 

PiFa, 

Pilat, 

Pilica, 

Pilier, 

PUlau, 


PAGE 

252 
168 
595 
557 
483 
533 
G06 
533 
593 
609 
521 
12 
220 
315 
364 
198 
489 
356 
160 
169 
338 
480 
340 
318 
346 
333 
615 
613 
622 
631 
217 
622 
282 
630 
271 


25.-. 
239 

409 
27 
27 
207 
215 
215 
615 
400 
(HIT 
597 
188 
107 
219 
13 
033 
253 
253 

iaa 

ii 

134 
143 
133 

14-2 

73 

525 

241 


iPilkallen, 

Pillnitz, 

Pilsen, 
jPmczow, 
(Pindus, 
■  Pinega, 
jPinerolo, 

Pinhel, 

Pinneberg, 
!  Pi  nek, 
|  Pinto, 
iPiombino, 
jPirano, 

Piraus, 

Pinnasenz, 

Pima, 

Pisa, 

Pisino, 

Pistoja, 

Pitea, 

Pitest, 

Pithiviers, 

Pithyusian  Islands,  97 


PAGE 

497 
382 
515 
606 
6 
12 
107 
72 
414,  418 
601 
150 
125 
512 
620 
328 
382 
124 
512 
123 
574 
636 
205 


Pitigliano, 

Pizzighettone. 

Pizzo, 

Piaisance, 

Plantagenet, 

Plaeencia, 

Plattenberg, 

Platten  See, 

Plan, 

Plaue, 

Plauen, 

Plauenscher 

Grund, 
Pleissenburg, 
Pleskow, 
Pless, 


124 

538 

145 

117 

232 

91,97 

7 

11 

409 

401 

381,384 

381 
382 

50.  593 
405,  476 


jPlessis  les  Tours,    206 

jPleszew, 

iPlinteiiburg, 

IPlock, 

iPloen  Lake, 

Ploermel, 

Plomb  de  Cantal, 

Plombieres, 

Plon, 

Plotzkau, 

PIUl-8, 

Plymouth, 

Po, 

Podensac, 

Podestas, 

Podgorze, 

Podlachia, 

Podolia, 

Poggio  a  Cajano, 


13,606 
210 


499 
525 
606 

II 
209 
6 
195 
417 
404 
539 
238 

15 
215 

5t 
519 

mi 

602 
123 


Poggio  Imperiale,  12.1 


Poissy, 

Poitiers, 

Poitou, 

Pola, 

Poland, 

Polangen, 

Polenzo, 

Polese, 

Polesia, 

Polignac, 


184 
210 
210 
512 
603 
601 
108 
165 
601 
221 


INDEX. 


661 


PAOIC 

Policrny,  203 

Polish  Russia,  600 

Poitz,  46it 

Polizzi,  1  Ki 

Poiie,  43t> 

Pollove,  10* 

Polozk,  601 

Poltawa,  594 

Polzin,  47-2 

Pombal,  72 

Pomerania,  468 

,  Back  409, 470, 471 

,  Fore,       468,  469 

,  Swedish,  470 

Pommard,  201 

Pommersfelden,  320 

Pomona,  255 

Pompadour,  212 

Pompeii,  141 

Pontac,  218 

Pontd'Ain,  20-2 

PoDtarlier,  201 J 

Pout  Audemer,  186 

Pont  Beauvoisie,  222 j 

Pont  Beauvoisin,  109 

PontdeCe,  207 

Pont  du  Chateau,  213, 

Pont  I'Eveque,  187; 

PontduGard,  221 

Pont  a  Mousson,  195 

Pont  St.  Esprit,  221, 

Pont  sur  Seine,  192 

Pont  de  Vaux,  202 

PontdeVeyle,  202 

Poute,  108t 

P.mte  Bodio,  133 ' 

Pontocorvo,  133 
Ponte  di  Lugo 

Scuro,  135 

Ponte  de  Lima,  73 

Ponte  a  Seraglio,  126 

Ponte  Tresa,  165 

Pontevedra,  91 

Pontevico,  540 

Pontine  Isles,  142 

Pontine  Marshes,  127 

Pontivy,  209 

Pontoise,  184 

Pontremoli,  125 

Ponza  Isles,  142 

Poole,  238 

Popedom,  127 

Poperingen,  281 

Pordenone,  542 

Porentruy,  159 

Poretsh,  635 

Pon.s,  622 

Port  Ghvgow,  25 11 

Port  Louis,  209 

Port  Mahon,  96 

Port  Patrick,  250 

Port  Vendre,  219 

Portalegie,  73 

Porte,  626 

Portici,  141 

Portland,  Bill  of,  23H 

Porto,  72 

Porto  (Azores),  75 

Porto  Corsini,  135 


paoc 

paob 

Porto  Drapano, 

61t>[Privas, 

221 

Porto  Fermo, 

134|Procida, 

141 

Porto  Ferrajo, 

126{Pronia, 

622 

Porto  Gai, 

615  Prosecco, 

512 

Porto  Longone, 

126  Provence, 

223 

Porto  Mauritio, 

113 

Provence,  King- 

Porto San  Mauri- 

dom  or, 

200| 

zio, 

113 

Provincial  Hun- 

Porto Re, 

529 

gary,             520,  524 

Porto  Torres, 

114 

Provins, 

193 

Porto  Vechio, 

225 

Prozelten, 

323 

Portovenere, 

113 

Priim, 

489 

Portsmouth, 

238 

Pruntrut, 

159 

Portsoy, 

253 

Pruschani, 

601 

Portugal, 

62 

Prussia,  Kingdom 

Portugaleto, 

97 

of, 

457 

Posada, 

114 

Prussia,  Province 

Poschiavo, 

162 

of, 

495 

Posega, 

530 

Prussian  Moravia,  476 

Posen, 

499 

Prussians, 

495 

Posneck, 

392 

Pruth, 

16 

Posony, 

524 

Pskow,               50, 593 

Potenza, 

145 

Puerto  Real, 

92 

Pottendorf, 

509 

Puerto  de  Santa 

Pottenstein, 

320 

Maria, 

92 

Potteries, 

241 

Puigcerda, 

95 

Potsdam, 

465  Pulawy, 

606 

Potshitatz, 

634  Pultawa, 

534 

Pouance, 

207,Pultusk, 

606 

Pouilly, 

204jPuntaDelgada, 

74 

Pra, 

112|Purgaturo, 

141 

Prades, 

219 

Piirglitz, 

515 

Praeneste, 

132 

Purmerend, 

269 

Prag, 

514 

Puscblaf, 

162 

Praga, 

605 

Puszten, 

521 

Prague, 

514 

Puttbus, 

471 

Prastoe, 

550 

Puttlitz, 

466 

Prato, 

123 

Putzig, 

498 

Pratolino, 

123 

Puycerda, 

95 

Praunheim, 

374 

Puy  de  D6me, 

6 

Praya, 

75  Puy  de  Dome  De- 

Preetz, 

417 

partment, 

213 

Pregel, 

13 

Puy  de  Saucy, 

6 

Premontre, 

185 

Pylos, 

622 

Prenzlau, 

406 

Pyrenean  Penin- 

Prenzlow, 

466 

sula, 

76 

Prescot, 

243 

Pyrenees, 

4 

Presidios, 

98 

Pyrgos, 

622 

Pressburg, 

524 

Pyritz, 

470 

Presteign, 

246 

Pyrmont, 

376 

Preston, 

243 

Preston  pans, 

249 

Quackenbriick, 

441 

Pretsch, 

479 

Quades, 

472 

Prettigau, 

162 

Quarto, 

114 

Preussen, 

457 

duedlinburg, 

478 

Preussisch  Eylau 

,  496 

Queen's  County, 

257 

Preussisch-Hol- 

Queenstown, 

257 

land, 

490 

Utieltiz, 

71 

Prevesa, 

633 

Que  rand e, 

210 

Prevorst, 

332 

Quercy, 

215 

Pria, 

112  Ciuerfurt, 

479 

Priebns, 

475|Quesnoy,  Le, 

19] 

Priegnitz, 

46tiJQiiiberon, 

'203 

Priego, 

9 1  Quilleboeuf, 

184 

Primizl, 

5l4|Quimper, 

209 

Prince  Isles, 

628' Corenlin, 

Pripet, 

l2lQnimperle, 

209 

Pristina, 

635  Quinary, 

203 

Pritzwalk, 

466 

Quinlin, 

209 

PAGE 

Raab,  526 

Raab  River,  16 

Rabastens,  220 

Rabatto,  150 

Racconigi,  107 

Radeberg,  381 

Radeburg,  381 
Rade  vor  dem 

Wald,  493 
Radicofani,  124 
Radnor,  246 
Radnorshire,  246 
Radolphzell,  346 
Radom,  606 
Radzivilov,  602 
Ragatz,  160 
Ragland  Castle,  240 
Ragnit,  497 
Raguhn,  405 
Ragusa,  535 
Ragusa  (in  Sicily),  148 
Rahden,  484 
Rahnis,  482 
Rain,  315 
Rambervillers,  195 
Rambouillet,  184 
Ramea,  598 
Ramlosa,  572 
Ramsay,  247 
Ramsgate,  236 
Rnndazzo,  148 
Randers,  553 
Ranstadt,  357 
Kanzau,  418 
Rapallo,  113 
Rapperschweil,  160 
Rapper8wyl,  160 
Rappoltsweiler,  198 
Rassova,  629 
Rastadt,  341 
Rastede,  423 
Rastenburg,  496 
Rathdrura,  256 
Rathekau,  426 
Rathenau,  466 
Rathenow,  466 
Ratibor,  476 
Ratingen,  492 
Ratisbon,  316 
Ratzeburg,  419 
Ratzeburg,  princi- 
pality of,  412 
Ratzgrad,  630 
Rauenthal,  363 
Ran  he  Alp,  7 
Rauschenberg,  372 
Rava,  605 
Ravenna,  135 
Ravensberg,  484 
Ravensburg,  334 
Ravensteen,  274 
Riwick,  499 
Re  (island),  211 
Reading,  235 
Recklinghausen,  483 
Reonlet,  6 
Redon,  208 
Re'inndela.  91 
Red  Russia,  518 


662 


INDEX. 


Reeckem, 

Rees, 

Rega, 

Regalmnto, 

Regen  River, 

Regensburg, 

Regenstauf, 

Regenwalde, 

Reggio, 

Reggio  (in  Mo- 
dena),  119 

Rehau,  319 

Rehburg,  435 

Rehna,  409 

Reibersdorf,  385 

Reichenau,  346 

Reichenbach,  384,  473 

Reichenberg,  364,  516 

Reichenhall, 

Reichenstein, 

Reichstadt, 

Reikiavik, 

Reinerz, 

Reinheira, 

Reisen, 

Remagen, 

Remda, 

Remich, 

Remiremont, 

Remoulins, 

Remscheid, 

Renaix, 

Renchen, 

Rendsburg, 

Renfrew, 

Renfrewshire, 

Rennes, 

Reny, 

Reole,  La, 

Reps, 

Requena, 

Resina, 

Rethel, 

Retshitilova, 

Rettimo, 

Reus, 

Reuss,  principali- 
ties of,  397 

Reuss-Greiz,  398 

Reuss- Lobenstein- 
Ebersdorf,  398 

Reuss-Schleiz, 

Reutlingen, 

Reval, 

Revin, 

Rbaetia, 

Rheda, 

Rheidt, 

Rheims, 

Rheina, 

Rhein-Bischofa 
heim, 

Rheineck, 

Rheinfelden, 

Rheingau, 


212 


PAOKI  PAGE  PAGK 

283  Rhenish   Confed-  Rochefort  (in  Bel- 

494|     eration,  294 1     gium),  282 

13|Rhenish  Hesse,       355  Rochefoucauld, 
147 1  Rhenish  League,      54 1     La, 
10 1 Rhenish  province, 486 iRochelle,  La, 
488lRocbemaure, 

16 1  Rochester, 
632|Rochlitz, 
538Rochsburg, 
376 1  Rockenhausen, 


Rosieres  aux  Sa- 


PAOE 


316  Rherise, 
317!  Rhine, 
470  Rhitymna. 
145  Rho, 

Rhoden, 

Rhoen-Gebirge, 

Rhone, 

Rhone  Depart- 
ment, 


214 


Rhone-mouths  De- 


partment, 

Ribadeo, 

Ribe, 
3]4jRibeauviller, 
474;Ribeira  Grande, 
516lRiberac, 
560|Ribnitz, 
474  Riceys, 


354 
499 
488 
387 
367 
195 
221 
493 
280 
341 
417 
251 
251 
208 
612 
215 
532 

88 
141 
193 
594 
632 

95 


386 
838 
508 

191 
397 

484 
493 

19-2 
483 


342 


Richelieu, 

Richmond, 

Richtenschweil, 

Ried, 

Riedenburg, 

Riedlingen, 

Riehen, 

Ries, 

Riesa, 

Riesenburg, 

Riesengebirge, 

Riesenkoppe, 

Rietberg, 

Rieti, 

Riez, 

Riga, 

Riga  Gulf, 

Rki, 

Rimini, 

Rimnik, 

Ringkjobing, 

Ringsted, 

Rinteln, 

Rioja, 

Rioin, 

Ripa  Transone, 

Ripen, 


223 
91 
553 
198 

75 
215 
41(1 
192 
207 
243 
169 
510 
317 
335 
157 
325 
381 


Rocroy, 

Roda, 

Rodach, 

Rod  by, 

Rode  le  Due, 

Rodelheim, 

Rodenberg, 

Rodenstein, 

Rodez, 

Roding, 

Rodolph  of  Haps- 
burg, 

Rodosto, 

Roer, 

Roeraas, 

Roeremonde, 

Roeskilde, 

Rogasen, 

Roggenburg, 

Rohan, 

Rolduc, 

Romagna, 

Romainmoustiers,  168 

Roman,  637 

Roman  Apennines,    5 

Roman  German 
Empire,  291 

Romanians,         18,  19 

Romans,  222 

Romano,  540 

Romanow,  House 
of,  589 

Rome,  132 

Romhild,  391 

Romney,  236 

Romont,  159 

Romorantin, 
213lRoncevalles, 
134JRonciglioue, 
553  Ronda, 


lines, 

Rosnyo, 

Ross, 
21l|Rossano, 
221  Rossbach, 
236  Rosslau, 

Rost, 

Rostock, 

Rostow, 

Rotenburg, 

Rotenburg  (in 
Hesse), 

Rotenburgian 
Quarter, 

Rothenburg  an 
der  Tauber, 

Rother  Thurm, 

Roth  say, 

Rotten  burg, 

Rotterdam, 

Rottum, 

Rottweil, 

Roubaix, 

Rouen, 

Rouergue, 

Rouffac, 

Rough  Alp, 

Roulers, 

Roulx, 

Roumelia, 

Rousselaer, 

Roussillon, 

Roveredo, 

Rovereith, 

Rovigno, 

Rovigo, 

Roxant,  Cape, 

Roxburghshire, 

Royan, 

Rubicon, 

Riidesheim, 

Rudkjobing, 

Rudolstadt, 

Rue, 

Rueil, 


195 

532 

240,  254 

145 


301 
628 
16 
577 
367 
38,549 
499 
325 
209 
490 
131 


480 
406 
577 
410 
592 
438 

371 

371 

321 
534 
252 
332 
269 
273,550 
332 
190 
185 
215 
198 
7 
280 
281 
628 
280 
219 
513 
513 
512 
541 
3 


206 


Ri  puarian  Franks,  298 1  Ronne, 
Ritzebiittel,  450JRonneburg, 


Rivara, 

Rivarolo, 

Rive  de  Gier, 

Rives, 

Rivesaltes, 

Riviera, 

Rivoli, 

Rjiisan, 

Roanne, 

Rocca  bruna, 
160 1  Roccal  umera, 
156 1  Rocamadour, 


107|Ronneby, 
107  Ronsdorf, 


214 
222 
219 
165 

107 
592 
'214 
110 
148 
216 


363  Rocca  San  Felice,  143 
Rheinhardsbrunn,  394 'Rochdale, 
Rheinsberg,  466  i  Roche  sur  Yon, 

Rheinzabern,         327jRochechouart, 
Rhenen,  271 1  Rochefort, 


Ronse 

Roquefort  de  Mar- 

san, 
Roquemaure, 
Rorschach, 
Rosas, 

Roscommon, 
Rosenau, 
Rosenberg, 
Rosendal, 
Rosenthal, 


217 
221 


95 
259 
394,  532 
476,  498 
568,  571 
372 
243  Rosersberg,             568 
210|Roses,  war  of  the,  233|Russia, 
21 1  j Rosheim,                197 j  Russia,  Great, 
21llRosienie,  601 ' ,  Little, 


Rufach, 
Ruffec, 
Rugby, 
Riigen, 
Rugenwalde, 
Rugles, 
Ruhla, 
Ruhr, 
Ruhrort, 
Rum, 
Ruinilly, 
Rummelsburg, 
60  Rumpeuheim, 
Rilnkel, 
Rupel, 

Rupelmonde, 
Ruppin, 
Rurik, 

Ruska  Poyana, 
Russberg, 


211 
127 
363 
551 
401 
188 
184 
198 
212 
241 
469,  471 
471 


186 


494 
255 
109 
472 
374 
365 
16 
280 
466 
588 
5 
164 
579 
590 
594 


INDEX. 


663 


PAOK  ! 

PAO« 

PAOK] 

PAOK 

Russian  Lapl 

iiul.  ."«.>'.  i  Salvatierra, 

98 

San  Pietro  (isle) 

,     144  «t.  Helier, 

247 

Russt, 

BtUzbrunii) 

473 

San  Pietro  d'Are-         |St.  Hippolyte,  202,22 

Rustschuk, 

629  Salzburg, 

510 

na, 

112  St.  Hubert, 

283 

Ruthin, 

246  Salzdahlum, 

44( 

San  Remo, 

113  St.  Ives, 

237 

Rutland, 

241  Salzderhelden, 

440 

San  Rocco, 

117  St.  Jago  deCom 

Ruvo, 

144  Salzdetiurt, 

439  San  Roque, 

92      postella. 

90 

Rybinsk, 

5(J2  Salzhemmendorf,  436  San  Russore, 

125  St.  Jean  d'Angely,  211 
97  St.  Jean  d'Aulp-.    \W 

Rye, 

236  Salzkammergut, 

5 10 !  San  Sebastian, 

Ryssel, 

190  Salzkotten, 

484 1  San  Severo, 

144  St.  Jean  de  Loan 

e,20l 

Ryswick, 

269  Salzschlierf, 

373 

San  Stefano, 

1  ■-'■')  St.. I. -.u i  de  Luz, 

217 

Salzungen, 

391 

St.  Affrique, 

216  St.  Jean  de  Mau- 

Saalburg, 

39y  Salzwedel, 

478 

St.  Aignan, 

205      rienne, 

110 

Saale, 

16  Samara,             12,  608 

St.  Albans, 

237  St.  Jean  Pied  de 

Saalfeld, 

392  Sainbre, 

16 

St.  Amand,      190,  2 

218 

Saanen, 

158  Samnites, 

102 

St.  Amand,  Mon 

St.  Junien, 

212 

Saaralbe, 

196  Samogitia, 

601 

troud, 

204  St.  Kilda, 

255 

Saarbriick, 

4*9  Samojedes, 

580 

St.  Amarin, 

199  St.  Lamberthal, 

282 

Saarburg, 

195,  489  Samothracia, 

839  St.  Amour, 

203  St.  Laurent  de 

Saardam, 

268  Samothraki, 

632  Si.  Andrews, 

251 1     Cerdaus, 

219 

Saargemiind, 

195  Samsoe, 

550  St.  Asaph, 

24ti  St.  Laurent  de 

Saarlouis, 

489  Samter, 

499  St.  Aubin, 

247       Medoc, 

215 

Saar-Union, 

198  San, 

13  St.  Avoid, 

196  Si.  Laurent  les 

Sabines, 

102  Sancerre, 

204  St.  Barjols, 

224      Var, 

224 

Sable, 

207  Sandomir, 

606 

St.  Beat, 

21 71  St.  Leonard, 

212 

Sables  d'Olonne,    2J0  Sandwich, 

236 

St.  Bernard,  Great,  167 1  St.  L6, 

187 

Siiby, 

552  Sangerhausen, 

480 

St.  Bertrand  de 

St.  Maixent, 

210 

Sachsa, 

481  Sanguesa, 

97 

Comminges, 

217  St.  Malo, 

208 

Sachseln, 

166;  Sanquhar, 

250  St.  Blasien, 

345  St.  Malzeville, 

195 

Sachsenberg, 

376  Sanssouci, 

465  j  St.  Brietic, 

906  St.  Marcellin, 

222 

Sachsenhagen 

,        372  San  tana. 

88  St.  Brieux, 

906  St    Marie  aux 

Sachsenhausen,               antander, 

88 

St.  Calais, 

207|     Mines, 

199 

Sachsenstadt, 

532  Santarem, 

72 

St.  Chamas, 

22:*  St.  Martensdyk, 

270 

Sacile, 

542Santhia, 

108 

St.  Chamond, 

214  St.  Martory, 

217 

Siickingen, 

345 

Santillana, 

88 

St.  Claude, 

203  St.  Maurice, 

167 

Sagan, 

•     475 

Santorin, 

623 

St.  Cloud, 

183  St.  Maximin, 

224 

Sagard, 

471 

San  Ambrogio, 

107 

St.  Cyr, 

183  St.  Menehould, 

192 

Sagres,    — 
Sagunt,  •  ™ 

74 

San  Carlo, 

95 

St.  David's, 

245  St.  Michel, 

195 

96 

San  Casciano, 

124 

St.  Denis, 

183  St.  Mihiel, 

195 

Sahagun, 

89 

San  Cipriano, 

112 

St.  Die, 

1951  St.  Moritz, 

167 

Saima  Lake, 

11 

San  Damiano, 

108 

St.  Dizier, 

199  St.  \azaire, 

210 

Sainte  Marguerite,  2-24 

San  Felipe, 

96 

St.  Dmitria  Ros- 

|St.  Nikolas, 

280 

Saintes, 

211 

San  Fernando,    92,  95 

tovskaja, 

612  St.  Oraer, 

189 

Saintonge, 

211 

San  Filippo, 

124 

St.  Etienne, 

214|  St.  Palais, 

218 

Sala, 

117,  569 

San  Filippo  d'Ar 

St.  Fergus, 

253 

St.  Peray, 

221 

Salamanca, 

90 

gy°' 

148 

St.  Florent, 

225 

St.  Petersburg, 

595 

Salamis, 

621 

San  Fiorenzo, 

225 

St.  Florentin, 

193 

St.  Peter's  Port, 

247 

Saldana, 

89 

San  Germano, 

142 

St.  Florian, 

510 

St.  Philibert, 

210 

Salemi, 

146 

San  Geronimo  de 

St.  Flour, 

213 

St.  Pierre,         180,  247 

Salency, 

184 

Juste, 

91 

St.  Gall,            159,  16 

St.  Pierre  d'Al- 

Salerno, 

142 

San  Gervasio, 

110 

St.  Galmier, 

214 

bigny, 

109 

Salers, 

213 

San  Giorgio,    108 

,117 

St.  Gaudens, 

217 

St.  Pol, 

189 

Salic  Franks, 

298 

San  Giovanni, 

110 

St.  Geniez, 

216 

St.  Pol  de  Leon, 

209 

Salies, 

2 18 1  San  Ildefonso, 

89 

St.  Geniez  de  Rive- 

St.  Polten. 

599 

Salina, 

149  San  Jorge, 

75 

dolt, 

216 

St.  Pons  de  To- 

Sal ins, 

203  San  Lucar  de  Bar- 

St.  Genis-Laval, 

214 

rn  iers, 

220 

Salisbury, 

239     rameda, 

91 

St.  George, 

75 

St.  Pourcain, 

204 

Sallanche, 

110  San  Marino, 

136 

St.  George's  Chan- 

St. Quentin, 

188 

Sallenche, 

110 

San  Marti  no, 

146 

nel, 

10 

St.  Quirin, 

195 

Salm, 

283,483 

San  Marti  no,  val- 

St. Georgen, 

533 

St.  Rambert, 

202 

Salmiinster, 

374 

ley  of, 

107 

St.  Germain  en 

St.  Remy,        213,  223 

Salo, 

539 

San  Maurizio, 

107 

Laye, 

183  St.  Roca, 

75 

Salon, 

223 

San  Michael, 

74 

St.  Gervais, 

110 1st.  Saphorin, 

168 

Salona, 

621 

San  Miguel, 

74 

St.  Gilles, 

221  St.  Savin, 

210 

Siilonica, 

630 

San  Miniato, 

123  St.  Girons, 

218  St.  Servan, 

208 

Salop, 

242  San  Nicola, 

144  St.  Goar, 

488  SL  Sever, 

217 

Salou, 

95  San  Nikolo, 

615;  St.  Goarshausen, 

364  i  St.  Sophia, 

628 

Sall-Bommel, 

272 

San  Pedro  de  Car-       |St.  Gobain, 

188  St.  S>  mphorien  de 

Saltcoats, 

250 

dena, 

88!  St.  Gothard, 

166      Lay, 

214 

Saluzzo, 

107 

San  Piar  d' Arena,  1121 

St.  Helen's, 

243 

St.  Tron, 

283 

664 


INDEX. 


PAGE                                     page] 

PAOKf 

PAGE 

St.  Tropez, 

224 

Saxe-Lauenburg, 

419|Schmalkalden, 

373|Schwelm, 

485 

St.  Trujen, 

283 

Saxe-Meiningen, 

389|Schmiedeberg, 

474  Schwerin, 

408 

St.  Ubes, 

72 

Saxe-Weimar, 

386  Schneeberg, 

383  Schwerin  Lake, 

11 

St.  Ursanne, 

159 

Saxeln, 

166  Schneeberg  (Mt.) 

,      7jSchwetz, 

498 

St.  Ursitz, 

]59 

Saxkjobing, 

551  Schneekopf, 

7|Schwetzing«n, 

343 

St.  Valery, 

188 

Saxon  Palatinate 

,  388  Schneekoppe, 

6,Schwiebu8, 

467 

St.  Valery  en 

Saxon  Switzer- 

Schneidemiihl, 

500  Schwinge, 

17 

Caux, 

186 

land,             376,  3821  Schnellerts, 

355'Schwyz, 

164 

St.  Veit, 

511 

Saxons,  the,  25,  30, 298iSchnepfenthal, 

394  Sciacca, 

147 

St.  Vincenzo, 

109 

Saxony,  Kingdom         Schbmberg, 

475  Sciglio, 

145 

St.  Wendel, 

489 

of, 

376 ;  Schonau,          343,  345  Scilly  Isles, 

239 

St.  Ya, 

108 

Saxony,  Prussian 

|Schonebeck, 

477  Scone, 

253 

St.  Yrieix, 

212 

province  of, 

477  Schonborn, 

323  Scotland, 

248 

Santa  Cruz, 

75 

Sayda, 

381|Schonbrunn, 

509  Scots, 

248 

Sia.  Maria, 

75 

Scalds, 

56  Schonburg,  Princes      1  Scrivia, 

15 

Santa  Maria  Mag- 

Scandinavian  coun-     |     and  Earls  of, 

384  Scudery, 

5 

giore, 

142 

tries, 

30  Schoneck, 

498  Scutari, 

632 

Santa  Maura, 

616 

Scandinavian  Mts 

.,    5;Schoenenwerth, 

164  Scylla, 

145 

Santa  Severina, 

145 

Scandinavian  Pen-       |Schongau, 

315 

Scythian  Desert, 

611 

Saone, 

15 

insula, 

562:Schoningen, 

447 

Scythians, 

588 

Sa6ne  and  Loire 

Scarborough, 

243  Schonlanke, 

500 

Sea  of  Azof, 

10 

Department, 

201 

Scarlino, 

126  Schonsee, 

318 

Seaford, 

236 

Saragossa, 

94 

Scarne, 

le.Schoonhoven, 

270 

Sebenico, 

535 

Saransk, 

608  Scea'ux, 

183  Schopfheim, 

345 

Sedan, 

193 

Sarapul, 

608  Schaafstadt, 

479 

Schoppenstedt, 

446 

See berg, 

394 

Saratow, 

609 

Schabacz, 

635 

Schorndorf, 

337 

Seeland  (Switzer 

Sardara, 

114 

Schaechenthal, 

166 

Schotten, 

357 

land), 

158 

Sardica, 

629 

Schafberg, 

7 

Schouwen, 

270 

Seel  burg, 

597 

Sardinia,  island, 

U3jSchafhausen,  163 

,164 

Schramberg, 

332 

Seelow, 

467 

,  kingdom, 

103  Schandau, 

382 

Schreckhorn, 

4 

Seesen, 

447 

Sarepta, 

609  Schapen, 

442 

Schrimm, 

499 

Seez, 

187 

Sargans, 

160  Sch  arm  beck, 

438 

Schrobenhausen, 

315 

Segeberg, 

417 

Sark, 

247  Schassburg, 

532 

Schrock, 

340 

Segorbe, 

96 

Sarlat, 

215  Schaumburg,  371 

,372 

Sch  ul  plbrta, 

480 

Segovia, 

89 

Sar  mates, 

19:Schaumburg- 

Schutt, 

524 

Segre; 

207 

Sarmatians, 

588      Lippe, 

428 

Schuttorf, 

442 

Segro, 

14 

Sarnen, 

166  Scheibenberg, 

383 

Schwabach, 

320 

Segura,       % 
Seifhennersdorf, 

14 

Sarno, 

142  Scheldt, 

16 

Schwabeck, 

325 

385 

Sarralbe, 

196  Schellenberg, 

351 

Schwabisch 

Sein, 

209 

Sarrebourg, 

195  Schemberg, 

332 

Gmiind, 

336 

Seine, 

15 

Sarreguemines, 

195  Schemnitz, 

525 

Schwabisch  Hall 

335 

Seine  Depart- 

Sarstedt, 

439  Schernberg, 

401 

Schwaieern, 

332 

ment, 

182 

Sartene, 

225  Scherpenheuvel, 

278  Schwalbach, 

361 

Seine  and  Marne 

Sarthe  Depart- 

Scheveningen, 

269 ;  Sch  walen  berg, 

376 

Department, 

184 

ment, 

207  Schidlow, 

606  Schwanden, 

161 

Seine  and  Oise 

Sarzana, 

113  Schiedam, 

270  Schwanebeck, 

478 

Department, 

183 

Sarzeau, 

209  Schiefelbein. 

472|Schwartau, 

426 

Selb, 

319 

Sas  van  Gent, 

271  Schiermounikoog 

,  272  Schwarzburg  (an 

Seligenstadt, 

355 

Sasbach, 

341  Schilda, 

480     cestral  castle), 

401 

Seligenthal, 

373 

Sassari, 

114  Schildesche, 

484  Schwarzburg,  Prin- 

Selimnia, 

629 

Sassenage, 

222  Schiltach, 

346 1     cipalities  of, 

399 

Selkirk, 

250 

Sassuolo, 

118  Schio, 

542  Sch warzburg-Ru- 

Selkirkshire, 

250 

Siiter, 

570  Schippenbeil, 

496      dolstadt, 

401 

Selters, 

363 

Satorallya  Ujhely 

,  5-27  Schirgiswalde, 

385  Sch warzburg-Son- 

Semendria, 

635 

Saulgau, 

335  Schiiwind, 

497      dershausen, 

400 

Seminara, 

145 

Saulieu, 

201  Schitomir, 

602  Sch  warzenbek, 

420 

Semlin, 

533 

Saumur, 

207  Schkeuditz, 

479  Schwarzen- 

Sempach, 

162 

Sausenberg, 

345  Schlangenbad, 

3(i4      beig,             322,383 

Semuren  Auxois,  201 

Sauxillanges, 

213  Schlawentzitz, 

476  Sch warzenborn, 

372 

Semuren  Brion- 

Save, 

16  Schlei. 

556  Sch warzwald, 

7 

nais, 

201 

Savenay, 

210  Schleiden, 

490  Schwatz, 

513 

Senarica, 

143 

Saverne, 

197  Schleiz, 

398  Schwechat, 

509 

Senftenberg, 

468 

Savigliano, 

107  Schleswig,       554 

556  Sch  wed  I, 

466  Senlis, 

185 

Savigny  sur  Braye206  Schlettstadt, 

im  Scliweidi.itz, 

473  Senner  Haide, 

427 

Savona, 

112  Schleusiugen, 

481  Scliweina, 

391  Senner  Heath, 

427 

Savoy, 

109  Schlitz, 

357  Scliweinfurt, 

323  Sennheim, 

199 

Saxe-Altenburg, 

395  Schlochau, 

4!)rf  Schweinilz, 

480  Sens, 

193 

Saxe-Coburg-Go- 

Schliichtern, 

371  Schweinsberg, 

372  SensburR, 

497 

tha, 

392 

Schliisselburg, 

4S4 

Schweiz,          155 

164 

Sepino, 

145 

INDEX. 


665 


PAOKl 

page] 

TA.au 

PAOE 

Sepsi  Szent  Gy- 

Sierra  de  Guada- 

Slavkov, 

606 

Sophia, 

629 

dn?y, 

532 1     lupe, 

5  Slavonia, 

529 

Soprony, 

526 

Septi  mania, 

214 !  Sierra  de  Guada- 

Slavonians, 

8,  19 

Sorau, 

468 

Septmoncel, 

203!     rama, 

5  Slawensik, 

476 

Sorbes, 

378 

Bavaallo, 

628  Sierra  Monchique, 

Soreze, 

220 

Serai  ng, 

288  Bierra  Morena, 

5Sligo, 

259 

Sorgono, 

114 

Serchio, 

190  Sierra  Nevada, 

5|Slobodskoi, 

60S 

Sori, 

112 

Sereg, 

247  Sierra  de  Ronda, 

5  Slobosk, 

608 

Soria, 

89 

Seres, 

630  Siewierz, 

606|Slonira, 

601 

Soroe,     . 

550 

Sereth,              16,  520  Sinmaringen, 

349  Slough, 

235 

Soroka, 

612 

Serpa, 

73|Signa, 

123  Sluis, 

270 

Sorrento, 

141 

Serravalle, 

IStgtuna, 

568  Sluzk, 

601 

Sorromastro, 

97 

111,  136,  542  Siguenza, 

88  Smoiland, 

570 

Sorso, 

114 

Serravezza, 

195  Sijean, 
634JSilberberg, 

220  Smolensk, 

591 

Sospello, 

110 

Servia, 

473  Smorgoni, 

600  Souillac, 

216 

Servians, 

29  Silesia, 

472  Sneek, 

272 'Sound, 

9 

Servitude, 

36  Silesia,  Austrian, 

517  Snoehiltta, 

6  Southampton, 

238 

Sesia, 

15  Silesia,  Lower, 

'Snowdon, 

8  South  Brabant, 

278 

Sessa, 

1421                  472,  473,  474  Soana, 

124  South  Holland, 

269 

Sessola, 

616J ,  Upper,    472 

,  475  Sobernheim, 

488 ! South  Jutland, 

554 

Sestri  di  Le- 

ISilesian  Neisse, 

13  Soden, 

374  \  South  Russia, 

610 

vante, 

113  Silistria, 

629  So.lerfors, 

568  South  Shields, 

244 

di  Pouente, 

112  Silivri, 

628  Soderhamn, 

574  South  Hist, 

255 

Setubal, 

72SiljaLake, 

11  Sod  erko  ping, 

570 'South  Wales, 

245 

Seu  d'Urgel, 

95  Sillery, 

192  Soderraauland, 

568  S  uithwark,     234,2 

Sevastopol, 

610  Silves, 

74  Soderde, 

558|Sovana, 

124 

Sevenaer, 

272  Simaneas, 

90  Sodertelge, 

569;  Spa, 

282 

Seven  Hills, 

8  Simbirsk, 

608  Sodor, 

247  Spaccaforno, 

148 

Sevennes, 

6  Simferopol, 

610  Soest, 

485 

Spaccafurno, 

148 

Severn, 

14  Simmenthal, 

158  Soflovka, 

594 

Spaichingen, 

332 

Severia, 

606  Simmern, 

488  Soho, 

241 

Spain, 

76 

Seville, 

91  Simplon, 

167  Soignies, 

281 

Spalato, 

535 

Sevre  Nantaise, 

15  Sindelflngen, 

331  Soissons, 

185 

Spalatro, 

535 

Sevre  Niortaise, 

16  Sindringeu, 

337  Solano, 

77 

Spalding, 

237 

Sevres, 

184  Sines, 

73  Sold  au, 

496 

Spalt, 

322 

Seyne, 

224  'Sinigaglia, 

134  Soldi  n, 

467 

Spandau, 

465 

Seyssel, 

202  Siniscola, 

114  Soleure, 

164 

Spaneenberg, 

371 

Sezanne, 

193  Sinsheim, 

344  Solferino, 

539 

Spanish  mark, 

31 

Sforza, 

537  Sinzig, 

488  Solikamsk, 

607 

Spanish  Nether- 

Shaftsbury, 

238  Sion, 

167Solingen, 

492 

lands, 

277 

Shannon, 

14  Siroceo, 

100  Soller, 

96 

Sparta, 

622 

Sheffield, 

244  Sissach, 

157  Sollinger  Wald, 

8 

Spello, 

134 

Shetland, 

255 1  Sisteron, 

224iSolm8,  Princes  and 

Sperlinga, 

148 

Shetland  Islands. 

255  Sistova, 

629 1     Earls  of, 

357 

Spessart, 

7 

Shields, 

244Sittard, 

368  Solms-Braunfels, 

488  Spezia, 

113 

Shi  final, 

242  Sitten, 

167  Solnhofen, 

326JSpezzia,           113,622 

Shrewsbury, 

242  Skagastoeltind, 

6  Solofra, 

142 

Sphakia, 

632 

Shropshire, 

242  Skagastrand, 

560  Solsona, 

95 

Sphakiotes, 

632 

Shumla, 

629  Skagen, 

552'Soltau, 

437 

Spielberg, 

516 

Si  bo, 

531  Skagerack, 

9  Solvitsborg, 

571 

Spire, 

3*27 

Sicilian  Vespers, 

139  Skalbolt, 

560Sombor, 

525 

Spithead, 

238 

Sicily, 

146Skane, 

571 1  Somersetshire, 

239 

Spitzbergen, 

593 

Siculians, 

102  Skanderborg, 

553 

Somlyo, 

531 

Spluaren, 

162 

Sidroouth, 

238  Skara, 

572 

Somme, 

15 

Spoleto, 

133 

Siebenbiinjen, 

530  Skeen, 

576 

Somme  Depart- 

Sporades, 

623 

Siebcngebirge, 

8  Skeninge, 

570 

ment, 

188 

Spree  wald, 

458 

Sieders, 

167Skiathos, 

623 

Sommerda, 

481 

Spremberg, 

468 

Siedlce, 

606  Skiellingsfjeld, 

558 

Sommerein, 

524 

Springe, 

436 

Si  eg  River, 

16  Skive, 

552 

Soramieres, 

221 

Squillace, 

145 

Siegburg, 

492  Skjelskder, 

550 

Somorrostro, 

97 

Staatsflanders, 

270 

Siegen, 

486  Skjold, 

547jSonderburg, 

557 

Stabio, 

165 

Sielbeck, 

426  Skjoldunger, 

547 1  Sondershausen, 

400 

Stablo, 

283 

Siemiatyce, 

602  Skofde, 

573  Sondrio, 

539 

Stade,              437, 4: 

Siena, 

124  Skokloster, 

568JSonneberg, 

392 

Sladtamhof, 

317 

Sieradz, 

605  Skopelos, 

623,  Sonne  nberg, 

392 

Stadtberg, 

485 

Sierk, 

196  Skyros, 

623|Sonnenstein, 

382 

Stadthagen, 

429 

Sierques, 

196  Slagelse, 

550  Sonnen walde, 

468 

Stadt  Urn, 

401 

Sierra  de  Cuenca,      5  Slaves  (tribe  of 

Sonnenwirbel, 

7 

Stadtlohn, 

483 

Sierra  de  Estrella,   631     the), 

19 

Sontra, 

371 

Stadt  Oldendorf, 

447 

G66 


INDEX. 


PAGEI 

pagk! 

PAGKl 

PAGE 

Stadtsteinach, 

320  Stohnsdorf, 

475  Sulphur-districts 

Tagus, 

14 

Stadtsulza, 

387|StolIbersr, 

490|     (in  Sicily), 

147 

Tain,                 222, 254 

Staefa, 

169  jStoll  berg- Werni 

Sultan, 

626 

Talanti, 

621 

Staefis, 

159     gerode,         478,479iSulz,                 199,333 

Talavera  de  la 

Staffa, 

254lStolpen, 

385  Suiza, 

387 

Reyna, 

87 

Btaffarda, 

107|Stolzenau, 

436  Sulzbach, 

317 

Tallya, 

527 

Staffelstein, 

320|Stolzenfels, 

487  Sunderland, 

244 

Taman, 

613 

Stafford, 

241  Stonehaven, 

252|Sundgau, 

197 

Tamaszov, 

607 

Staffordshire, 

241  Stonehouse, 

238Sundswall, 

574 

Tambach, 

394 

Stali  mene, 

632  Storchnest, 

499!Suntel, 

8 

Tarn  bow, 

592 

Stallupohnen, 

497Storkow, 

466  Superga,  La, 

107 

Tamina  Valley, 

160 

Stamford,        237 

,  241  Stor  Lake, 

ll'Supplingenburg, 

447 

Tarn  worth, 

241 

Stammheim, 

169  Stormam, 

414'Sura, 

12 

Tanais, 

12 

Stansstadt, 

166  Stornoway, 

255  [Surrey, 

235 

Tanaro, 

15 

Stanz, 

166  Stourbridge, 

240|Sursee, 

162 

Tangermiinde, 

478 

Stanzstad, 

166  Strabane, 

258,Susa, 

107 

Tanninges, 

110 

Starenberg  Lake 

11  Strait  of  Bonifacio,  10  Sussex, 

236 

Tanzenberg, 

511 

Stargard, 

470  Strait  of  Dover, 

9  Siisteren, 

368 

Taormina, 

148 

Standard  (in  Meek-       [Strait  of  Gibraltar,  10 1  Sutherland, 

254  Tapiau, 
606  Taranto, 

496 

lenburg-Strelitz)  412;  Strait  of  Jenikale 

>,    10  Suwalki, 

144 

Stari  Matdar, 

634  Strait  of  Messina,    10  Svanike, 

550 

Tarare, 

>,214 

Starkenburg, 

354  Strait  of  Otranto 

10  Sveaborg, 

599 

Tarascon,         218, 223 

Staroi-Tsherkask 

,  612  Stralsund, 

470iSvearike, 

567 

Tarbes, 

216* 

Stassfurth, 

478  Strangford, 

258  Svendborg, 

551 

Tarczal, 

527 

Staszov, 

606  Stranraer, 

250  Swabia, 

324 

Tarentaise, 

110 

States   of  the 

iStranrawer, 

250  Swabian  Alps, 

7 

Targowicz, 

602 

Church, 

127|Strasburg, 

197  Swabian  Austria, 

334 

Tar  i  fa, 

92 

Stato  degli  Pre- 

Strassberg, 

349  Swabian  Circle, 

292 

Tarn, 

15 

sidii, 

125  Stratford, 

240 j  Swabian  League, 

54 

Tarn  Department,  220 
Tarn  and  Garonne 

Statt  holder, 

267  Straubing, 

316  Swaffham, 

237 

Staubbach, 

158  Strehlen, 

473  j  Swansea, 

245 

Department, 

216 

Staufen, 

345jStrelitz, 

412  [Sweden, 

567 

Tarnopol, 

519 

Staufenberg, 

357StrengntLs. 

569  jSweden  and  Nor- 

Tarnow, 

519 

Stavanger, 

577:Striegau, 

473      way, 

562 

Tarnowitz, 

476 

Stavenhagen, 

409  Strivali  Isles, 

616  ]  Swedish  Lapland 

,574 

Tarraconensis, 

84 

Staveren, 

272JStrobeck, 

478jSwiask, 

607 

Tarragona, 

95 

Steckbora, 

166  Stromboli, 

149  Swine, 

13 

Tarrasa, 

95 

Steckenitz, 

17  Stromness, 

255 !  Swinemunde, 

469 

Tarrazona, 

94 

Steenberyen, 

274iStr6m6e, 

558  Switzerland, 

151 

Tarshish, 

84 

Steenwyk, 

272|Str6mstad, 

573  Sword-law  (his- 

Tasnad, 

531 

Stege, 

550 

Strom  za, 

15     tory), 

54 

Taso, 

632 

Steiermark, 
Steigerwald, 

510 

Strophades, 

616  Swornik, 

634 

Tata, 

526 

7 

Stroud, 

240  Syberona, 

145 

Tatar  Basardshik 

,  629 

Stein, 

164 

Struma, 

15  Svke, 

436 

Tatarians, 

580 

Stein  am  Rhein, 

164 

Strymon, 

15 

Syra, 

623 

Tatra  Mountains, 

5 

Steinau,           374, 473 

Stuart,  House  of, 

233 

Syracuse, 

147 

Tauber-Bischofs- 

Steinbach,       341 

,391 

Stubbekjobing, 

551 

Sysran, 

608 

heim, 

344 

Steinfurt, 

483 

Stiihlingen, 

347 

Szamos  Ujvar, 

531 

Taucha, 

383 

Steinheide, 

392 

Stuhlweissenburg 

',526 

Szassvaros, 

532 

Taunton, 

239 

Steinheim, 

355 

Stuhm, 

498 

Szathmar-Nemet, 

528 

Taunus, 

8 

Steinhude, 

430 

Stuhmsdorf, 

498 

Szegedin, 

528 

Tauric  Chersonese  61 

Steinthal, 

197 

Stupinigi, 

106 

Szekoly  Keresstur,  532 

Tauric  Mts., 

8 

Stendal, 

478 

Sturmhaube,  Great    6 

Szekely  Vasarhelj 

-532 

Tauris, 

610 

Steppes  in  Russia,  582 

,  Little, 

6,7 

Szekes-Fejeryar, 
Szekler,           531 

526 

Tauroggen, 

601 

Sternberg, 

409 

Stuttgart, 

331 

,532 

Tavastehus, 

599 

Stetten, 

349 

Styria, 

510 

Szentes, 

528 

Tavira, 

74 

Stettin, 

469 

Subiaco, 

132 

Szepes-Var, 

527 

Tavistock, 

238 

Stevens-Waerd, 

368 

Sublime  Porte, 

626 

Szigeth, 

528 

Tavolara, 

114 

Steyer, 

510 

Suczawa, 

520 

Szigethvar, 

526 

Tay, 

14 

Stia, 

124 

Sudbury, 

236 

Szissek, 

529 

Teate, 

143 

Stilo, 

145 

Sudetic  Mts., 

6 

Szolnok, 

527 

Teck, 

335 

Stirling, 

251 

Sueones, 

566 

Szydlowiec, 

606 

Tecklenburg, 

483 

Stirlingshire, 

251 

Sueves, 

24 

Tegern  Lake, 

11 

Stober, 

13 

Suffolk, 

236 

Taasinge, 

551 

Tegernsee, 

315 

Stockach, 

346 

Suhl, 

481 

Taeyingen, 

164 

Teignmouth, 

238 

Stockholm, 

568 

Suhlingen, 

436 

Tafalla, 

97 

Teisendorf, 

315 

Stockport, 

242 

Sulau, 

474 

Taganrog, 

612|Tejo, 

14 

Stockton, 

244 

Sulitelma, 

6 

Tagliacozzo, 

143Te'lgte, 

483 

Stoer, 

17 

Sulmona, 

143 

Tagliamento, 

151 

Teltow, 

465 

INDEX. 


667 


PAQK1 

PAGE 

PAQEl 

PAGE 

Temesvar, 

528!Thiengen, 

340 

Tondern, 

556  Treuen, 

384 

Tempelburg, 

472|Thiers, 

213 

Tongem, 

2^:1  Treuenbrietzen, 

466 

Teinpio, 

114  Thionville, 

196 

Tonnay-Charente,  21 1  jTreves,  ancient 

Tempi  in, 

460  Thirty  years' 

Tonneins, 

215      archbishopric 

Tence, 

2-21      war,                58, 31 

Tonne  re, 

193      of, 

487 

Tenda, 

HOiThisted, 

552 

Tunning, 

556! ,  city  of, 

488 

Tennstadt, 

481Thiva, 

621 

Tonsberg, 

576  Treviglio, 

538 

Tenos, 

623  Tholen, 

270 

Toplitz, 

515  Treviso, 

542 

Tenremonde, 

28l»  Thomar, 

72 

Topo, 

75  Trevoux, 

202 

Tepl, 

515  Thomas  a  Kempis  493 

Topola, 

635  Treysa, 

372 

Teplitz, 

515  Thonon, 

109 

Tordesillas, 

89  Trianon, 

183 

Teramo, 

143  Thorda, 

531 

Torgau, 

480  Tribbesee, 

470 

Terceira, 

75  Thorn, 

498 

Tornea, 

13  Triberg, 

345 

Terek, 

12  Thorout, 

281 

Tornea  (town), 

599  Tribsees, 

470 

Terglou, 

4  Thorsenge, 

551Toro, 

90  Trichonium, 

621 

Terlizzi* 

144  Thorshiilla, 

569JTorquemada, 

89  Trient, 

513 

Termignon, 

110  Thorshavn, 

558  Torre  de  Moncorvo  73  Trier, 

4*4 

Termini, 

146  Thouars, 

210 

Torre  dell'  Annun-      |  Triesen, 

351 

Termonde, 

28U  Thracia, 

628 

ziata, 

141  Triest, 

512 

Ter  Neuse, 

271|Thuin, 

281 

Torres  Vedras, 

71  Trieste, 

512 

Tend, 

133  Thule, 

560 

Torriglia, 

112  Trifels, 

328 

.Ternova, 

629  Thun, 

158 

Tortoli, 

114  Trikala, 

631 

Terracina, 

133  Tii  an,  Lake  of, 

11 

Tortona, 

111  Trim, 

257 

Terra  di  Lavoro, 

HliThurgau, 

165 

Tortosa, 

95  Trimmbach, 

164 

Terranova,       11< 

,  147  Thuringia,  ancient 

Toscolano, 

540  Trino, 

108 

Terschelling, 

269      landgraviate  of,  388 

Touraine, 

206  Tripoli zza, 

622 

Teruel, 

94  Thuringians, 

298Toul, 

196  Triptis, 

MB 

Teschen, 

517  Thuringerwald, 

7  Toulon, 

224  Trivento, 

144 

Ti'SJIlO, 

164  Thurles, 

260  Toulouse, 

219  Trivieren  Dorabes202 

Teste  de  Buch, 

215  Thurnau, 

320  Tourcoing, 

190  Trivier  sur  Mog- 

Tele  de  Flandres, 

280  Thurn  and  Taxis, 

317  Tournaments, 

46 I     nand, 

202 

Tete  d'Ours, 

6  Thurso, 

254  Tournay, 

23llTrochtelflngen, 

349 

Teie  de  Rang, 

6  Thusis, 

162  Tournon, 

221  Troense, 

551 

Teterow, 

409  Tiber  River, 

15jTournus, 

201  Trogen, 

157 

Tetinschi, 

607  Ti bur, 

132  Tours, 

206  Troizkoi  Sergiev, 

591 

Telschen, 

515  Ticino, 

15  Trachenberg, 

474|Trbki, 

600 

Teaming, 

335  Tienen, 

278  Trafalgar, 

92  Troll hiitta, 

572 

Teuffen, 

157  Til  burg, 

274  Trankehnen, 

497Tromsoe, 

578 

Ttsischnitz, 

3-20  Tillicoultry, 

251 

Tralee, 

260  Trondhiem, 

577 

T.mtoburger  Wald,    H 

497 

Tramin, 

513  Tropea, 

145 

Teutoues, 

297  Tinchebray, 

187 

Trani, 

144|Troppau, 

517 

Teutonic  Order  46, 3:] 

113 

Transjuranian  Bur-      |Trosa, 

569 

Teviotdale, 

219  Tin-Islands, 

239 

gundy, 

200  Troubadours, 

K 

Tewkesbury, 

240  Tino, 

113  Transylvania, 

530  Troyes, 

191 

Texe), 

269,Tinos, 

623]Trapani, 

146  Truro, 

239 

Thal-Ehrenbreit- 

iTi  ntern  Abbey, 

240  Trappe,  La, 

906  Tr.ixillo, 

91 

8tein, 

487  Tipperary, 

260  Trasen, 

16  (Try  berg, 

345 

Tlmlitler, 

357  Tirano, 

539  Traun, 

16  Tschadyrdagh, 

8 

Thames, 

14  Tiraspol, 

611  Traunstein, 

314lTscherlitz, 

168 

Thanu, 

199 

Tirgovist, 

636  T.uusnitz, 

316 

Tsheboksar, 

607 

Tharand, 

381 

Tirlemont, 

278  Trave, 

17 

Tshernoi-Jar, 

609 

Tnasoa, 

832 

Tirschenreuth, 

317  Travemiinde, 

452 

Tshernomorsk  (Cos- 

Theaki, 

616 

Tirschtiegel, 

499  Travendahl, 

418 

sacks, 

612 

Tueate, 

143 

Tittel, 

534  Travera, 

163|Tuam, 

259 

Thebes, 

621 

Tittmoning. 

315  Travnik, 

6331  Tubingen, 

:w2 

Thedinghausen, 

447 

Tiverton, 

238  Traz  os  Montes, 

73  Tubize, 

279 

Theiss, 

16 

Tivoli, 

132  Trebigno, 

634  Tudela,                89,  97 

Tliemar, 

391 

Tmutarakan, 

613  Trebnitz, 

474 

Tudor,  house  of, 

233 

Theodoric,  king  of 

Todlnau, 

315  Trebur, 

354 

Tuiieries, 

189 

the  Ostrogoths, 

25 

Tosgenbaig, 

160  Treffurt, 

481 

Tukum, 

598 

Thera, 

623 

Toissey, 

202  Treguier, 

209 

Tula, 

591 

Theresienstadt, 

525 

Tokay, 

527  Treisen, 

351 

Tulczin, 

602 

Therma, 

630 

Toledo, 

87  Tremiti, 

144iTullamore, 

257 

Thermopylae, 

621 

Tolentino, 

134  Tremitian  Isles, 

144  Tulle, 

212 

Thessalia, 

631 

Tolfa, 

133  Tremouille, 

210  Tullgarn, 

569 

Thessalouica, 

630 

Tolkemit, 

498  Trencsin, 

525  Tullow, 

257 

Theux, 

282 

Tol  mezzo, 

542  Trent,                  14 

,5l3|Tunbridge, 

236 

Thiel, 

271 

Tolosa, 

97  Treport, 

186 1  Tun  bridge  Wells, 

236 

Thielt, 

281 

Tomaszov, 

605 

Trestenburg, 

531 

Turbia, 

110 

608 


INDEX. 


PAGET 

PAGE 

PARE 

PAGE 

Turenne, 

212  Unterseen, 

158 

Vacha, 

389 

Venezia, 

541 

Turin, 

106  Unterwalden, 

166 

Vacz, 

525 

Venice,  city  of, 

541 

Turkey, 

624 1  Upland, 

568 

Vado, 

113 

,  ancient  Re- 

Turkheim 198,325,328 

Upper  Alps  Depart- 

Vadutz, 

351 

public  of, 

540 

Turkish  Croatia, 

634 

ment, 

222 

Vaels, 

308 

Venloo, 

274 

Turkish  Dalma- 

Upper  Alsace,  197, 198 

Vaihingen, 

331 

Venosa, 

145 

tia. 

634 

Upper  Andalu- 
sia, 

Vaison, 

225 

Ventimiglia, 

113 

Turkish  Gradis- 

93 

Vajda  Hunyad, 

531 

Vercelli, 

108 

ca, 

634 

Upper  Austria, 

509 

Valais, 

167 

Verden, 

438 

Turks, 

]9 

Upper  Bavaria, 

314 

Valangin, 

163 

Verdun, 

196 

Turnovo, 

631 

Upper  Franconia,  318 

Valdepenas, 

88 

Veria, 

631 

Tursi, 

145 

Upper  Garonne 

Valdieri, 

108 

Verneuil, 

186 

Tuscany, 

120 

Department, 

219 

Valencai, 

205 

Vernon, 

186 

Tuscia, 

122 

Upper  Hesse, 

357 

Valence, 

222 

Vernoux, 

221 

Tusculum, 

132 

Upper  Hesse  (of 
Hesse-Cassel), 

Valencia,            95, 96 

Verocze, 

530 

Tuttliugen, 

333 

372 

Valenciennes, 

190 

Verola  Nuova, 

540 

Tuy, 

91 

Upper  Hungary, 

527 

Valenza, 

111 

Verona, 

542 

Tweeddale, 

250 

Upper  Ingelheim 

,  356 

Valkenburg, 

368 

Versailles, 

183 

Twer, 

593 

Upper  Italy, 

103 

Valladolid, 

89 

Versmold, 

484 

Two  Sicilies, 

137 

Upper  Loire  De- 

Vallendar, 

487 

Versoix, 

161 

Two  Sevres  De- 

partment, 

221 

Valli  di  Comac- 

Versoy, 

161 

partment, 

210 

Upper  Lorraine, 

194 

chio, 

127 

Verviers, 

282 

Tynemouth, 

244 

Upper  Lusa- 

Vails, 

95 

Vervins, 

188 

Tyras, 

12 

tia,                385, 475 

Valogne, 

187 

Vesoul, 

203 

Tyrconel, 

258 

Upper  Marne  De 

Valona, 

633 

Vesprim, 

5-26 

Tyree, 

255 

partment,     192, 20: 

Valpo, 

530 

Vesuvius, 

5 

Tyrnau, 

524 

Upper  Moesia, 

634 

Vals, 

221 

Veurne, 

281 

Tyrol, 

513 

Upper  Palatin- 

Vandals, 

24 

Vevay, 

168 

Tyrone, 

258 

ate,               316,  317 

Vannes, 

209 

Vezelay, 

201 

Upper  Pyrenees 
Department, 

Var, 

15 

Viadana, 

539 

Ubede, 

93 

216 

Var  Department, 

224 

Vial  as, 

221 

Uchte, 

436 

Upper  Rhenish 

Varallo, 

111 

Viana,                 73, 97 

Uckermark, 

466 

circle, 

292 

Varazze, 

113 

Vianden, 

366 

Uckermiinde, 

470 

Upper  Rhine  cir- 
cle (of  Baden), 

Vardanes, 

12 

Vianen, 

270 

Uddewalla, 

573 

344 

Vardar,              15, 630 

Viareggio, 

126 

Udine, 

542 

Upper  Rhine  De- 

Varel, 

424 

Vic, 

195 

Udvarhely, 

532 

partment, 

198 

Varennes, 

195 

Vic  sur  Cere, 

213 

Ueberlingen, 

346 

Upper  Saxon  cir- 

Varese,            113, 538 

Vicenza, 

542 

Ueberlingen  Lake,  1 1 

cle, 

293 

Varesh, 

633 

Vich, 

95 

Uelzen, 

437 

Upper  Silesia,  472,  475 

Varigotti, 

113 

Viel  Salm, 

283 

Uerdingen, 

493 

Upper  Stamm- 

Varna, 

630 

Vienna, 

508 

Uetersen, 

418 

heim, 

169 

Vasarhely, 

528 

Vienne, 

222 

UexkUIl, 

597 

Upper  Valais, 

167 

Vassals, 

36 

Vien  le  Chateau, 

192 

Uflfenheim, 

320 

Upper  Vienne  De 

- 

Vassy, 

192 

Vienne  Depart- 

Ugbrook, 

238 

partment, 

212 

Vasvar, 

526 

ment, 

210 

Ugine, 

109 

Uppingham, 

241 

Vathi, 

616 

Vienne  River, 

15 

Uist,  North, 

255 

Upsala, 

568 

Vaucluse  Depart- 

Vierlande, 

451 

,  South, 

255 

Urach, 

333 

ment, 

224 

Vierraden, 

466 

Ujensk, 

592 

Uralsk, 

609 

Vaucouleurs, 

193 

Viersen, 

494 

Ujest, 

476 

Urbino, 

134 

Vaud, 

167 

Vierzon, 

205 

Ukraine, 

594 

Urgel, 

95 

Vechta, 

423 

Viesti,    - 

144 

Uleaborg, 

599 

Uri, 

166 

Veere, 

270 

Vif, 

222 

Ulm, 

333 

Urnaesch, 

157 

Vegesack, 

454 

Vigan,  Le, 

221 

Ulricehamn, 

572 

Ursberg, 

325 

Velas, 

75 

Vigevano, 

111 

Ulrichslein, 

357 

Urseren, 

167 

Veldenz, 

489 

Vignemale, 

5 

Ulriksdal, 

568 

Usedom, 

469 

Velez  Malaga, 

93 

Vigo, 

91 

Ulster, 

257 

Usicza, 

635 

Velez  el  Rubio, 

94 

Vigone, 

107 

Uman, 

594 

Usingen, 

362 

Velletri, 

133 

Vilaine, 

16 

Umbrians, 

102 

Uslar, 

440 

Veltlin, 

539 

Ville  Dois  sous 

Uinea, 

574 

Uso, 

127 

Venaissin,        224, 225 

Belley, 

202 

Uinstadt, 

355 

Usseglio, 

107 

Venasque, 

225 

Villena, 

94 

Ungstein, 

327 

Ussel, 

212 

Vendee  Depart- 

Villedieu les 

Universities,  found- 

Uster, 

169 

ment, 

210 

Pneles, 

187 

ed  in  Europe, 

42 

Ustica, 

146 

Vendee  River, 

16 

Villefort, 

221 

Unkel, 

488 

Ustjug-Weliki, 

593 

Venddme, 

206 

Villefranche, 

Unna, 

485 

Utrecht, 

271 

Venedig, 

541 

214,  216, 21 

Unst, 

255 

Utrera, 

91 

Veneria,  La, 

107 

Villeneuve, 

168 

Unter-Hallau, 

164|Uxijar, 

93 

Venetes,           102, 540 

Villeneuve 

Unter-Kulm, 

156 

Uzes, 

221 

Venetian  Friaul, 

542 

d'Agen, 

215 

INDEX. 

669 

PAOK 

PAOK 

PAOK' 

PAOK 

Villeneuve  l'Ar- 

Vohenstrauss, 

318  Waldkirch, 

345 

Weikersheim, 

337 

cheveque, 

193 

Vohrenbach, 

347  Waldiniinchen, 

317 

Weilbach, 

363 

Villeneuve  d' Avig- 

Vohringen, 

349  Waldsassen, 

317 

Weilburg, 

362 

non. 

221 

Voigtland  383,384,3! 

335 

Weil, 

332 

Villeneuve  de 

Voiron, 

222  Waldshut, 

345 

Weile, 

553 

Berg, 

221 

Volcanello, 

149  Wales, 

245 

Weilheim, 

315 

Villeneuve  le  Roy,  193 

Volcano, 

149  Walhalla, 

317 

Weilmunster, 

362 

Villingen, 

347 

Volenay, 

201  Waljewo, 
12  Wallachia, 

635 

Weilnau, 

362 

Villmergen, 

156 

Volga, 

635 

Weimar, 

387 

Vilsen, 

436 

Volhynia, 

602  Wallachia,  Little 

,  636 

Weinfelden, 

166 

Vilshofen, 

316 

Volkach, 

323  Walldiirn, 

344 

Weingarten, 

334 

Vilvorden, 

278 

Volkmarsen, 

372  Wallenstadt, 

160 

Wemheim, 

343 

Villach, 

512 

Vollenhoven, 

272  Wallerstein, 

326 

Weiusberi{, 

331 

Villacidro, 

114 

Vol.., 

631  Walloons, 

275|Weissbad, 

157 

Villa  do  Conde, 

73 

Volsci, 

10-2  Walsall, 

241  j  Weissenbure:,  198,  531 

Villa  Demidof, 

123 

Volterra, 

123  Walsrode, 

437|Weissenburg  im 

Villa  d'Este, 

538 

Voltri, 

112  Waltenberg, 

5311      Nordgau, 

321 

Villi!  Traiica, 

110 

Volluruo, 

15  Waltershausen, 

394  Weissenlels, 

4S0 

Villafraucade  Pa 

Volvic, 

213  Wandsbeck, 

417  Weissenhorn, 

326 

nades, 

95 

Vonitza, 

621  Wangen,          158,  334jWeissensee, 

4S1 

Villafrauca  di  Pie- 

Voorae, 

270  Wangeroog, 

424  Weissenst  vdt, 

319 

munte, 

107 

Voralberg, 

514  Wanlockhead, 

250  Weissenstein, 

596 

Villanueva, 

95 

Vorden, 

441  Wanfried, 

371 

Weisskit-meu, 

534 

Villareal, 

73 

Vormark, 

460  Wanzleben, 

478 

Weissmain, 

320 

Villareal  de  San 

Vorsfelde, 

447  War  of  succession, 

Welau, 

496 

Antonio, 

74 

Vosges, 

6       the  Spanish, 

85 

Welbeck  Abbey, 

242 

Villa  viciosa, 

87 

Vosges  Depart- 

Warasdin, 

529 

Welehrad, 

516 

Villa  viciosa  (in 

ment, 

195  Warberg, 

572 

Wells, 

239 

Asturias), 

90 

Vostizza, 

622  Warburg, 

484 

Wels, 

510 

Villa  Vicosa, 

73 

Voulte,  La, 

221  Warde, 

553 

Welshpool, 

246 

Vimieira, 

71 

Vouziers, 

193  Waren, 

409 

Welzheim, 

337 

Vimoutiers, 

187 

Vrachori, 

621  Warendorf, 

483 

Weuden, 

597 

Vinadeo, 

108 

Vukovar, 

530  Warmbrunn, 

475 

Weuer  Lake, 

11 

Vinaroz, 

96 

Warnemunde, 

410 

Wenersborg, 

572 

Vincennes, 

183 

Waag, 

16  Warneton, 

281 

Wenings, 

357 

Vindelicia, 

297 

Waal, 

16  Warnow  River, 

17 

Werben, 

478 

Vineta, 

469 

Wachenheim, 

327  Warrington, 

243 

Werchi  Lomov, 

608 

Viniimiglia, 

113 

Wachtersbach, 

374  Warsaw, 

605 

Werchoturie, 

007 

Vique, 

95 

Wadowice, 

518  Wartburg, 

388 

Werdau, 

383 

Vire, 

187 

Wadstena, 

570  Wartenberg, 

474 

Werden, 

494 

Visconti, 

537 

Waedenschwyl, 

169  Wartha, 

474 

Werdenberg, 

160 

Vise, 

283 

Waedensweil, 

169  Warthe, 

13 

Werder, 

466 

Viseu, 

72 

Waerschot, 

280  Warwick, 

240 

Werl, 

485 

Visigoths,           23, 28 

Waesland, 

280  Warwick  Castle, 

240 

Wermland, 

573 

Visoko, 

6311 

Waesten, 

281  Warwickshire, 

240 

Werne, 

483 

Vissegrad, 

525 

Waga, 

12  Wasa, 

599 

Wernigerode, 

478 

Vistula, 

13 

Wageningen, 

272  Wasa,  House  of, 

566 

Werra, 

17 

Viterbo, 

133 

Waging, 

315  Wasselnheim, 

197 

Wertheira, 

344 

Vitre, 

208 

Wagram, 

509  Wasselonne, 

197 

Werther, 

484 

Vitry  le  Francais 

,  192 

Waiblingen, 

331  Wasseralfingen, 

335 

Werwick  (in  Bel 

Vittoria, 

98|Waibstadt, 

344  Wasserburg, 

315 

gium), 

281 

Vittoria  (in  Si- 

Waitzen, 

525  Wassertrudingen 

320 

Wesel, 

494 

cily), 

148,Wajka, 
1 07  i  Wakefield, 

524  Wasungen, 

391 

Wesenberg, 

596 

Viu, 

244  Waterford, 

259 

Weser, 

17 

Vivarais, 

221)Walcheren, 

270  Waterloo, 

278 

Wesergebirge, 

8 

Viverro, 

91  Walchwyl, 

168  Watweiler, 

198 

Weser  Mountains,     ( 

Viviers, 

22l|Walcourt, 

282  Watzmann, 

4 

Weset, 

283 

Vivis, 

168Wald,               169,  493  Wavre, 

278 

Wessem, 

368 

Vizeu, 

7-2  Waldbach, 

193  Waxholm, 

568 

Wesserling, 

199 

Vizille, 

2-22  Waldbroel, 

492  Wearmouth, 

244 

West  Flanders, 

280 

Vizzini, 

148  Waldburg, 

334  Wechselburg, 

383 

West  Friesland, 

272 

Vlaamsch-Hoofd, 

280  Waldeck,  Princi- 

Wedel, 

418 

West  Galloway, 

250 

Vlaardingen, 

2T0      pality  of, 

37.1  Wednesbury, 

241 

Westhofen, 

356 

Vlieland, 

209  Waldeck  (town) 

376  Weerdt, 

367jWestkapellen, 

270 

Vodable, 

213  Waldeuburg,  157 

,  337,  Weesp, 

960  West  Lothian, 

249 

Vodina, 

630                            384,  473  Wegeleben, 

478  Wesimanland, 

589 

Vogelsberg, 

7  Waldenses,      10 

,  107  Weichselrniinde, 

497  West  Meath, 

257 

Voghera, 

111  Waldheim, 

:K3  Weida, 

383!  Westminster, 

234 

VugOglia, 

111 

Waldkappel. 

371  Weideu, 

317 

Westmoreland, 

244 

670 


INDEX. 


PAGK! 

PAGE' 

PAGE, 

PAfJK 

Westphalia,  duchy       Wildungen, 

376  Wolgast, 
374  Wolkenstein, 

470!Ypres, 

280 

of, 

485  Wilhelmsbad, 

383!Ysendyk, 

271 

Westphalia,  king 

Wilhelmshohe, 

370  Wollin, 

469|Yssel, 

16 

dom  of, 

294  Wilhelmstein, 

430  Wollmirstadt, 

478  Ysselburg, 

494 

Westphalia,  Prus-         Wilhelmsthal, 

389|Wolmar, 

597 

Ysselstein, 

271 

sian  province  of,  482  Willemstadt, 

274 

Wologda, 

593 

Yssingeaux, 

221 

Westphalian 

.William  the  Con- 

Wolsk, 

609 

Ystad, 

571 

circle, 

293      queror, 

33 

Wolverhampton, 

241 

Yverdun, 

168 

Westphalian  Treaty      Wil  Ham  Tell, 

155 

Wood  bridge, 

236 

Yvetot, 

186 

of  peace, 

303  Willisau, 

162 

Woodstock, 

237 

Westphalians, 

298  Wilna, 

600  Woolsthorpe, 

237 

Z  a  an  I  am, 

268 

West  Prussia, 

495  Wilsdruf, 

381 

Woolwich, 

236 

Zabern, 

197 

West  Riding, 

243  Wilsnack, 

466 

Worbis, 

481 

Zafra, 

91 

West  Russia, 

600  Wilster, 

417 

Worcester, 

240  Zahara, 

92 

Westerbottn, 

574  Wilton, 

239 

Worcestershire, 

240  Zahna, 

479 

Wester-Gothland 

,  572  Wilton  house, 

239 

Wordingborg, 

550 

Zahringen,  castle 

Westeroas, 

569  Wilts, 

239 

Workington, 

244 

of, 

345 

Westervik, 

570  Wiltshire, 

239 

Worksop, 

242 

Zahringians, 

339 

Westerwald, 

S^ilz, 

366 

Worksop  Manor, 

242 

Zalathna, 

531 

Western  High- 

Wimmerby, 

570 

Workum,        27S 

,274 

Zamora, 

90 

lands, 

253  Wimmis, 

158 

Worlitz, 

405 

Zamosk, 

606 

Western  Islands, 

Wimpfen, 

355 

Wormditt, 

496 

Zante, 

616 

74 

254  Winander  Lake, 

12 

Worms, 

356 

Zara, 

535 

Wetluga, 

12  Winchelsea, 

236 

Worms  (Russian 

Zaritzin, 

609 

Wettenhausen, 

325  Winchester, 

238 

isle), 

596 

Zarki, 

606 

Wetter, 

372|Windau, 

598 

Woronesh, 

592 

Zarskoje-Selo, 

595 

Wetter  Lake, 

11  Windisch, 

156 

Worth, 

317 

Zator, 

518 

Wetteren, 

280;Windsbach, 

320 

Wosnosensk, 

611 

Zawichost, 

606 

Wettin, 

480iWindsheim, 

321 

Wreden, 

483 

Zealand,          270, 54! 

Wettingen, 

156  Windsor, 

235 

Wrexham, 

246 

Zebug, 

150 

Wetzlar, 

488jWineda, 

469 

Wriezen, 

466 

Zdunska  Wola, 

606 

Wevelinghoven, 

493,Winnenden, 

331 

Wschowa, 

499 

Zduny, 

499 

Wexford, 

256  Winnweiler, 

328 

Wiilfrath, 

493 

Zehdenik, 

466 

Wexid, 

570  Winschoten, 

273 

Wumme, 

17 

Zeiden, 

532 

Weymouth, 

238,Winsen  an  der 

Wunsiedel, 

319 

Zeitun, 

621 

Wharnside, 

8      Luhe, 

437 

Wunstorf, 

435 

Zeitz, 

479 

Whitby, 

243  Winterstetten- 

Wupper, 

16 

Zele, 

280 

Whitehaven, 

244      atadt, 

334 

Wiiritemberg, 

329 

Zell,                 345, 487 

White  Russia, 

601  Winterthur, 

169 

Wurzach, 

334 

Zell  am  Hammers- 

White  Sea, 

9  Wipperfurt, 

492 

Wiirzburg, 

322 

bach, 

341 

Wiborg,          552 

,  599lWirtemberg, 

329 

WUrzburg,  grand 

Zella, 

394 

Wick, 

254  Wisbeach, 

237 

duchy  of, 

294 

Zelle, 

437 

Wicklow, 

256  Wisby, 

571 

Wurzen, 

382 

Zeller  Lake, 

11 

Widdem, 

331  Wisby  (history) 

50 

Wusterhausen  an 

i 

Zellerfeld, 

444 

Widdin, 

629|Wischehrad, 

514 

der  Dosse, 

466 

Zempelburg, 

498 

Wied, 

488  Wislitza, 

606 

Wustrow, 

437 

Zengg, 

533 

Wieda, 

448  Wismar, 

410 

Wyk, 

557 

Zentha, 

526 

Wieliczka, 

519 

Witebsk, 

601 

WykteDuurstede271 

Zerbst, 

405 

Wien, 

508 

Wittelsbach,  House 

Wyl, 
Wytschegda, 

160 

Zeulenroda, 

398 

Wienerisch-Neu- 

of, 

313 

12 

Zeven, 

438 

stadt, 

509 

Wittenberg, 

479 

Xanten,                  494 
Xativa,                      96 
Xeres  de  los  Caval- 

Zevenaer, 

272 

Wieprz, 

13 

Wittenburg, 

409 

Zeyst, 

271 

Wiesbaden, 
Wiese, 

362 
338 

Wittgenstein, 
Wittlich, 

486 
489 

Ziegenhain, 
Ziegenhala, 

372 

476 

Wieselburg, 

527 

Wittmund, 

443 

leros, 
Xeres  de  la  Fron 

a± 

Ziegenruck,     481 

,482 

Wiesentheid, 

323|Wittstock, 

466 

92 
14 

Zierenberg, 

371 

Wiesloch,       343,  344  Witzenhausen, 

371 

tera, 
Xucar, 

Zieriksee, 

270 

Wifflisburg, 

168  Wjatka, 
243|Wladimir, 

608 

Zigeth, 

526 

Wigan, 

592 

Yarmouth, 

237 

Zilah, 

531 

Wight,  isle  of, 

238iWoburn, 

238 

Yell, 

255 

Zinna, 

466 

Wigton, 

250  Woburn  Abbey, 

238iYenne, 

109 

Zipserhaus, 

527 

Wii^tonshire, 

250jWoerden, 

271  Ynglingar, 

566 

Zittau, 

385 

Wilchingen, 

164  Wolau, 

473 :  Yonne, 

15 

Zizers, 

162 

Wild  bad, 

333 IWolchonsky  Forest  8;Yonne  Depart- 

Znaym, 

517 

Wildemann, 

444  Woldenberg, 

467      ment, 

201 

Zobten, 

473 

Wildenfela, 

384  Wdlfach, 

342  York, 

243 

Zobteuberg, 

7 

Wilder  Lake, 

3:58  Wolfenbuttel, 

446  Yorkshire, 

243 

/ofinffen, 

156 

WUdeshauseOi 

4*1  Wolfhagen, 

37'  Youghall, 

259 

/oinl.or, 

525 

Wildhaus, 

160 

\Vroili>teiii, 

3*7 

Ypern, 

280 ; 

Ziirbig, 

480 

IXDEX. 


671 


Zorge, 

Zorrica, 

Zuckmantel, 

Zug, 

Zuid-Beveland, 

Ziillichau, 


PAOKI 

448  Ziilpich, 

150  Zum  Stein, 

517  Zurich, 

1681  Zurich,  Lake  of, 

270|Zurzach, 

467iZiitphen, 


PAOKI  FAOK  I 

491 1  Zuyder  Zee,  9  Zwischenahn 

157!Zuyd-Voonie,  270;     Lake, 
168|  Zweibriickeu,  327,  328 1 Zwoll, 

11   Zwenkau,  383  Z worn ik, 

156  Zwickau,  383  Zwyndrecht, 

271  j  Z wingenbefg,  354 1  Z y tomierz, 


420 
272 
634 


THE  END. 


I 


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